Manimekalai

Topics in Tamil literature

Sangam Literature
Five Great Epics
Silappatikaram Manimekalai
Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi Valayapathi
Kundalakesi
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Prabandha
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Tamil history from Sangam Ancient Tamil
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Maṇimēkalai (Tamil: மணிேமகைல, lit.

"jewelled belt, girdle of gems"), also
spelled Manimekhalai or Manimekalai, is a
Tamil epic composed by Kulavāṇikaṉ
Cittalaic Cātaṉār probably around the 6th-
century.[1] It is an "anti-love story",[2][3] a
sequel to the "love story" in the earliest
Tamil epic Silappadikaram, with some
characters from it and their next
generation. The epic consists of 4,861
lines in akaval meter, arranged in 30
cantos.[1]
The title Manimekalai is also the name of
the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who
follows in her mother's footsteps as a
dancer and a Buddhist nun (bhikuni).[4] The
epic tells her story. Her physical beauty
and artistic achievements seduces the
Chola prince Udhayakumara.[5] He pursues
her. She, a nun of Mahayana Buddhism
persuasion, feels a commitment to free
herself from human ties. She rejects his
advances, yet finds herself drawn to him.[6]
She hides, prays and seeks the help of her
mother, her Buddhist teacher Aravana
Adikal and angels. They teach her
Buddhist mantras to free herself from
fears. One angel helps her magically
disappear to an island while the prince
tries to chase her, grants her powers to
change forms and appear as someone
else. On the island, she receives a magic
begging bowl, which always gets filled,
from goddess Sarasvati.[7] Later, she takes
the form and dress of a married woman in
the neighborhood, as the prince pursues
her.[6] The husband sees the prince teasing
her, and protects "his wife" – Manimekalai-
in-hiding – by killing the prince. The king
and queen learn of their son's death, order
the arrest of Manimekalai, arrange a villain
to kill her. Angels intervene and
Manimekalai miraculously disappears as
others approach her, again. The queen
understands, repents. Manimekalai is set
free. Manimekalai converts the prison into
a hospice to help the needy, teaches the
king the dharma of the Buddha.[5] In the
final five cantos of the epic, Buddhist
teachers recite Four Noble Truths, Twelve
Nidanas and other ideas to her. She then
goes to goddess Kannaki temple in Vanci
(Chera kingdom), prays, listens to different
religious scholars, and practices severe
self-denial to attain Nirvana (release from
rebirths).[6][5]

The Manimekalai is one of the Five Great

Epics of Tamil Literature, and one of three
that have survived into the modern
age.[8][9] Along with its twin-epic
Silappadikaram, the Manimekalai is widely
considered as an important text that
provides insights into the life, culture and
society of the Tamil regions (India and Sri
Lanka) in the early centuries of the
common era. The last cantos of the epic –
particularly Canto 27 – are also a window
into then extant ideas of Mahayana
Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika, and Hinduism,
as well as the history of interreligious
rivalries and cooperation as practiced and
understood by the Tamil population in a
period of Dravidian-Aryan synthesis and as
the Indian religions were evolving.[10][11][12]

Author and period of

composition
There is no credible information available
about the author or the date of its
composition. Late sources suggest that
the author Cittalai Cāttaṉār may have been
a Buddhist grain merchant and Tamil
writer.[13]

The Manimekalai has been variously dated

between the 2nd-century and early 9th-
century by Indian and non-Indian scholars,
with early dates favored by Tamil scholars
generally allied to the Tamil tradition.[14] A
part of the complication is that the
Manimekalai contains numerous Hindu
Puranic legends, references to gods and
goddesses in Hindu and Buddhist
traditions, as well as the epic author's
summary sections on various schools of
Buddhist, Hindu and Jain philosophies
some of whose authors are generally
dated to later centuries.[15]

The colonial era Tamil scholar S.

Krishnaswami Aiyangar proposed in 1927
that it was either composed "much earlier
than AD 400" or "decisively to be a work of
the fifth century at the earliest".[16] In 1974,
Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature and
history scholar, proposed mid 6th-century
as the most informed dating, based on the
linguistics, internal evidence, the dating of
its twin-epic Silappadikaram, and a
comparison to other Tamil literature.[12][17]
In his 1989 translation, Alain Danielou
suggests that the text was composed
after the first Tamil epic Silappadikaram,
but likely in the 2nd- or 3rd-century.[18]
According to Hikosaka, if some of the
events mentioned in the epic partially
related to actual historic Chola dynasty
events, some portions of the Manimekalai
should be dated after 890 CE.[19]
According to Paula Richman, the 6th-
century dating by Kandaswami and
Zvelebil are the most persuasive scholarly
analysis of the evidence within the epic as
well as the evidence in other Tamil and
Sanskrit texts.[20]

The Epic
The Manimekalai builds on the characters
of the oldest Tamil epic Silappatikaram
(Tamil: ச ல பத கார ).[1] It describes
the story of Manimekalai, the beautiful
daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, in 30
cantos.[21][4] The Manimekalai is the anti-
thesis of the Silappadikaram in focus, style
and the propaganda in the two epics.[22]
The Silappadikaram is a tragic love story
that ultimately becomes supernatural. The
Manimekalai is an anti-love story that
starts off with supernatural elements.[2][12]
The Silappadikaram builds on human
emotional themes and includes some
sections praising Jains, while the
Manimekalai is Buddhist propaganda that
"attacks and ridicules Jainism", according
to Kamil Zvelebil.[23]

Notable characters
Manimekalai - The daughter of Kovalan
and Madhavi, who was born with bravery
and virtues.
 Udayakumara - The Chola prince, who
was madly in love with Manimekalai.
Sudhamati - Manimekalai's most faithful
and trustworthy friend.
Manimekalā - The sea goddess who
protects the heroine.
Aravana Adikal - The Buddhist ascetic
teacher (Adikal means
"revered/venerable ascetic, saint")

Cantos I-VII: Manimekalai in Puhar

Canto I
The annual festival in the honor of Indra
begins; a description of the Chola city,
people and the festival.[24]

Canto II

Manimekalai, her delicate beauty and

extraordinary talents introduced in the
epic; Kovalan and Kannaki remembered;[25]
Manimekalai's mother Madhavi and
grandmother Chitrapati learn that
Manimekali insists on being a nun, lead a
religious life and that she will not dance or
otherwise attend the festival; more
description of the Chola city, people and
the festival.[25]

Canto III

Manimekalai goes to a city garden, away

from the festival center, with her friend
Sutamati;[26] continued description of the
Chola city, people and the festival,
mentions a "filthy Jain monk, naked and
waving a fly-whisk to avoid hurting unseen
fragile insect" as well as "Kalamukhas [a
subtradition of Shaivism] wearing oleander
flower garlands and rudraksha mala, body
smeared with ashes, acting madly".[26]
 Canto IV

Manimekalai enters crystal pavilion of the

garden; Prince Udayakumara introduced,
brave and beautiful like Hindu god
Murugan; he is told about Manimekalai the
dancer and her beauty;[27] the prince heads
to find her in the garden; he finds her,
pursues her, her friend Sudhamati tries to
block him, and he then asks why is she not
in a monastery, why in the garden;
Sudhamati says, body is simply a vessel of
vices, born due to karma of past births; the
prince tries to meet Manimekalai, she
hides in the crystal pavilion.[27]
 Canto V

According to the epic, Manimekalai's

beauty rivaled that of the goddess of
fortune, Lakshmi as she hid in the crystal
pavilion full of statues.[28] Udayakumara
sees her, falls for her instantly, wonders if
she is real or a perfectly crafted statue.
The more she avoids him, the more he
wants her. Sudhamati reminds him that
Manimekalai is not interested in handsome
men like him, because both Manimekalai
and she are nuns. Sudhamati describes
she is from Bengal, her father a Brahmin
who tended fire [Vedic], and they came to
the south on a [Hindu] pilgrimage towards
Kanyakumari, related to the journey of
Rama in the Ramayana.[28] There she
joined a Jain monastery. Her father joined
her, but one day after an accident her
father was bleeding badly. The Jains
kicked them both out, afraid that the blood
will pollute them. She then became a nun
at a Buddhist monastery, and that is where
she met nun Manimekalai.[28] The prince
left unconvinced, resolving to meet
Manimekalai's family to put pressure on
her. Manimekalai then confesses she is
confused because she wants to be a nun,
yet she feels attracted to the prince. The
goddess of the seas, Manimekhala,
appears. She praises the Buddha, his
wheel of dharma, meets the two Buddhist
nuns.[28]

Canto VI

A description of Goddess Manimekhala

and her powers; she advises the nuns to
go to the Chakravala-kottam, that is
"Temple of Heaven" – monk gathering
spaces with Buddhist mounds – to avoid
being chased by the prince. A history of the
"Temple of Heaven" follows along with
their then-popular name "City of the
Dead";[29] the epic recites the story of a
Brahmin named Shankalan enters the
mound by mistake at night and is
confronted by a sorceress with a skull in
her hand accompanied by screaming
jackal-like noises, the Brahmin flees in
terror, then dies in shock in front of his
mother Gotami. The mother goes to the
Champapati temple and prays, "take my
life, let my son live".[29] Champapati
appears and says this was fate, his karma
and he will be reborn again. The mother
questions the four Vedas, the goddess
explains the Buddhist theory of samsaras,
mount Meru, and realms of rebirth.[29]
According to the epic, the feeble mind of
Sudhamati barely understands but she
feels that Goddess Manimekhala is right.
The goddess then casts magic, plunges
the two nuns into sleep, thereafter
instantly transports Manimekalai alone
through air to the island of Manipallavam
where her oaths of being a nun would not
be threatened by the prince's charms.[29]

Canto VII
The goddess meets the prince and tells
him to forget about Manimekalai because
she is destined to live a monastic life; She
then awakens and meets Sudhamati, tells
her Manimekalai is safe on a distant island
and to remind her mother Madhavi not to
search and worry about her daughter;[30]
the goddess then disappeared into the sky;
a description of the ongoing festival
continues, along with a mention of upset
women, infidelities of their husbands, the
tired and sleeping young boys and girls
who earlier in the day had run around in
their costumes of Hindu gods (Vishnu) and
goddesses (Durga);[30] Sudhamati walked
through the sleeping city, when a stone
statue spoke to her and told her that
Manimekalai will return to the city in a
week with a complete knowledge, like
Buddha, of all her past births as well as
yours. Sudhamati froze in fear seeing the
stone statue talk and what it told her.[30]

Cantos VIII-XI: Manimekalai on

Manipallavam island

Canto VIII
Manimekalai wakes up on the
Manipallavam island. She finds herself
alone, is confused and afraid.[31] She
weeps while walking on the beach, recalls
her friend, her father Kovalan who was
unjustly executed in Madurai, her mother
and all loved ones. Then Manimekalai
sees Buddha's footprint pedestal, shining
with jewels.[31] She sees some people
fighting near it. Buddha appears, orders
them to cease fighting, to remember that
the pedestal is for him alone and should
be worshipped by sages and the
powerful.[31]
 Canto IX

Manimekalai's fear and worries vanished

near the Buddha's footprints. Tears of joy
rolled down her cheeks.[32] She suddenly
and miraculously remembers all her past
lives along with the circumstances, and
saddened by her numerous rebirths, her
fathers and husbands.[32] The epic
mentions she meeting a sage named
Brahma Dharma, being a Buddhist in the
last birth, of Gandhara, Naganadu, the
north city of Avanti, and other locations
significant to Indian Buddhism.[32]
 Canto X

A goddess appears and says that Buddha

appeared when "goodness was no longer
found among living beings, people have
become deaf to wisdom and true
knowledge".[33] She circumambulates
around the jeweled Buddha's pedestal
clockwise three times. The goddess then
meets Manimekalai and gives her more
information about her cycles of previous
rebirths, including that prince Udayakumar
in this life was the king and her husband in
the last birth who was rude to a Buddhist
monk, but you begged his forgiveness,
donated food and obeyed the monk's
orders.[33] In this life, therefore, he is a
frustrated prince while your merits have
made you into a Buddhist nun. She informs
her that Madhavi and Sudhamati were her
sisters in previous lives, and are now her
mother and friend in this life.[33] She then
guides her on how to be free of suffering
and fears. The goddess asks Manimekalai
to study the "deceitful theories of various
religions", and teaches her magical
mantras (Dharani) to overcome sufferings
of ascetic life and hunger. One of the
mantras, says goddess, will let her change
her appearance into another person and
instantaneously travel through air.[33]

Canto XI

A Buddhist protectress goddess Tiva-

tilakai (Skt: Dvipa-tilaka) meets
Manimekalai. The goddess says, only
those who have amassed great merit in
past lives and remained Buddhist over
their many births are able to see and
worship Buddha's footprints in their
present life.[34] Tivatilakai mentions that
Buddha was born in the month of Vaishaka
on the longest day, and every year on
Buddha's birthday near a lake a magic
bowl appears, called Amrita Surabhi (lit
"cow of abundance").[34] It just happens
that Manimekalai is near the lake on that
very day, so she can go and get the magic
bowl she is destined to receive. With that
bowl, she will never run out of food to eat
everyday, says Tivatilakai.[34] Manimekalai
visits the magical lake and gets the magic
bowl. She chants the glory of the Buddha,
prostrates before goddess Tivatilakai and
the Buddha's footprints. The goddess tells
her to meet Aravana Adigal to learn more
about the magic bowl and the Buddha
dharma.[34]

Cantos XII-XVII: Manimekalai

returns, meets Adigal

Canto XII

Manimekalai returns from the island. Back

with her mother and friend Sudhamati in
the Chola kingdom, she finds the old
Buddhist ascetic Aravana Adigal after
several efforts to locate him.[35]

Canto XIII
Manimekalai learns the story of Aputra –
the first possessor of the magic bowl, and
the Brahmin Abhanjika of Benares (Hindu
holy city) where Abhanjika taught the
Vedas. A boy named Aputra is accused of
stealing a cow, and the cows protect the
boy by fighting Abhanjika and other
Brahmins, killing one of the Brahmins.[36]
Aputra then meets and accuses the
Brahmins of twisting the meaning of the
Veda verses taught by Brahma born from
the navel of Vishnu who holds a golden
disc as his weapon. Aputra reminds the
Brahmins that the greatest Vedic teachers
such as Vasishtha and Agastya were born
of low birth.[36] Aputra is labeled as a cow-
thief, and his begging bowl is filled with
stones when he does his rounds.[36] Aputra
leaves the city and reaches Madurai. He
sits with his begging bowl inside Madurai's
Temple of Lakshmi, the goddess of
fortune.[36] The worshippers of Lakshmi
are kind and donate lots of food to the
bowl of Aputra, which Aputra shares with
the poor, the blind, the deaf and other
needy people. The epic mentions the name
Kanyakumari and it being a Hindu bathing
pilgrimage site.[36]
 Canto XIV

Manimekalai learns more about the Aputra

story from ascetic Aravana Adigal. Aputra
lives in Madurai for many years, begging in
the Lakshmi temple.[37] In a particular year,
there was famine in the Tamil region when
god Indra became angry. During this period
of suffering, one day goddess Sarasvati
appears and gave him the magic bowl. The
epic refers to Sarasvati as the goddess of
all things related to mind, and goddess of
language, knowledge and arts. The magic
begging bowl always fills up every day with
mountains of food, which Aputra shares
with the needy. The famine continues for
12 years in the Pandya kingdom, yet the
bowl always fills up.[37] Aputra, like a boy,
mocks Indra because he has the magic
bowl to help the needy. Indra takes
revenge by making rains plentiful and
showering everyone with so much
prosperity that no needy were left. No one
was poor, and Aputra felt frustrated that
he had no one to donate food from his
abundant magic bowl to.[37] Then, one day,
people of Java (Indonesia) met him. Indra
was not generous to them, and many were
dying of hunger in Java. Aputra left for
Java in a ship. A storm hits the ship, and
Aputra lands on Manipallavam island.
Aputra died on that island. That is how the
magic bowl came to be on that island, and
why Manimekalai found the same bowl
there.[37]

Canto XV

The Buddhist ascetic tells the nun the

story of a generous cow who helped the
people of Java in the memory of Aputra.
He presents the Buddhist theory of rebirth
dependent on the merits earned in
previous lives (karma). He recommends
that Manimekalai and Sudhamati use the
magic bowl in their possession to help the
hungry and needy, just like the gods tried
to help the cause of good with the amrita
they obtained by churning the cosmic
ocean [samudra manthan].[38] The nuns, so
convinced, began roaming the streets of
Puhar to beg. They then shared the food
they collected in the magic bowl with the
needy. The epic mentions kingdoms in the
Himalayas, Kausambi and Ujjain.[38]

Canto XVI
Ascetic Adikal teaches the nuns about
supernatural genies and the tale of trader
Shaduvan and his wife Atirai. Shaduvan is
reported dead in a sea storm.[39] Atirai
tries to kill herself by jumping into a pit
with burning wood, but the fire did not
harm her. She sees a goddess who tells
her that she is unharmed by her fire
because her husband is alive on the island
of the Naga kingdom.[39] The Nagas
welcome him and give him a girl for
pleasure. He refuses the girl, and teaches
them the Buddha dharma about rebirths
and merits. They prostrate before him and
invite to take all the gold, diamonds and
rubies in shipwrecks near their islands.
Shaduvan collects a massive fortune from
the wrecks and brings it back to Atirai. The
monk teacher explains to Manimekalai
that this was all because of merits earned
and virtue in the past lives.[39]

Canto XVII

Manimekhalai, with monk Adikal's wisdom,

uses magic bowl to help people. She
starts a hospice. The epic mentions Rama
and Vishnu story from the Ramayana,
states that they built a link to Sri Lanka, but
a curse of an ascetic dissolved the bridge
link.[40] It also mentions stories of people
fed from the magic bowl suddenly
realizing their past lives. The hospice of
Manimekalai is near a Temple of Heaven
(Buddhist mounds, gathering place for
monks).[40]

Cantos XVIII-XXV: Manimekalai

meets Udayakumara, he is killed

Canto XVIII

Prince Udayakumara visits the hospice of

Manimekalai after her grandmother tells
the prince where she is. He tells the
grandmother how much he adores her,
wants her. She says that it is his duty to
return her to dance, music and
householder role.[41] The prince, driven by
his desires and said duty promises her
that he will. He confronts Manimekalai.
She insists she is and wants to be a nun
because the body and human desires are
the source of all suffering.[41] After her
reply, she used the magic mantra she had
learned to convert herself into a look-alike
of Kayashandikai – the wife of Vidyadhara.
She escapes the prince's pursuit.[41]
 Canto XIX

Manimekalai in her new appearance

continues to beg with her bowl and help
others. She reaches the prison and meets
the guards and then king, persuading him
to convert the prison into a Buddhist
monastery. The king releases all the
prisoners, and converts the prison into a
monastery.[42]

Canto XX

The prison-turned-monastery adds a

temple for the worship of Buddha.[43]
Udayakumara learns about it and that
Manimekalai was behind the conversion.
He goes to see her. While he was on his
way, the husband of Kayashandikai-but-in-
reality-Manimekalai goes to meet his
wife.[44] The husband reaches first.
Manimekalai does not recognize him,
frowns and refuses his affections. Then
the prince arrives and tries his lines on her.
She recognizes him, smiles but refuses
him too. The "husband" overhears the
prince, sees his frowning "wife" smiling at
another man, assumes the worst, pulls out
his sword and cuts the prince's body into
two. The prince dies instantly. The
"husband" learns who his wife really is, he
is in sorrow. A Buddhist goddess comforts
him.[44]

Canto XXI

Manimekalai learns of the death of

Udayakumara.[45] She cries. She laments
that her husband of "innumerable" previous
births is dead because of her decisions,
adding that the endless cycles of suffering
would continue without her monastic
ways.[46] She hopes that Udayakumara will
learn from all this in his next birth. A
Buddhist genie appears, talks and
comforts her. Others recommend that she
go to Vanci (Chera kingdom) to learn more
about religious traditions and
Buddhism.[46]

Canto XXII

The Buddhist monks learn about the killing

of the prince. They ask Manimekalai what
happened. She tells them everything. They
hide the dead body of the prince, confine
Manimekalai to her quarters. A monks
delegation goes and meets the king.[47]
The Buddhist monks tell the king legends
of Vishnu, Parashurama and Durga, then
the errors of the prince and finally his
death.[47] The king thanks them, said he
would have executed his son according to
his dharma duty to protect the honor of
women. He ordered the cremation of his
dead son and the arrest of Manimekalai
for the deception that caused the
misunderstandings.[47]

Canto XXIII

The queen learns of her son's death. She

sends an assassin to kill Manimekalai.
Buddhist goddesses perform miracles that
scares the queen. She asks the king to free
the prisoner. Manimekalai comes out of
the prison.[48]

Canto XXIV

Aravana Adigal meets the queen. She

washes the feet of the Buddhist ascetic to
honor him. The ascetic explains the Twelve
Nidanas (causation links) doctrine of
Buddhism, uses it to explain the loss of her
son. He says past lives of her son made
him behave inappropriately and led to his
death.[49] The ascetic cautions everyone to
follow dharma, behave according to it.
Manimekalai prostrated before the ascetic
and asked everyone gathered including the
queen to follow the dharma. She resolves
to go to the city of Vanci, after one visit to
Manipallavam island.[50]

Canto XXV

Manimekalai disappears, travels through

air to reach the island of Manipallavam.
Aputra miraculously joins her on the island.
They circumambulate the jeweled
footprints of the Buddha on the island,
then pay homage to it.[51] The king meets
his teacher and tells him he wants to
renounce, spend his time worshipping
Buddha's footprint. The teacher says that
would be selfish and wrong, as who will
protect the kingdom and world without
him. His dharmic duty is to continue.
Manimekalai meets him and tells the king
that his kingdom suffers without him. He
should be in his throne, while she will now
spend her time in Vanci.[52]

Cantos XXVI-XXX: Manimekalai

visits Vanci and Kanci

Canto XXVI
Manimekalai flies through air and arrives in
the mountainous kingdom's capital Vanci.
She first visits the temple of Kannaki and
pays her homage to the goddess. The epic
mentions the legend of Kalinga kingdom
(Odisha).[53]

Canto XXVII

Manimekalai learns about the different

schools of Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, Ajivika
and Carvaka philosophies.[54] This section
and the rest of the epic are "not a
philosophical" discusion per se, states
Paula Richman, rather it is a literary
work.[55] The Buddhist author presents
non-Buddhist schools in a form that shows
them inconsistent or inferior to Buddhism.
According to Zvelebil, this is "Buddhist
propaganda" that ridicules the other.[22]
The epic mentions Vedic religion and their
various epistemological theories
(pramana).[54] The Hindu sub-schools
mentioned include Vedanta, Mimamsa,
Nyaya, Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Shaivism
[Shive], Vaishnavism [Vishnu], Brahmavada
[Brahma] and Vedavadi [no deity, the
Vedas are supreme].[54]
 Canto XXVIII

Manimekalai visits Kanci, meets her

mother and Aravana Adigal.[56]

Canto XXIX

Aravana Adigal teaches Manimekalai the

doctrines of the Buddha dharma.[57]

Canto XXX

Manimekalai learns more Buddhist

doctrines. She then puts the theory to
practice, performs severe ascetic
practices to end her cycles of rebirth and
attain Nirvana.[58] According to Anne
Monius, this canto is best seen as one
dedicated to the "coming of the future
Buddha", not in the prophetic sense, rather
as nun Manimekalai joining the movement
of the future Buddha as his chief disciple.
The last canto, along with a few before it,
are the epic's statement on the karma
theory of Buddhism, as understood by its
author, and how rebirths and future
sufferings have links to past causes and
present events in various realms of
existence (samsara).[59]

Manuscripts and translations

The Manimekhalai palm-leaf manuscripts
were preserved and found in Hindu
temples and monasteries along with those
of Silappadikaram. It is the only surviving
Tamil Buddhist literary work, though
commentary and secondary Tamil
literature evidence suggests that there
were other Buddhist epics and texts in the
Tamil language at least till the 14th-
century.[60] The reason for its survival,
states Richman, is probably its status as
the sequel to the Silapathikaram or
Sīlappadhikāram.[17] UV Swaminatha Aiyar
published a critical edition of the text in
1921.[17]

The first abridged English translation and

historical analysis of Manimekalai by R. B.
K. Aiyangar in 1928, as Maṇimekhalai in its
Historical Setting.[61] Extracts of this,
particularly Canto 30, was republished in
Hisselle Dhammaratana's Buddhism in
South India but with altered
terminology.[62]

In 1989, Alain Daniélou with the

collaboration of T.V. Gopala Iyer published
an English translation.[4]
There is also a Japanese translation by
Shuzo Matsunaga, published in 1991.

Significance
The epic gives much information on the
history of Tamil Nadu, Buddhism and its
place during that period, contemporary
arts and culture, and the customs of the
times. It presents the author's view of the
Buddhist doctrine of Four Noble Truths
(ārya-satyāni), Dependent Origination
(pratītyasamutpāda), mind (citra),
goddesses, miracles, mantras, rebirth,
merit-making, begging by monks and nuns,
helping the poor and needy.[63][64] The epic
provides a view of religious rivalry between
Buddhism and Jainism, where Buddhist
ideas and propaganda are presented while
Jainism is "attacked and ridiculed",
according to Zvelebil.[65]

According to Richman, the Manimekalai is

a significant Buddhist epic, given its unique
status. The summary of Buddhist doctrine
in it, particularly in Cantos 27, 29 and 30,
present a Tamil literary writer's perspective
of Buddhism before it likely died out in
Tamil Nadu, in or about the 11th-
century.[66]

Buddhist School Affiliation

According to a 1927 thesis of Rao Bahadur

Krishnaswāmi Aiyangar, the Manimekalai
contains "nothing that may be regarded as
referring to any form of Mahayana
Buddhism, particularly the Sunyavada as
formulated by Nagarjuna".[67] In contrast,
in 1978, C.N. Kandaswami stated there is a
lot of internal evidence that "Manimekalai
explains Mahayana Buddhism, and
champions its cause".[68]

According to G John Samuel and others,

based in part on the antiquity of the text
and theories, it was believed that the epic
was from an early Hinayana (Theravada)
Buddhist school, but more recent studies
suggest that the Buddhist epic
Manimekalai belonged to an early form of
Mahayana Buddhism influenced by ideas
now attributed to scholars such as
Vasubandhu, Dignaga, Buddhagosha,
Buddhadatta and Dharmapala.[69]
According to Shu Hikosaka – a scholar of
Buddhism and Tamil literature, in
Manimekalai "there are not only the
doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism but also
those of Hinayana Buddhism", in an era
when monks of these traditions were
staying together, sharing ideas and their
ideologies had not hardened.[70]

Reception
To some critics, Manimekalai is more
interesting than Silappadikaram, states
Zvelebil, but in his view the literary quality
of Manimekalai is significantly inferior.[71]
The story of Manimekalai is overloaded
with supernatural events, miraculous
goddesses and reads like a propaganda
pamphlet of Buddhism.[71] In
Silappadikaram, the epic's storyline is
served by ethics and religious doctrines. In
Manimekalai, states Zvelebil, the ethics,
and religious doctrines are served by the
epic's storyline.[71] Kannaki is a strong,
inspiring tragic character that grabs the
audience's interest. In contrast,
Manimekalai is a rather feeble character,
says Zvelebil.[71]
According to a review by Subrahmanya
Aiyar in 1906, Manimekalai in puritan terms
is not an epic poem, but a grave
disquisition on philosophy.[72] He states
that the three surviving Tamil epics
including Manimekalai, on the whole, have
no plot and are not epic-genre texts. The
Manimekalai is a Buddhistic work of an
"infant society sensitive to higher
influences of life", and inferior to the
Silappadikaram that he calls as the work
of a "Hindu poet".[72]

Ramayana Reference
Like the Silappatikaram, this epic also
makes several references to the
Ramayana, such as a setu (bridge) being
built by monkeys in canto 5, line 37
(however the location is Kanyakumari
rather than Dhanushkodi). In another
reference, in canto 17, lines 9 to 16, the
epic talks about Rama being the incarnate
of Trivikrama or Netiyon, and he building
the setu with the help of monkeys who
hurled huge rocks into the ocean to build
the bridge. Further, canto 18, lines 19 to 26,
refers to the illegitimate love of Indra for
Ahalya the wife of Rishi Gautama(Pandian,
1931, p.149)(Aiyangar, 1927,
p.28).[73][74][75] This seems to indicate that
the story of the Ramayana was familiar in
the Tamil lands before the Kamba
Ramayanam of the 12 Century.

See also
Tamil Jain

References
1. Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 140–141.
2. Paula Richman (1988). Women,
Branch Stories, and Religious
Rhetoric in a Tamil Buddhist Text .
Syracuse University Press. p. 22.
ISBN 978-0-915984-90-9.
3. Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya (2009). A
Social History of Early India . Pearson
Education. pp. 238–239. ISBN 978-
81-317-1958-9.
4. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993.
5. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. xxi–xxiv.
6. Kamil Zvelebil 1974, p. 141.
 7. A. K. Warder (1994). Indian Kavya
Literature . Motilal Banarsidass.
pp. 217–218. ISBN 978-81-208-0449-
4.
8. Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 130–131.
9. Mukherjee 1999, p. 277
10. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. vii–xvii.
11. Anne E. Monius (2001). Imagining a
Place for Buddhism: Literary Culture
and Religious Community in Tamil-
Speaking South India . Oxford
University Press. pp. 87–96.
ISBN 978-0-19-803206-9.
12. Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 140–142.
13. Paula Richman 2003, p. 458.
14. Paula Richman 2003, p. 610.
15. Paula Richman 2003, pp. 610–611.
16. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar,
Maṇimekhalai in its Historical
Setting , London, 1928, pp. xxvi-xxvii
17. Paula Richman, "Cīttalai Cāttanār,
Manimekhalai" summary in Karl H.
Potter ed.,The Encyclopedia of Indian
Philosophies: Buddhist philosophy
from 350 to 600 A.D. New Delhi,
2003, pp.458.
18. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. xvi–xvii.
19. Hikosaka 1989, pp. 91–94.
20. Paula Richman 2003, p. 611.
21. Bhanu, Sharada (1997). Myths and
Legends from India - Great Women.
Chennai: Macmillan India Limited.
pp. 7–9. ISBN 0-333-93076-2.
22. Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 141–142.
23. Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 130–132,
141–142, Quote: "Manimekalai
preaches the Buddhist ideal of
serving all living beings with
detachment at the expense of
Jainism which is attacked and
ridiculed..
24. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 1-4.
25. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 4-7.
26. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 7-13.
27. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 13-17.
28. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 18-23.
29. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 23-30.
30. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 30-35.
31. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 35-37.
32. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 37-39.
33. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 40-43.
34. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 43-48.
35. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 48-51.
36. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 52-55.
37. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 55-59.
38. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 59-62.
39. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 62-67.
40. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 67-71.
41. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 71-76.
42. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 76-83.
43. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 83-85.
44. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 83-87.
45. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 87-89.
46. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 87-93.
47. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 93-100.
48. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 101-106.
49. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 106-110.
50. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 111-112.
51. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 112-114.
52. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 114-122.
53. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 122-125.
54. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 126-141.
55. Paula Richman 2003, pp. 457–458.
56. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 141-149.
57. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. 150-162.
58. Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993,
pp. xxiv, 163-172.
59. Anne E. Monius (2001). Imagining a
Place for Buddhism: Literary Culture
and Religious Community in Tamil-
Speaking South India . Oxford
University Press. pp. 88–89.
ISBN 978-0-19-803206-9.
60. Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 140–142
with footnotes.
61. Rao Bahadur Krishnaswāmi Aiyangar,
Maṇimekhalai in its Historical Setting,
London, 1928. Available at
www.archive.org [1]
62. Hisselle Dhammaratana, Buddhism in
South India, Kandy, 1964
63. Rao Bahadur Krishnaswāmi Aiyangar,
Maṇimekhalai in its Historical Setting,
London, 1928, p.185, 201, Available at
www.archive.org [2]
64. Paula Richman, "Cīttalai Cāttanār,
Manimekhalai" summary in Karl H.
Potter ed.,The Encyclopedia of Indian
Philosophies: Buddhist philosophy
from 350 to 600 A.D. New Delhi,
2003, pp.457–462.
65. Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 141–142,
Quote: "Manimekalai preaches the
Buddhist ideal of serving all living
beings with detachment at the
expense of Jainism which is attacked
and ridiculed..
66. Paula Richman 2003, pp. 457–462.
67. Rao Bahadur Krishnaswāmi Aiyangar
(1927), Maṇimekhalai in its Historical
Setting , p. xxvii, p. 85, 104, 188
68. Cō. Na Kantacāmi (1978). Buddhism
as Expounded in Manimekalai .
Annamalai University. p. 394.
69. G. John Samuel; Ār. Es
Śivagaṇēśamūrti; M. S. Nagarajan
(1998). Buddhism in Tamil Nadu:
Collected Papers . Institute of Asian
Studies. p. xvi.
70. Shu Hikosaka (1989). Buddhism in
Tamilnadu: A New Perspective .
Institute of Asian Studies. p. 93.
71. Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 141–142
72. University of Calcutta 1906, pp. 426-
427
73. Pandian, Pichai Pillai (1931).
Cattanar's Manimekalai . Madras:
Saiva Siddhanta Works. Retrieved
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74. Aiyangar, Rao Bahadur Krishnaswami
(1927). Manimekhalai In Its Historical
Setting . London: Luzac & Co.
Retrieved 30 July 2019.
75. Shattan, Merchant-Prince (1989).
Daniélou, Alain (ed.). Manimekhalai:
The Dancer With the Magic Bowl.
New York: New Directions.

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epics in Tamil, Madurai: Mathy
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in its historical setting, London: Luzac &
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External links
Manimekalai - Original Text in Tamil
Manimekalai - English transliteration of
Tamil original

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