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Abstract
This research paper tackles the influence of the Spanish and American culture on Filipino women.
The start of the cultural mixing is said here it also describes what a Filipino woman was before the
colonialization of the two countries that colonialized the Philippines. How pre-colonial women
were independent and what is their standing in society back then in pre-colonial times is discussed
in this research. The colonialization of Spain and America in the Philippines is also tackled. The
changes that these two different countries passed on to Filipinos and how it affected Filipino
women in the way they act, present themselves and how others perceived them. In Spanish colonial
times, religion is tackled and what impact it gave to the minds of Filipinos and what and how much
pressure it gave to a woman back then. In American times, discussions about freedom from the
Spaniards is elaborated, what changes happened to a Filipino woman, how it changed them from
what Spaniards painted a woman to be.
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 2
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture on Filipino Women's Values and Personality on
"Women's liberation is the liberation of the feminine in the man and the masculine in the
woman." (Kent). A quote from a nun and a famous pop art artist from the 20th century. This
paper does not only discuss the complimenting and contradicting effects of what these different
cultures did to the Philippines, this also discusses what should we do or how we should manage
the effects these different cultures gave us, and how we should fight the discrimination of
Filipino to Filipinas.
The equality of men and women today has been a debate on who has greater position in
society, who gets more respect and who is more dominant. The development of women to what
they are now goes down in history starting in the pre-hispanic era to the Spanish colonialization
to the American colonialization. Views on women vary from the different timelines, women may
be perceived as gentle or aggressive in these different periods. The suppressing of freedom has
been a problem back then for Filipino women, being portrayed as someone who should stay at
home and entertain guests to being shamed if done something against the law, but pushing
towards history women were able to remove the pressure of what society has given them to be
and how they should look and act. Feminism is something that blossomed in the past because of
the repressed thought of freedom of women of having to have the same rights as men. Not being
too aggressive in being equal to what men had then instantly but slowly fighting and removing
the shackles that the Spanish had given them in their time in colonializing the Philippines.
Spanish and American Culture have influenced Filipino women values and personality. Filipinos
have changed its culture from pre-colonial times up to now. Pre-colonial women in the Philippines
were considered to be strong-willed and sometimes had bigger task than men. They were
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 3
considered as equal to their gender counterpart. In that time being a woman who's strong and
independent wasn’t controversial as to now and even in the colonial times. The Hispanic era, where
the stereotypical image of a woman was established. Modest, self-effacing and submissive, these
are some traits that created a woman in the Hispanic era, these made women look and feel frail.
Pointing out the different traits of what the pre-colonial, Hispanic, and American era
pictured women to be gave ideas on what a Filipinas is now in modern times. Each of the era had
a great impact on what Filipinas are now. Having to be independent back then made Filipinas be
independent as well, as for the Hispanic era, a time where Catholicism was introduced made
women in the Philippines become careful on what they do and say. In the America era, the most
liberating era, Filipinos were freed from the Spanish and their strict image of what a woman should
The Influences of these different cultures has strike a question on who had a better way in
portraying a woman. The comparison of these different cultures gives us an idea on what are some
traits that Filipino women still carries until now, the mannerisms, the values etc... The topic also
stirs when did the cultural mixing began, how it impacted Filipinos and what are the effects of
The different cultures that colonialized the Philippines had become something that is a part
of what makes a Filipino. Researching about this makes us see what are some qualities that
Filipinos have been detached from and what is still alive and is still practiced. Not only do we see
the cultural differences the pre-colonial, Hispanic and the American era had but we get to know
the roots of what our culture was and what makes it now briefly.
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 4
In the pre-colonial or pre-Hispanic era people were simple. Everything was basic,
education was simple, agriculture was okay the people then were spread out in different places and
they were called Barangay. Religion was never really a concern then agriculture was number one
Women in the Philippines before colonialization was given importance and they too gave
themselves importance. Trying to level with men was nothing because the women then had their
own important place in society. They could even hold high characters in communities like healers,
priestesses, and they could even handle leadership roles and fight as warriors. As part of the line
for the heir and heiresses of a Datu, his daughter could be one of the choices. (Saldua, 2012). The
Women had the right to inherit property and they also had important parts
in business and trading. They would weave, do pottery and make jewelries to be
used for exchanging in the market, in other tribes and other foreign traders like the
were not allowed to barter unless their wives approved. (Saldua, 2012).
Women had important rolls in society in pre-colonial times. The Babaylan or the healer
was usually a woman and when an occasion arises that a man would take this role he needs to dress
up as a woman. (Saldua, 2012). Women were adored in pre-colonial times because of their
wiseness. The fact that a man is obligated to dress up as a woman in able to substitute a Babaylan
Discrimination in this era was non-existing, men and women were equal. "Filipino Women
had the power to decide for themselves, they controlled how they lived. They enjoyed equal status
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 5
with men, were known for their wisdom and knowledge, and enjoyed the privileges of human
rights." (Saldua, 2012). This era had women make their own decisions without consultation with
men, they were their own boss. Women had free will they were able to do anything they want,
Women's profession then had the same weight as men had. The job that women had is
either more important or has the same level as the other gender. Women had rolls in the Philippines
like, "healers, priestesses, and they could even handle leadership roles and fight as warriors."
Women had dreams and experienced life-altering events that led them to become
was to be called by a mystical source or to inherit the role from an elder babaylan.
The sacred call would come in a dream or the person would experience a life-
The role of women in a household can be sometimes be greater than the man in it when it
comes to business, other than being a healer or being involved in business, the pre-colonial woman
disputable subject for those who say, this was based merely on legends. Remember
the legend of Queen Maniwantiwan, the wife of Datu Marikudo whose consent had
to be secured before he could sell his lands to the Bornean immigrants led by Datu
Puti. Another queen who is reported to have ruled Cotabato in the seventh century
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 6
regardless of sex allowed women to succeed their fathers as rulers of tribes. The
most famous of the women leaders of pre-Spanish society was Princess Urduja of
(Titgemeyer, 1997)
These are just examples of what the women did in pre-colonial times. Women weren't
restricted from aiming high in the political career. Pre-colonial women are possible to have the
same rank of a man, even the highest rank can be attained by a woman with no questions, it is just
accepted naturally. The respect and the way women were honored then is unimaginable compared
today.
Discrimination did not exist in this era, equality reigned. Unjust treatments to woman
which is done in modern days didn't happen. Men looked at women the same way they see
themselves. Women had free will inside their family, they had the same choices and decisions as
men. Restricting woman of their free will was never existing in this time. Woman act the way they
want and the men respect. Disrespecting woman back then was considered dishonorable for a man.
Women were able to choose whatever they want. Women had the power to control
themselves and everything that is around them because they have freedom to do so. In marriage
obligations towards family, etc. the dowry had to be returned by the bride´s family
if she was at fault. However, if the husband was at fault, he lost any right of its
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 7
return. The children were divided equally between the two regardless of sex. The
Divorce as an example of what a woman can do in pre-colonial times proves how much
power a woman has in herself and in a family. This type of practice is done in a divorce because
it makes each party becomes equal. "This way, she possessed equal rights with regard to divorce
To summarize the pre-colonial era of the Philippines everybody had equal right. Whether
you’re a boy or a girl you can be whatever you want and you can do whatever you want to do.
Women could inherit and lead a land, they could choose what they want to do inside their family.
Divorce was an option if the family she’s in is dysfunctional. Freedom prevailed at that time.
The Spanish era has change the part of women in society. When the Spaniards came to the
Philippines to colonialize they destroyed the glorious traditions and the equality of man and
woman. During this time men where dominant, they could attend school and have a chance to
study higher education, just an example on how much the Spaniards took from women.
The Spaniards separated the roles of men and women in society. Men were brought up to
be successors of their family while women weren’t. This type of judgement even inside the family
is kind of depressing because knowing that your own family sees value in their children that men
has more to offer to them than women. The Discrimination on gender in this era is sickening, this
The stereotype of being a lady and acting like a lady was made in this era. Women were
posed to be like “Maria Clara”. Maria Clara is a fictional character in the book Noli Me Tangere
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 8
written by Jose Rizal, she is the paramour of the lead character. The book described her as
beautiful, charming, graceful and reserved. Her description is the ideal type of woman in Spanish
colonial times. These characteristics of Maria Clara were to be adapted by a woman in those times.
It limited the abilities of what woman can do, the choice to be tough and independent were removed
Women were seen to be lower than men in this time. “Women were no longer allowed to
hold high positions and participate in political activities.” (Saldua, 2012). The freedom of woman
in expressing what they want to do and what they want to say has been taken away. The way that
they snatched these rights that a woman has just because of their cultural practices was appalling
especially for those who were brought up to be free and be whatever they want.
In the colonialization of the Spaniards they brought their religion too and implemented it
on Filipinos. Religion was a factor that the Spaniards controlled and took over of. The religion that
Introduction to Christianity has changed many things in the Philippines. The Natives were
forced to abandon paganism and were thought to worship the Catholic church instead. Instead of
having the basic politics that the pre-colonialized Filipinos had, the Spanish implemented their
government.
Spain introduced the Centralized form of government. It was divided into two units:
The Central government and the Local government. The King entrusted the colony
to the governor-general, who had the highest position in the government. The Royal
Audiencia was the Supreme Court of the Philippines. The Residencia and the
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 9
Visitador were the special courts that investigated on the conduct of the governor-
general and other high-ranking Spanish officials. The Local Government was
responsible for the following: the provinces, cities, towns and barrios.
(Anonymous)
Another way of saying this is that social classes were implemented by the Spaniards.
Equality among fellow Filipinos has change. Friars had a high place in society in this era because
of Christianity. The disruption of equality among genders had the most effect on women. Women
were supposed to be perceived as someone demure and gentle. Again, the Maria Clara image was
ideal at that time. Weak women were seen to be the ideal women if you were to generalize all the
characteristics given.
“During the Spanish era, the role of women was reduced to housekeeping and childrearing
as this was stereotypical at that time. In effect, women were viewed to be reserved, shy, and
submissive to men.” (Peralta, 2015). The Introduction of Catholicism changed the moral values of
women. Filipino women then in the pre-colonial era was independent and respected by men,
because of Catholicism women were forced to change because of the conservative church.
sexual conduct. The woman's role as family treasurer, along with a woman's
maintenance of a generally submissive demeanor, has changed little, but the double
Spaniards made an image of what a woman should do in this era, taking away the freedom
they had in pre-colonial times. What a woman should offer to society in this time is very limited
and the way a woman should act inside her family is limited also. Not being able to express what
she really feels is stressful. Women’s freedom was suppressed by the Spaniards because it was
unnatural for them to have women be glorified and have the same power as men and that triggered
them to act by using religion to correct it. It may not be correct in other people’s eye but it is right
The judgements of people upon Filipinas became critical in a way that a woman shouldn’t
be so expressive. A woman should be reserved, A woman shouldn’t act foolish specially when in
front of men. They should respect men and care for their families and do most of all the household
chores. Families preferred men to be born rather than women. Virginity became something very
U.S. President William McKinley sent several commissions to the Philippines even
as the U.S. Army fought the Filipinos. William Howard Taft, president of the
A year later, he became the first governor-general of the Philippines. Between 1901
offices, rebuilt the islands' government from the village to the national level. An
elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly, soon participated in national affairs.
Both the judicial system and the civil service, modeled after American counterparts,
The Americans fought off the Spaniards and totally replace the system with theirs. Another
culture has set in the Philippines, almost everything that the Spaniards build have been demolished
in replace of the judicial system and the civil service of the Americans. Filipinos are again to adapt
a different culture.
In 1898, the United States declared war on Spain, ultimately resulting in what is
called the Treaty of Paris, in which the Spanish agreed to give up the islands of the
Philippines in exchange for $20,000,000. The Philippines had been ruled by the
Spanish for nearly ____ years. During first years, there were some conflicts
between the U.S. and The Philippines. But during World War I, they came together
and the Filipinos fought alongside the Americans. After WWI ended, the U.S.
continued to rule over the Philippines, and gradually their relationship became
The start of the colonialization of the Americans had begun, Spaniards were taken out with
the help of Filipinos fighting side by side with the Americans. In the end of the war The United
States ruled the Philippines in a more nicer way than the Spaniards.
“Religious freedom was guaranteed, and government support of the Catholic church as the
state religion ended.” (Melendy, n.d.). Christianity was existing in the Spanish colonial period but
when the Americans came Filipinos were free to choose whatever religion they wanted,
Protestantism was a religion introduced by the Americans. Again, because of the freedom the
Americans gave in terms of religion Filipinos could move away from Christianity if they wanted
to.
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 12
On the other hand, America in return also adopted Roman Catholic Christianity
after the American invasion in the Philippines on July 4, 1946. At the same time,
These are some examples of different religions that came in the American period. Having
these religions and not making it of such a big deal to the Americans translates on how much
Filipinos were freed from the strict Christian rules they used to follow. Filipino women became
more expressive because the weight of Christianity bestowed upon them got lifted away because
A great influence given by the Americans to the Philippines is the emancipation of women,
from politics to social involvement to the society. “Filipino women were no longer secluded within
the narrow confines of the home. They were given freedom to go out and associate with men, and
to attend social parties even without chaperons. They were allowed to work. To engage in business
to attend political meetings. Participate in active sports.” (Badilles, 2013). Based on what women
can do now in the American period, women were almost back to what they had in the pre-colonial
era. Women were free again and regained the ability to choose what they want to do.
One of the greatest contributions of America to the Philippines is education. Primary and
high schools were built in communities, urban and provinces. Public education was introduced to
the Philippines by Americans. With public education being given, knowledge was more attainable
to women. The Language used in universities, colleges and schools was English. This explains
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 13
why Filipinos are good in understanding and speaking in English because it was the language used
in education.
“Co-education was established and boys and girls studied together in same schools. The
phenomenal growth of education was shown by the unprecedented increase in the number of
schools, teachers and students.” (Anonymous, 2013). Women were now allowed to study because
of co-ed being installed in the education system. Filipino Women were also allowed to take higher
education, “the women were given freedom to acquire the opportunities of higher education and
to practice any profession which had formerly been reserved only for the men.” (Java, 2011).
Filipino women were able to keep up with a thing that only a man can have, which is education.
Almost every major can be achieved by a woman now. Law, medicine, chemistry, pharmacy,
dentistry, journalism, business, engineering and even aviation, professions that weren’t attainable
in the Spanish colonial period is now possible because of the education given by the Americans to
the Philippines.
Women started to become more active in politics, women suffrage became a topic in the
years after the adoption of the Constitution. In conformity with this constitutional
provision, the plebiscite was held on April 30, 1937. In this plebiscite 447,725
women voted in favor of suffrage and only 44, 307 against it. (Java, 2011)
Filipino women became able to vote because of unity with each other and taking from the
education that they had. Education does really enter in the politics scene that women had in this
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 14
time. Again, the involvement of women in politics became more noticeable. Women were
In the general election of December 14, 1937, twenty-four (24) women were elected
to municipal and provincial offices and one woman to the city council. Miss
Carmen Planas, first woman councilor of Manila. Mrs. Elisa R. Ochoa of Agusan,
11, 1941. She was the first Filipino woman to become a member of the Congress
These are some women who were amazing in that time because of being able to be
nominated. Coming from the cruel Spanish colonial period women were still able to turn things
around thanks to the Americans influence in the Philippines, from religious freedom to free
education, women were able to pick themselves up because of the fresh start the American gave
them.
The effects and the influence of the Spanish and American colonialization in the
Philippines made Filipino women what they are now. The influences given to them by these two
countries developed overtime, some were removed, changed and improved. These improvements
Filipino women, because of the colonialization of these two cultures has evolved through
time and because of what we’ve known Filipino women to be now. In the past, in the Spanish
period, Filipino women were housewives, stereotyped to be passive aggressive and weak.
Education was held back to women, but even with all those boundaries held up by the different
colonies Filipino women were still able to stand up during difficulties and helped in shaping the
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 15
nation. Through the years women has been active in every aspect of society and still growing
Today, it is not surprising to see a Filipino woman walking down the street confident in
expressing herself. She may be a government employee, a person who own her own business and
the head of it. Women now are free to do anything and can be who they want to be. Career set
aside, women can also have a family that is taken care of by her and being a single mother now is
not a controversy anymore compared back. Filipino women are seen today conquering every field
there is in society and tackling every problem she faces with confidence and belief in herself. She
defies everything that the people around her says she cannot do. She aspires to be someone in this
society dominated by men and inspires other women to do the same thing.
Controversies and discrimination against women still exists even with the freedom that
women have. This thinking came from the influence of the Spanish and the church.
Find proof an influential man has had affairs with and children from different
women; or molested a woman; or abused a woman, and most Filipinos will label it
“normal, boys will be boys.” Spin a negative rumor about a well-known Filipina,
and our society will jump to believe it more than they believe in Jesus Christ. Call
her “immoral” and she is immediately stripped of all her achievements and
Even with the pressure still held against women, because of the freedom given to them they
can now stand up with what they think is right and they can now own their opinion. Filipino women
are now more confident in what they have to say because no one will make a great deal out of it.
Some will criticize but fellow women will stand up for it and justify it.
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 16
A Filipino woman is now liberated, in modern times, and can adopt to any situation.
Filipino women are liberated in a way she can speak and stand up for herself. Different feminist
groups blossomed in the past decade because of trying to break the stereotype given that a woman
is a less version of a man and should be set aside in important happenings. Copying the Americans
in having the women have rights in, for example voting, made Filipino women become active
feminist.
“Activists since the 1980’s aspired to replace Maria Clara, Sisa and Juli as role models.
They upheld women revolutionaries against Spain, and political activists who fought against the
Marcos regime.” (Roces & Edwards, 2010). Feminists rejected the images of these figures in the
Spanish Colonial period because it suppresses what a Filipino woman and how much potential
they have. Filipino women aren’t decorations in a household that serves and always try to look
presentable. Filipino women are strong and independent. Feminists even included victims of
Today’s Filipino women are still passionate and still has a soft spot for her family, because
of the Spaniards, Filipino women still retained the nurturing, caring and tender qualities that the
Spanish or the Christian church labeled them with. Filipino women still having the strength and
the traits that her ancestors had become strong, and independent. Having the Americans colonialize
the Philippines gave Filipino women the right to speak her mind again just like what the pre-
colonialized women had. With all the different cultures that Filipino women have experienced
through time, she made all of the unfortunate conception of her as a strength in forming feminism,
she fought of the strict rules given to her by the Spanish and took the colonialization of the
References
(n.d.). Retrieved from Facts and Details: http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-
asia/Philippines/sub5_6c/entry-3876.html
Renato Constantino, L. R. (1975). A History of the Philippines: From the Spanish Colonization
to the Second World War. New York : Monthly Review Press.
Titgemeyer, L. S. (1997). Status of Women. La Mujer Indigena - The Native Woman. Retrieved
from Univie: https://www.univie.ac.at/ksa/apsis/aufi/wstat/mujer.htm
Appendices
Summary
The research aims to determine the influences of the Spanish and American culture on
Filipino values and personality on this day and age.
Questions
The respondents of the research consisted of the interviewer, Lovely Marice T. Amarillo
and the interviewee, Luzviminda R. Tanglao.
The interview served as an opinion of what a modern Filipino woman thinks of how the
Filipino culture changed through these two different countries that colonialized us. This
interview sought out what a woman thinks of gender equality and how she feels about it. It states
the benefits and advantages of what these two cultures gave to Filipinos. An opinion about the
younger Filipino women has been stated here too, what she thinks about her and how different it
is from when the interviewee was young. Comparison of what women were back then versus
now is also described in a way how the interviewee sees it.
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 19
Interview transcript
(Start of Interview)
Interviewer: As a modern woman in the Philippines what do you feel among equality among
genders?
Interviewee: The equality among genders has always been a controversial topic through the
years. Sometimes it’s a raging topic, sometimes it becomes unnoticeable.
Interviewee: I just tend to shrug it off, I know that sometimes it’s unfair, I mean mostly, but I
seem to be okay with it and not go into the crowd of “hardcore” feminists. You know what, I’m
not really okay with it but I guess I’m just not into the women’s right propaganda but I know to
myself that it’s unfair.
Interviewer: Wow. That’s a very honest question. Can I ask you the second one?
Interviewer: What are some traits that you think you acquired from these 2 cultures, the Spanish
and American cultures?
Interviewer: Yes.
Interviewee: I guess I’ve acquired some of the language from the Spanish. I know that the
Filipino language has taken a lot from the Spanish.
Interviewee: Well, from the Spanish, religion is one, I am a Catholic. The way I dress myself I
think is conservative, the Catholic church must’ve influence me because “vulgar” clothing is too
much for them and now also for me.
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 20
Interviewer: What about the American culture? What are things that you’ve gotten from them
Interviewee: The clothes as well, jeans, t-shirts, polos. They all came from America, right?
Interviewer: Yes.
Interviewee: I also eat at fast food chains, where the popular ones came from them.
Interviewer: Okay. The third question, what are the benefits of these?
Interviewee: These?
Interviewer: I guess.
Interviewee: Religion is a big thing for me, I go to church every Sunday and thanks to the
Spanish they introduced us God or the church. The English language also makes us bilingual.
When you go to a different country you can use it. It is the universal language.
Interviewer: Those are some good points. Can I go for the fourth question?
Interviewee: Sure.
Interviewee: The youth today is again, more expressive. They aren’t shy in expressing
themselves. Some people sees it as vulgar but I don’t really care, because it’s a different age
now.
Interviewer: For the last question, compared to your days back then growing up, how much have
Filipino women changed now? In terms of physical traits and values.
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 21
Interviewee: Back then we had curfews, we weren’t allowed to go out whenever we want to. My
parent would lock the door if I didn’t go straight home from school. We respected our parents.
Kids nowadays they don’t. We also dressed differently compared to now, clothes were more
modest back then. There are good modest clothes still today, but some.
Interviewer: Thank you for your time and input in this research, your opinions are appreciated.
Outline
1. Introduction
Thesis statement: Spanish and American culture have influenced Filipino women's values and
personality
2. Before colonialization of the Philippines women were important
2.1. Women had rolls in society in pre-colonial times.
2.1.1. Women had the same jobs men had
2.1.2. Women were sometimes even greater than men in some professions
2.2. Discrimination wasn't displayed in this era
2.2.1. Women had the freedom to choose whatever they want
2.2.2. Men are equal to their opposite sex in this time
3. The Spanish era changed the part of women in society
3.1. Spaniards separated the roles of men and women
3.1.1. Women were posed to be as "Maria Claras"
3.1.2. Women were displayed to be lower than men.
3.2. Catholicism was introduced to Filipinos by the Spaniards
3.2.1. Introduction of religion changed the moral values of women
3.2.2. Judgements of people upon Filipinas became critical
4. American colonialism freed Filipinos from the strict culture of Spaniards
4.1. Americans freed Filipinos from religion & gave education
4.1.1. Being more expressive has been accepted because the pressure of religion was pulled off
4.1.2. With public education being given, knowledge was more attainable to women.
5. The contradiction of these 2 produced something which are Filipinos
5.1. The adaption of Filipina women upon these 2 cultures produced something controversial
5.1.1 Filipinas now are liberated and can almost adopt into any situation
5.1.2. Filipinas still retained the image that they are known for which is the Maria Clara image
6. Conclusion
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 24
Conclusion
1. The cultural mixing began when the Spaniards arrived. They introduced the Church,
pushed paganism and changed the views of Filipinos in life.
2. Then a Filipina was charming, graceful and reserved, particularly in Spanish times. In the
American era women were strong-willed, feminism bloomed in this era.
3. Filipinos now are liberated coming from the culture of the Americans fighting for rights
and equality and also respectful of themselves taking from the Spanish colonialization.
4. Women were forced to change because of the pressure of these 2 cultures gave,
especially in the Spanish era. Women became conservative, not because they want to, but
because the law says so, and the law then was the church. In the American colonialization
because women were freed from the shackles that the Spanish kept them in women
became more empowered and fought for other rights that men had.
5. The biggest influence ever given by a foreign country to the Philippines that impacted
Filipino women is the religion Catholicism. Religion changed the way how everyone
viewed life and each other. Women changed their looks to obey the law, the church.
People became more conservative because of this influence. Up to now Religion is still a
big deal, thanks to the Spaniards who introduced this to Filipinos.
The Influence of Spanish and American Culture 25
Researcher’s background