EQUATIONS AND THEIR PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE:

MAXWELL EQUATIONS

Physical Name
Differential Form Integral Form
Significance
The total
electric flux
coming out
any closed
surface is


ρ

q equal to
1) ∇. E = in
ε0 ∫ S
E .ds = in
ε0 enclosed
Gauss’s Law.
charge (by
that surface)
divide by free
space
permittivity.
Magnetic
monopoles
doesn’t exist,
therefore total




magnetic flux
2) ∇.B = 0 ∫ S B.ds = 0 coming out of
No name.
any closed
surface is
always equal
to zero.
A changing
magnetic flux
linked with a
closed circuit


induces an Faraday’s law


∂B

dΦ  ∂B 
e.m.f. in that of
3) ∇× E = −
∂t
∫ C
E .dl = −
dt
= − ∫  .da
S
 ∂t  circuit. (I.e. a electromagne
time varying tic induction.
magnetic field
induces a
space varying
electric field)
A steady
current
generates a
space varying

magnetic field

Ampere’s law



∂E  ∂E 
and for non
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0

with
4) ∂t ∫ C B.dl = µ0 I enc + µ0ε 0 ∫S  ∂t  .da steady Maxwell’s
  currents a
correction.
time varying
electric field
induces a
space varying
magnetic field.
(NB If it is asked to write Maxwell’s equations, write the differential form only.)

CONTINUITY EQUATION

Differential Form Integral Form Physical Significance

The total current coming out
of any closed surface is equal


∂ρ

 ∂ρ  to the rate of change of
∇.J = − ∫
 J .ds = − ∫   dτ
∂t S V
 ∂t  volume charge density of the
entire volume enclosed by the
closed surface.
(NB: If it is asked to write the continuity equation, write the differential form.)

Few important things about Continuity Equations:

The Continuity Equation holds not only for electrodynamics, but in many branches of classical
physics (even in Quantum Mechanics also). In a single word it tells, whatever flows out through
the surface must come at the expense of that remaining inside. And in electrodynamics, it means
nothing but the local conservation of charge, i.e. if the total charge in some volume changes, then
exactly that amount of charge must have passed in or out through the surface. Since, the
continuity equation can be derived from Maxwell’s equations so it is not an independent
∂ρ
assumption but a consequence of the laws of electrodynamics. In magnetostatics = 0 , because
∂t
the magnitude of current must be the same all along the line; otherwise, charge would be piling
up somewhere, and it wouldn’t be a steady current. And hence, the continuity equation becomes,



∇.J = 0

CONVERSIONS OF MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS:

1) Maxwell’s 1st Equation (Gauss’s Law):

Let us consider a closed surface S of volume V encloses a charge ‘q’, then according to Gauss’s
Law the total electric flux coming out of the closed surface is,


q
∫ .ds =
E
S
(1.1)
ε0
Where ε 0 is the free space permittivity. Now if
ρ be the volume charge density then we can write
the total charge as,


q = ∫ ρ ( r ) dv (1.2)
V
Now using Gauss’s divergence theorem we get
equation (1.1) as,
( )





∫
S
E . ds = ∫ .E dv
V
∇ (1.3)
Therefore we get the total flux as,
( )


1

∫ .E dv =
∇ ∫ ρ ( r ) dv ; (using equation (1.2))
V ε0 V

And since this is true for any arbitrary surface, therefore we get the Gauss’s law as,


ρ
∇. E = in (1.4)
ε0
This is the differential form of Gauss’s law. Where ρin = ρ , the inside volume charge density.

2) Maxwell’s 2nd equation (No name)

Since in nature isolated magnetic monopole doesn’t exist therefore the total magnetic flux


coming out a closed surface is always equal to zero. Or in other words, B vector is a Solenoidal



Vector. Therefore we must have, ∇.B = 0 in every situation.
( )



∴ ∫ ∇. B dv = 0 also.
V
 ∫ ( ∇.B ) dv = ∫





Applying Gauss’s divergence theorem we can write B.ds = 0
V S

3) Maxwell’s 3rd Equation (Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic Induction):

Let C be a closed circuit binding an open surface S, placed in a magnetic field B . Then the
magnetic flux Φ through the surface S is given by



Φ = ∫ B .ds (1.5)
S
Now if this flux is changing with respect to time then according to Faraday’s laws of


electromagnetic induction there will be an induced e.m.f. in that circuit and if E is the electric
field vector then we can write that induced e.m.f around the circuit as,


dΦ
∫C .dl =ε = − dt
E (1.6)
With the help of equation (1.5) we get the above as,

( )


d


∫C E .dl = − dt ∫S B.ds (1.7)
If the circuit is fixed, the time derivative can be moved inside
the integral and it becomes a partial derivative there.
Furthermore using Stoke’s theorem the left hand side of (1.7)
can be converted into a surface integral. Therefore the result is,


∂B

( )




∫S ∇ × E .ds = − ∫S ∂t .ds (1.8)
Since the above equation is true for any fixed (open) surface S, therefore we get,




∂B
∇× E = − (1.9)
∂t
This is the differential form of Faraday’s law. And this shows the existence of electric field (in
space) due to the time variation of magnetic field.

4) Maxwell’s 4th Equation (Corrected form of Ampere’s law / Generalized Ampere’s law):

After the correction of Ampere’s law by Maxwell, we get the corrected form as,





∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 (1.10)

∂t
∂E

Here the term ε 0 ≡ J D is called the Displacement Current Density. Now using Stoke’s
∂t
law we get (1.10) as,
( )






∫ B .
C
dl = ∫ × B . ds
∇
S
(1.11)
On the other hand the left hand side can
be written as,

∂E

d


µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0 = µ0 ∫ J .ds + µ0ε 0 ∫ E .ds
∂t S dt S
 d


= µ0  I enc + ε 0 ∫ E .ds 
 dt S 
(1.12)
Using (1.11) and (1.12) we get,


 d


∫C .dl = µ0  I enc + ε 0 dt ∫S E .ds 
B (1.13)

SOME OBSERVATIONS: (Read these only for better conception)

1) Gauss’s law in electrostatics, and not Coulomb law, is explicitly listed as one of the
Maxwell’s equations. The reason is that Gauss’s law can be written in both differential and
integral forms, and includes Coulomb law. Thus Coulomb’s law is implicit in Maxwell’s
equations describing electromagnetic fields.



2) Maxwell’s equations involve both curl and divergence of E and B fields. These equations
are sufficient for a complete specification of the electromagnetic fields. This follows from
a theorem, called Helmholtz theorem which states that a vector field is uniquely
determined if the divergence and curl of the vector are defined.


3) If the source charge density ρ and source current density J are reversed is sign and



direction respectively, the E and B will be reversed in direction.

MAXWELL’S WAVE EQUATIONS:

We shall see that as a consequence of Maxwell’s equations, the electric and the magnetic fields can travel
through the space in the form of waves; such waves are called, Electromagnetic Waves. We can derive the
relevant wave equation in this manner:
In a region of space where there is no charge or no current Maxwell’s equation reduces to,



1) ∇. E = 0



2)∇. B = 0




∂B
3) ∇ × E =
∂t



∂E
4) ∇ × B = µ0ε 0
∂t
Now applying curl to (3) we get,
( ) ( )








∇ × ∇ × E = ∇ ∇. E − ∇ 2 E




 ∂B 
( )




again, ∇ ∇. E − ∇ E = ∇ ×  −
2

 ∂t 
{using equation (3)}



∂

∂ ∂E  ∂2 E
( )


or , − ∇ E = −
2
∇ × B = −  µ 0ε 0  = − µ 0ε 0 2
∂t ∂t  ∂t  ∂t
{using equation (1) and equation (4)}
Thus, we get



∂2 E
∇ E = µ 0ε 0 2
2
(1.14)
∂t
Similarly, taking curl on equation (4) we get,
( ) ( )








∇ × ∇ × B = ∇ ∇. B − ∇ 2 B




 ∂E 
( )




again, ∇ ∇. B − ∇ B = ∇ ×  µ0ε 0
2

 ∂t 
{using equation (4)}


∂

∂2 B
( )


or, − ∇ B = µ0ε 0
2
∇ × E = − µ 0ε 0 2
∂t ∂t
{using equation (2) and(3)}
Therefore, we get,



∂2B
∇ B = µ 0ε 0 2
2
(1.15)
∂t
These are called Maxwell’s wave equations (also called vector Helmholtz equations), have the form
of the familiar wave equation,
1 ∂ 2ψ
∇ψ = 2 2
2
(1.16)
v ∂t
Where v is the velocity of wave propagation, and both the electric and magnetic fields propagate
1
with the same velocity v = . Since equation (1.14) and (1.15) are vector equations and (1.16)
µ 0ε 0



is a scalar one, therefore it is the 3 components of E vector and B vector which satisfy equation
(1.16).

(Don’t worry; equation (1.6) is a valid expression of “Advanced vibrations and wave” chapter,
which is out of the scope of your WBUT syllabus. So please take this one as true.)
In free space ε 0 = 8.854 ×10−12 F/m. and µ0 = 4π ×10−7 H/m. so that v = 2.9978 ×108 m./s. ,
which is the velocity of light (c ) in free space, as measured experimentally. Thus Maxwell’s
equations proved that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.