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*Bond prices fluctuate inversely with market interest Covered bonds - claims of the bond holders against
rates. the issuing MFI that are secured by a pool of cover assets
on the MFI’s balance sheet.
Yield on bonds (earnings/expected return) are
expressed commonly in two forms: Liquidity - ease with which an investor can sell or buy
a bond immediately at a price close to the mid-quote.
Liquid market - allows market participants to trade at Reinvestment risk - the uncertainty of the interest
low trading costs. rate at which coupons and redemption sums can be
invested.
Liquidity Premium - spread between the yield of a
bond with liquidity and a similar bond with less liquidity. Macaulay’s duration - proportionate change in the
bond price from a unit proportional change in (1 +
Credit Risk - risk of loss because of the failure of a redemption yield = (ΔP/P) / (Δ(1+r)/(1+r))
counterparty to perform according to a contractual
arrangement. Convexity - a measure of the change in duration with
respect to changes in interest rates.
Credit risk and liquidity premia - calculated as the
spread of the bond yields over those of German Summary Part:
government bonds.
Bonds are debts of the governments, companies, and
Yield Differentials - may arise from (1) intrinsic organizations that issue them.
differences in country-specific default risk or different One of the ways in which bonds differ from shares is
sensitivities of bonds’ future payoffs to common shocks, in the relative certainty of future cash flows.
or (2) market frictions, like trading costs, clearing and In the absence of default by the issuer, the future
settlement fees, and taxes. cash flows from a bond are typically known with
certainty.
Fair value or fair price of a bond - based on the
This is in contrast to shares since shares typically have
present value of expected future cash flows.
dividend payments, which are variable and uncertain.
P = C/(1+r) +C/(1+r)2 + C/(1+r)3 +. . .+ C/(1 + r)n + B/(1+r)n The relative certainty of bond cash flows influences
the pricing and analysis of bonds.
where: The fair price of a bond is estimated using a discount
P = fair price of the bond (its dirty price), model.
C = regular coupon payment each period, The relative certainty of bond cash flows means that
B = money value to be paid to the bondholder at other characteristics, such as duration and convexity,
maturity (redemption), can also be reliably estimated.
r = rate of discount per period, and Other important bond characteristics are future bond
n = number of periods to maturity (redemption). yields and of bond price volatility (risk).
The debt markets are used by both firms and
Clean price - the price of a bond ignoring any interest governments to raise funds for long-term purposes,
which may have accrued since the last coupon payment. though most investment by firms is financed by
retained profits.
Dirty price - the price of a bond, including any accrued
Bonds usually pay a fixed rate of interest at pre-
interest.
determined intervals.
*Bond prices are inversely related to interest rates, but Bonds are traded on a stock exchange and their price
the relationship is not symmetrical. fluctuates in response to supply and demand.
In the short run, the supply of both is fixed and price
Effective annual yield - takes account of the fluctuations are therefore the result of changes in
compounding given by: (1+y)2-1 . demand.
Realized compound yield - average compound rate of
return actually obtained from an investment.
Convertible preferred shares - give the holder the American Depository Receipts (ADR) – a certificate of
right to convert preference shares into ordinary shares at ownership issued by a US bank to promote local trading
a predetermined rate; the investor pays nothing to on a foreign stock.
convert apart from surrendering the convertible Unsponsored ADR - ADR program, which is created
preference shares. without company’s involvement.
Participating preferred shares - allow the issuing Sponsored ADR - If ADR program is created with an
company to increase the dividends if profits are assistance of the company.
particularly high.
When equity shares are initially issued, they are said
Stepped preferred shares - pay a dividend that to be sold in the primary market.
increases in a predetermined way.
Public market offering of new issues typically involves
Dutch auction - a method, which allows all investors the use of an investment bank in a process, which is
participating in the auction submitting a bid for the stock referred to as the underwriting of securities.
by specified deadline. The bid prices are ranked and
minimum price for selling of shares is determined. All
Private placement market includes securities which Electronic communication networks – order-driven
are sold directly to investors and are not registered with trading systems, in which the book of limit orders plays a
the securities exchange commission. central role.
Initial public offering (IPO) - issuing public equity, i.e. Electronic crossing networks – order-driven trading
when a company is engaged in offering of shares and is systems, in which market orders are anonymously
included in a listing on a stock exchange for the first time. matched at specified time, determined in the primary
market for the system.
If a company is already listed and issues additional
shares, it is called seasoned equity offering (SEO) or Ask price – the price at which market maker is willing
secondary public offering (SPO). to sell a security. Also called an offer price.
Road show – travelling of company managers through Bid price – the price at which market maker is willing
various cities and making presentations for large to buy a security.
institutional investors.
Bid - ask spread – the difference between the quoted
To underwrite – an act of guaranteeing a specific price bid and ask prices.
to the issuer of the security.
Order flow – the right to execute customers’ trades.
Lead underwriter – key investment bank within a
group of investment banking firms that are required to Market order – an order to buy or sell a security
underwrite a portion of a corporation’s newly issued immediately at the best obtainable price.
shares. Limit order – an order to buy or sell a security at a
Bookbuilding - collecting indications of demanded specified price or better, i.e. lower for a buy order and
number of shares by investors at various possible offer higher for a sell order.
prices. Short selling/sale - investor place an order to sell a
Dealer – an agent who buys and sells securities as a security that is not owned by the investor at the time of
principal on its own account, rather than as a broker for sale.
his clients. Dealer may function as a broker, or as market Earnings per share - net profits attributable to
maker. common shareholders divided by the number of common
Broker – an agent who executes orders to buy and sell shares outstanding.
securities on behalf of his clients in exchange for a Annual dividend - net profit portion distributed to the
commission fee. shareholders over the last year on a per share basis.
Short sale – the sale of the security, which is not Dividend yield - annual dividend per share as a
owned by the seller at the time of trade. percentage of the stock’s actual price.
Arbitrage – is the simultaneous purchase of an Price / earnings ratio (P/E ratio) – the ratio of the
undervalued asset or portfolio and sale of an overvalued stock market price to the earnings per share. Sometimes
but equivalent asset or portfolio, in order to obtain a called earnings multiplier.
riskless profit on the price differential.
Summary Part:
Over-the-counter (OTC) market – a market for
securities made up of dealers. It is not an organized Equity Markets - exist to facilitate the transfer of
exchange, and trading usually takes place by electronic funds from savers of funds to investors, which need to
means. raise money.
Organized stock exchanges & over-the-counter
markets ensure that a secondary market provides a
means for existing investors to sell their equity
securities.
Newly issued shares are sold in the primary market by
public offer, tender, placement, or through a rights
issue.
Stock exchanges may be order-driven, quote-driven,
or a hybrid of these two systems.
In all stock market trading systems, share prices are
determined by the demand and supply.
The key types of orders are market orders, which
accept the existing share price, and limit orders which
specify upper limits to buying prices or lower limits to
selling prices.
Most individual investors buy equity instruments
indirectly through institutional investors such as
pension funds, insurance companies, and investment
funds.
Therefore most of the trading on stock exchanges is
done through institutional investors.
Some types of institutional investment, like
investment funds or exchange-traded funds (ETFs),
trade their own shares on a stock exchange directly.
Stock markets operate most efficiently if they have
sufficient depth and breadth.
A deep market has a large number of traders, who
ensure that small price movements raise many new
buy or sell orders. This helps to avoid excessive share
price volatility, since price falls are met by new
purchase orders, and price rises are met by new sell
orders.
A broad market contains traders with differing
opinions such that some will be forecasting price rises
whilst others expect falls.
If the overwhelming majority of investors expect a
rise, there would be many buyers and few sellers.
Sharp price rises (a bubble) would result.
If the majority expects a price fall, sales would
dominate purchases and share prices could fall
dramatically (and a stock market crash can occur).