Conceptos Básicos de Quimica Aplicada A Ingeniería Mecánica

INTRODUCTION
TO
CHEMISTRY
Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

José Miguel Vadillo Pérez (Dpto. Química Analítica)
CHEMISTRY = CHANGES IN MATTER
Describes:
• structure & composition of matter
• changes in structure & composition
• energy involved in these changes

CHEMISTRY = CHANGES IN MATTER
¿¿??
UNDERSTANDING CHEMISTRY: FROM MACRO TO NANO

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Law of conservation of energy:

"Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but may be transformed
from one form to another“
Law of conservation of mass:

"Mass cannot be created or destroyed. The total mass of substances
involved in a physical or chemical change remains constant”
Mass-energy interconversion:
E = mc2

DEFINITION OF MATTER
Anything that occupies space and has mass.
¿Rocks? ¿Ozone?
¿Petrol inside rocks? ¿A molecule of water?
¿Gas inside rocks? ¿An atom of oxygen?
¿Air? ¿An electron?

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Properties of Matter
Physical Metallic Physical Chemical

state character appearance integrity

CLASSIFICATION BY PHYSICAL STATE
Solid Liquid
Gas
(Plutonium) (Mercury) (Chlorine)

(Pu) (Hg) (Cl)

CLASSIFICATION BY METALLIC CHARACTER
Metal or non-metal?

CLASSIFICATION BY PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
(Ruby) (Moon rock)
(Stainless steel)
CLASSIFICATION BY CHEMICAL INTEGRITY
(Bronze) (Agate) (Carbon) (Ice)

DEFINITIONS
Mixture: contains 2 or more pure substances, which can be separated
out by physical means.
Pure substances: have a definite chemical composition and properties.

They cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical means.
Compound: pure substance which can be further broken down by

chemical means.
Element: pure substance which cannot be further broken down by

ordinary chemical means.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS
MIXTURE COMPOUND
Components can be separated Components can not be
by using physical techniques separated by using physical
techniques
Composition is variable Composition is fixed
Properties are related to those of Properties are unlike those of its

its components components

SOME OF THE MORE COMMON ELEMENTS
ELEMENT SYMBOL ELEMENT SYMBOL

Hydrogen H Iron Fe
Helium He Copper Cu
Carbon C Nickel Ni
Aluminium Al Sulphur S
Nitrogen N Phosphorous P
Oxygen O Iodine I

http://www.webelements.com

DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Amount of substance (n): the number of specified entities of a pure

substance
Electric current (I): rate of transfer of electricity
Luminous intensity (Iv): rate of transfer of light energy

COMMON S.I. PREFIXES
PREFIX NAME MEANING
G giga 109
M mega 106
k kilo 103
d deci 10-1
c centi 10-2
m milli 10-3
 micro 10-6
n nano 10-9
p pico 10-12

DERIVED UNITS
QUANTITY DEFINITION DERIVED UNIT
Area Length x length m2

Volume Area x length m3
Density Mass/ unit volume kg m-3
Speed Distance/ unit time m s-1
Acceleration Change in speed/ unit time m s-2
Force Mass x acceleration kg m s-2 (newton, N)
Pressure Force/ unit area kg m-1 s-2 (pascal, Pa)
Energy Force x distance kg m2 s-2 (joule, J )

MASS AND AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE
amount of substance is the number of specified entities (e.g.
atoms, molecules, etc.)
ENTITY NUMBER OF ENTITIES MASS (g)
Hg 6.02 x 1023 atoms 200.59

(= 1 mol)
KCl 6.02 x 1023 molecules 74.56

(= 1 mol)
SO42- 6.02 x 1023 ions 96.06

(=1 mol)

ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy:
measure of how close measurement is to its real value
Precision:
measure of how close successive measurements are to each other

ACCURACY AND PRECISION
X X X
XX X
X X
Precise Precise Imprecise

Acurrate Inaccurate Innacurate

ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Atom:
smallest particle of an element which can undergo chemical changes in
a reaction
Molecule:
smallest particle of a compound which can exist and still retain the
chemical properties of the compound.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Size: 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers (1nm = 1x10-9m)
Mass: H atom = 1.67x10-24g = 1.008 atomic mass units (a.m.u.)

C atom = 2x10-23g = 12.000 a.m.u.
Electrical charge: neutral
Composition: contains electrons, protons, and neutrons (except H).
Particle Mass (a.m.u.) Charge

e- 0.0005 -1
p+ 1.007 +1
n 1.009 0

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
~ 5 x 10-15 m
Nucleus: protons and neutrons
~ 2 x 10-10 m

Xenon atoms on Iron atoms on a
nickel copper crystal
Carbon monoxide
molecules on
platinum crystal

DEFINITIONS
Atomic number: number of protons in an atom. Symbol: Z
Atomic mass: mass of an atom in a.m.u. (~number of protons +

neutrons in an atom). Symbol: A
Atom e- p+ n Z A (a.m.u.)
H 1 1 0 1 1.008
Li 3 3 4 3 7.016
C 6 6 6 6 12.000
U 92 92 146 92 238.05

CONVENTIONAL NOTATION FOR CHEMICAL SYMBOLS
Mass number Number and sign of charge
35 -
17 Cl 2
Atomic number Number of atoms in entity
Examples: 4 He
OH
- CO 2-
2 3

DEFINITIONS
Ions:
atoms or molecules which have gained or lost one or more electrons
Isotopes:
atoms of the same element which have different masses, i.e. different
numbers of neutrons
Examples of ions: H+ H- NO3-

1
Examples of isotopes: H Hydrogen
1
2
H Deuterium
1
3
H Tritium
1

Elements Compounds
Identical
atoms
Atoms Molecules
±n ±e
-
±e
- ±n
Ions Isotopes

BASIC CALCULATIONS IN CHEMISTRY

INTRODUCTION TO CALCULATIONS IN CHEMISTRY
Atomic Mass: The average of the isotope masses of an element, weighted to
reflect their relative natural abundances.
http://www.webelements.com/

Isotope Atomic mass Natural abundance
12C 12.000000 98.93
13C 13.003354 1.07

35Cl 34.968852721 75.78
37Cl 36.96590262 24.22

63Cu 62.9295989 69.17
65Cu 64.9277929 30.83

234U 234.0409468 0.0055
235U 235.0439242 0.7200
238U 238.0507847 99.2745

Example 1.
Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes, 35Cl (A = 34.97 a.m.u.) and 37Cl
(A = 36.96 a.m.u.). The respective natural abundances of these isotopes are
75.5% and 24.5%.
¿What is the average mass of chlorine?
(34.9688 x 75.5) + (36.9659 x 24.5)

Atomic mass of Cl = = 35.44321 a.m.u.
100
35.45 a.m.u.

Molecular Mass: The sum of the atomic masses of all of the constituent atoms in
a molecule.
Example 2:
Molecular mass of H2? (A.M. of H = 1.008 a.m.u.)
M.M. of H2 = 2 x 1.008 = 2.016 a.m.u.
Example 3:
M.M. of carbon monoxide, CO?
(A.M. of C = 12.01 a.m.u., A.M. of O = 15.99 a.m.u)
M.M. of CO = 12.01 + 15.99 = 29.01 a.m.u.
Example 4:
M.M. of lead nitrate, Pb(NO3)2? (Pb =207.2, N = 14.01, O = 15.99)
M.M. of Pb(NO3)2 = 207.2 + (14.01 x 2) + (15.99 x 6) = 331.16 a.m.u.

CHEMICAL ACCOUNTING: THE MOLE
Relating Number of Chemical Entities to their Mass
Consider the atomic mass table:
Element Atomic mass

(one atom)
Relative mass of one atom
H 1.008 a.m.u. of a given element with
He 4.003 a.m.u. respect to the mass of one
Li 6.941 a.m.u. atom of one element (carbon)
Be 9.012 a.m.u.
C 12.000 a.m.u.
...etc. ...etc.

More useful table should be like this:
Element Mass
(N atoms)
H 1.008 g
He 4.003 g Absolute mass of N atoms
Li 6.941 g
Be 9.012 g
C 12.000 g
...etc. ...etc.

What value of N will allow us to “scale up” from the a.m.u. scale (single atoms)
to the gram scale (large numbers of atoms)?
n = 6.022 x 1023 entities = Avogadros Number (N) = 1 mole (mol)
Now have a system for relating large numbers of atoms to their total mass,
and for comparing the relative masses of any given large number of atoms of
different elements:

Element Atomic Mass Scale “Mole Mass Scale”

No. of Mass No. of Mass
Atoms (a.m.u.) Atoms (g)
H 1 1.008 1 mole 1.008
He 1 4.003 1 mole 4.003
Li 1 6.941 1 mole 6.941
Be 1 9.012 1 mole 9.012
...etc.. ...etc.. ...etc..
6.022 x 1023 atoms

Example
What is the mass of 0.5 mole of plutonium (Pu) atoms?
a) From table of atomic masses: Pu = 244

this means that:
- 1 atom of Pu has a mass of 244 a.m.u.
- 1 mole of Pu has a mass of 244 g
Since 1 mole Pu = 244 g, then 0.5 mole Pu has a mass of = 244 x 0.5 g = 122 g
Example
What is the mass of 1 mole of silicon carbide (SiC)?
A molecule of SiC consists of 1 atom of Si and 1 atom of C.

1 mole SiC consists of 1 mole Si + 1 mole C.
Si = 28.086 and C = 12.011
The mass of 1 mole SiC = 28.086 + 12.011 g = 40.097 g

Example
What is the mass of 2 moles of SO42- ions? (O = 15.999 g/mol; S = 32.06 g/mol)
SO42- ion contains 1 S and 4 O

2 mol SO42- contains 2 mol S and 8 mol oxygen
Mass of 2 mol S = 2 x 32.06 g = 64.12 g

Mass of 4 x 2 mol O = 4 x 2 x 15.99 g = 127.92 g
Mass of 2 moles of sulphate ions = 192.04 g
Example
How many moles of copper atoms are there in a coin of mass 2.5 g with a 55% purity in
copper. (Data. Cu: 63.55 a.m.u.)
(a) 0.04 (b) 0.02 (c) 0.01 (d) 0.06 (e) 0.03
Mass of copper = 0.55 x 2.5 g = 1.38 g

Number of moles of copper = 1.38 / 63.55 (g/ g mol-1) = 0.02 mol

RELACIÓN DE PROBLEMAS (I)
1 - Determinar la masa atómica del galio, sabiendo que existen dos isótopos 69Ga y 71Ga,
cuya abundancia relativa es 60,2% y 39,8%, respectivamente. Indicar la composición de
los núcleos de ambos isótopos. Número atómico Ga = 31.
2 - Calcule la masa de 1025 moléculas de dicromato de sodio (Cr2O7Na). ¿Cuantos

átomos de cada elemento hay?
3 - Calcule la masa (en gramos) y el volumen (en ml) de un átomo de cobre si su

densidad es 8,96 g/ml.
4 - ¿Cuantas moles y moléculas hay en 4 mg de hidróxido de calcio (Ca(OH)2)?

¿Cuantos átomos de cada elemento hay?
5 - En una cucharada de azúcar (C12H22O11) caben 3,5 gramos. Calcular: a) el número de

moles y de moléculas que hay en una cucharada. b) Número de átomos de carbono que
tiene esa cucharada.
7- Indique en cual de las siguientes cantidades hay mayor número de gramos y de

moléculas: a) 0,12 moles de hierro; b) 0,1 moles de ácido sulfúrico (SO4H2); c) 2,4.1024
moléculas de hidrógeno gaseoso (H2).

RELACIÓN DE PROBLEMAS (II)
8 -¿Cuantos átomos de cada elemento tendremos en un gramo de agua?
9 - En un sobrecito de azúcar de los que se dan con el café, caben 10 gramos de

azúcar, que es sacarosa, cuya fórmula es: C12H22O11. Calcular: a) el número de
moles y de moléculas de ese compuesto que hay en el sobrecito. b) Número de
átomos de cada elemento que hay en el sobrecito
10 - Una gota de ácido sulfúrico (SO4H2) ocupa 0,025 mL. Si la densidad del mismo
es 1,981 g/mL, calcule el número de moles y de moléculas de ácido sulfúrico que
hay en esa gota, así como el número de átomos de oxígeno presentes en la misma.
11 -¿Cuántas moléculas de carbonato cálcico, CaCO3 , existen en 25 g de dicha

sustancia?
12 - Un frasco contiene 33,4 g de AICI3 sólido. Calcule en esta cantidad: a) el

número de mol, b) el número de moléculas, c) el número de átomos de cloro.
13 -¿Cuántas moléculas de agua hay en una copo de nieve que pesa 1 mg?

EXPRESSION OF CONCENTRATION IN CHEMISTRY

A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more substances
The solute is(are) the substance(s) present in the smaller amount(s)
The solvent is the substance present in the larger amount

A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a solute that will
dissolve in a given solvent at a specific temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the solvent has the capacity
to dissolve at a specific temperature.
Ways to express concentration

CONCENTRATION UNITS
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given
quantity of solvent or solution.
Percent by Mass
mass of solute
% by mass = x 100%
mass of solute + mass of solvent
mass of solute
= x 100%
mass of solution
Percent by Volume
Volume of solute
x 100%
% by Volume =
Volume of solute + Volume of solvent
Volume of solute
= x 100%
Volume of solution

PERCENT (%) CONCENTRATİON (PARTS PER HUNDRED)
Weight percent (w/w): used to indicate the concentration of commercial

aqueous reagents (e.g. 70% (w/w) HNO3 reagent contains 70 g HNO3 per
100 g of solution)
Volume percent (v/v): used to indicate the concentration of a solution

prepared by dilution with another liquid (e.g. 5% (v/v) aqueous solution of
methanol contains 5 ml of pure methanol per 100 ml of solution)
Weight/Volume percent (w/v): used to indicate the composition of aqueous

solutions of solid reagents (e.g. 5% (w/v) aqueous solution of NaCl contains
5 g of pure NaCl per 100 ml of solution)

98% (v/v)
40% (v/v)

PARTS PER MİLLİON (PPM) AND PARTS PER BİLLİON (PPB)
• ppm or ppb is a convenient way to express concentration of very dilute
solutions or mixtures
• A handy rule to calculate ppm is to remember that:
1 ppm= 1 mg/L (in solution)

1 ppm= 1 mg/kg (in mixture)
1 million parts
1 part

1 ppm (part per million).

1 in 106
A single drop of water in a 50 liters tank
1 second in 11 days
1 ppb (part per billion)

1 in 109
A single drop of water in a 50000 liters tank
1 second in 31.7 years
1 ppt (part per trillion)

1 in 1012
A single drop of water in an olympic swimming pool
1 second since Neandertals extinction (30000 years ago)

Molarity (M)
moles of solute
M =
liters of solution
Molality (m)
moles of solute
m =
mass of solvent (kg)
Mole Fraction (X)
moles of A
XA =
sum of moles of all components



Dilution
Add Solvent

Example. What is the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 2.355 g of
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in water and diluting to a final volume of 50.0 ml?
Molecular weight of H2SO4 = 2.0 x 1 + 32.1 + 16.0 x 4 = 98.1 a.m.u.
Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98.1 g/mol
2.355 x 1/98.1 = 0.024 Units g x mol g-1 = mol
0.024 mol H2SO4
Molarity = moles of solute/ Litres of solution = 0.024 mol/ 0.05 L = 0.48 M
Example. What is the molar concentration of water in 1 litre of water?

Molecular weight of H2O = 2.0 x 1 + 16.0 = 18.0 a.m.u.
Density of water = 1.0 g/cm3 or 1.0 kg/L
Mass of H2O in 1 L = 1 kg
molarity = 1000/18.0 g L -1 g-1 mol = 55.5 mol L-1 = 55.5 M
Example. What is the molarity of a 95% acetic acid solution?
(density = 1.049 g/mL)
If you assume 1 L, that amount of solution = 1049 g
95% of the solution is acetic acid, 1049 g solution x 0.95 = 997 g solute
997 g X 1 mol/60.05 g = 16.6 mol solute
Since we assumed 1 L, that’s 16.6 mol / 1 L or 16.6 M

Example. How many molecules of sugar are there in 1 spoon (0.025 kg) and
what is the concentration of sugar in 1 cup of coffee (100 ml)? The molecular
mass of sugar (C12H22O11)
Molecular mass of sugar = 12 x 12.00 + 22 x 1.01 + 11 x 16.00 = 342.22 a.m.u.
Mass of 1 mole of sugar = 342.22 g
Moles of sugar = 0.025 x 1000/342.22 = 0.073 mole
Molecules of sugar = 0.073 x 6.022 x 1023 mole molecule mole-1 = 4.4 x 1022
molecules
Example. How many moles of copper atoms are there in a coin of mass 2.5 g
with a 55% purity in copper. (Data. Cu: 63.55 a.m.u.)
(a) 0.04 (b) 0.02 (c) 0.01 (d) 0.06 (e) 0.03
Mass of copper = 0.55 x 2.5 g = 1.38 g

Number of moles of copper = 1.38/63.55 (g/g·mol) = 0.02 moles

Ejemplo. ¿Cuántos gramos de glucosa hay en 250 ml de una disolución
acuosa de glucosa del 2,0% en masa que tiene una densidad de 1,02 g/ml?
250 mL x (1,02 g/1 mL) x (2,0 g glucosa/100 g disolucion) = 5,1 g glucosa
Ejemplo. ¿Qué volumen de una disolución acuosa de glucosa del 2,0% en

masa de densidad 1,02 g/ml contiene 5,1 g de glucosa?
5,1 g x (100 g disolucion/2,0 g glucosa) x 1 mL disol/1,02 g disol = 250 mL
Ejemplo. ¿Cuántos gramos de glucosa hay en 250 ml de una disolución de

glucosa(aq) 0,25 M? Solución: 11 gramos de glucosa
Ejemplo. ¿Qué volumen de una disolución de glucosa(aq) 0,25 M contiene 5,1

g de glucosa? Solución: 110 mL de disolución

Dilution
Often, dissolutions must be prepared from other solutions previously prepared.
In the dilution process, the number of moles of the solute does not change
Vi Mi = Vf Mf
Moles of solute in the initial dissolution = Moles of solute in the final dissolution
dilution

¿Qué volumen de una disolución de glucosa(aq) 0,25 M se necesita para preparar 750
ml de otra disolución 0,013 M por dilución?
a) Podemos despejar la fórmula:
Vfinal Mfinal 750 ml×0,013 M
Vinicial = Vinicial = =39 ml dsln inicial
Minicial 0,25 M
¿Que concentración tiene la disolución resultante de diluir 39 ml de disolución de

glucosa(aq) 0,25 M hasta 750 ml?
a) Podemos despejar la fórmula:
Vinicial Minical 39 ml×0,25 M
Mfinal = M= = 0,013 M
Vfinal 750 ml

Example. What mass of NaOH and HCl are require to make 29.22 g of NaCl
following the reaction indicated?
NaOH + HCl ——> NaCl + H2O
Atomic masses: Na: 23 a.m.u. , Cl: 35.5 a.m.u. , O: 16 a.m.u., H: 1a.m.u.
1 mole NaOH + 1 mole HCl ——>1 mole NaCl + 1 mole H2O
x mole NaOH + x mole HCl ——>x mole NaCl + x mole H2O (x: moles in 29.22 g NaCl)
Molecular mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 a.m.u. (1 mole of NaCl has a mass of 58.5 g)
1 mol corresponds to 58.5 g; x mol corresponds to 29.22 g (X = 0.5 mole)
Calculate the mass of 0.5 mole of NaOH and of HCl
Mass of 0.5 mole of NaOH = 0.5 x (23 + 16 + 1) = 20.00g

Mass of 0.5 mole HCl = 0.5 x (1 + 35. 5) = 18.25 g
Answer: 20.00 g NaCl and 18.23 g HCl.

Example.
The alcohol content of a beer is 5% by weight. How many moles of ethanol

(C2H5OH) are there in 500 g of beer?
5.4 (b) 0.54 (c) 0.44 (d) 5 (e) none of the above
Mass of alcohol = 0.05 x 500 g = 25 g
C2H5OH mass of one molecule = (2 x 12) + (5 x 1) + 16 + 1 = 46 amu
Mass of one mole of ethanol = 46 g mol-1
Number of moles = 25/46 g/ g mol-1 = 0.54 moles

RELACIÓN DE PROBLEMAS (III)
1 - Determinar la concentración expresada como % y molaridad de una disolución de ácido sulfúrico
(SO4H2) que contiene 14,7 gramos de dicho ácido en 750 ml de agua, si su densidad es de 1,018 Kg/l
2 - Determinar la concentración expresada como molaridad de una disolución de ácido clorhídrico

(ClH) del 18,43% en peso y densidad 1,130 g/ml
3 - Determinar todas las expresiones de la concentración de una disolución de ácido nítrico (NO3H) 6
molal y densidad 1,15 g/ml
4 - Hallar la normalidad y la molaridad de una disolución acuosa de hidróxido de bario (Ba(OH)2) que
contiene 42,8 g. en 5 litros de disolución
5 - Hallar la concentración expresada en partes por millón (ppm) de un compuesto que se encuentra
en una concentración molar de 10-7 M.
6. – Dos compuestos, con pesos moleculares de 303.35 gr/mol y 474,6 g/mol se detectan en un río en
una concentración 400 ng/l y 627 gr/mol, respectivamente. Calcule su concentración en ppb.
7 - Determine la concentración en ppt de un compuesto del que se han detectado 3 pg en 18 ml de

orina.

RELACIÓN DE PROBLEMAS (IV)
8 - Calcular la concentración de una disolución de hidróxido de sodio que contiene 18,5 g en 500 ml de
disolución, si su densidad es 1,02 g/ml. Expresarla como MOLARIDAD y MOLALIDAD
9- ¿Cuantos gramos de sulfato de sodio (SO4Na2) se necesitan para preparar 250 ml de una
disolución 0,500 M.
10 - El amoniaco usado en los laboratorios es NH3 (aq) de concentración 14.8 M y con una densidad
de 0,898 g/mL . Calcular las cantidades de NH3 y H2O que habrá en 1 litro de disolución así como sus
fracciones molares. (Masas atómicas: N=14, H=1, 0=16)
11 - Se disuelven 20,0 g de cloruro de calcio (Cl2Ca) en agua hasta completar 0,5 l de disolución.
Calcular su Molaridad. Se cogen 50 ml de la disolución anterior y se le añade más agua hasta
completar 200 ml. ¿Cuál será la Molaridad de la nueva disolución?
12- Se mezclan 1L de ácido nítrico (NO3H) de densidad 1,5 g/mL y riqueza del 60% con 0,7 L de NO3H
de densidad 1,2 g/ml y de 30% de riqueza. Calcular: a) La riqueza del ácido resultante y b) Su
concentración molar. Dato: Densidad del ácido resultante 1,3g/mL. (Masas atómicas: H=1, N=14,
O=16)
13- Se mezcla un litro de NO3H de densidad 1,38 g/mL y 62,7% de riqueza con un litro de otro NO3H
de densidad 1,13 g/mL y 22,38% de riqueza. La densidad de la disolución de NO3H resultante es de
1,276 g/mL. Hallar: a) La concentración en tanto por ciento de esa disolución final. b) El volumen de la
disolución final. e) Su molaridad

DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAE

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSIS
Empirical formula: relative number of atoms of each element it contains
H2O shows that:

water contains two H atoms for each O atom
Water contains 2 moles of H for each mole of O
It is possible to know the empirical formula of a compound if we know the ratio

between the elements

Example. Hg and Cl combine to form a compound that has 73.9% of Hg and

26.1% of Cl
Divide the larger number of moles (0.735) by the smaller (0.368) to obtain a
Cl: Hg mole ratio of 1.991

Example. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) contains 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50% O
by mass. What is the empirical formula of ascorbic acid?
a ) We assume, for simplicity, 100 g of compound (40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50%

b ) We calculate the moles of each element
c ) We determine the simplest whole-number
ratio of moles by dividing each number of moles
by the smallest number of moles (3,406
C3H4O3

Example. A 5.325-g sample of methyl benzoate, a compound used in the manufacture of
perfumes, contains 3.758 g of carbon, 0.316 g of hydrogen, and 1.251 g of oxygen. What is the
empirical formula of this substance?
Answer: C4H40
Example. Assign the given mass percentages to the corresponding structures:

63,15 % C 61,02 % C 79,24 % C
5,26 % H 11,86 % H 5,66 % H
31,58 % O 27,12 % O 15,09 % O
Benzaldehido (almendra) Vainillina Acetato de isopentilo (plátano)
Example. Determine the empirical formulas of the compounds with the following compositions
by mass:
(a) 55.3% K, 14.6% P, and 30.1% O
(b) 24.5% Na, 14.9% Si, and 60.6% F
(c) 62.1%C,5.21%H, 12.1%N,and20.7%0

MOLECULAR FORMULA VS EMPIRICAL FORMULA
The formula obtained from percentage compositions is the empirical formula
The molecular formula can be obtained from the empirical if we are given the
molecular weight or molar mass of the compound as the subscripts in the
molecular formula of a substance are always a whole-number multiple of
the corresponding subscripts in its empirical formula. (see ascorbic acid
example, MW = 176 amu)
Example. Ethylene glycol, the substance used in automobile antifreeze, is composed of

38.7% C, 9.7% H, and 51.6% O by mass. Its molar mass is 62.1 g/mol. (a) What is the
empirical formula of ethylene glycol? (b) What is its molecular formula?
Answers: (a) CH3O, (b) C2H6O2.

COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
The empirical formula of a compound is based on experiments that give the

number of moles of each element in a sample of the compound.
Chemists have devised a number of experimental techniques to determine

empirical formulas.
One technique is combustion analysis, which is commonly used for compounds

containing principally carbon and hydrogen as their component elements.
CnHm + O2  nCO2 + mH2O
If a third element is present in the compound, its mass can be determined by

subtracting the masses of C and H from the compound's original mass.

Example. Isopropyl alcohol, a substance sold as rubbing alcohol, is composed of C, H,
and O. Combustion of 0.255 g of isopropyl alcohol produces 0.561 g of C02 and 0.306 g of
H2O. Determine the empirical formula of isopropyl alcohol and its molecular formula
knowing that its molecular weight is 60 amu..
The mole ratio of C:H:O so obtained

is 2.98:7.91:1.00, giving the following
empirical and molecular formula:
C3H80

EXAMPLE. How many grams of water are produced in the oxidation of 1.00 g of glucose,
C6H1206?

EXAMPLE. The decomposition of KClO3 is commoniy used to prepare small amounts of

O2 in the laboratory. How many grams of O2 can be prepared from 4.50 g of KClO3?
Answer: 1.77 g
EXAMPLE. Solid lithium hydroxide is used in space vehicles to remove the carbon dioxide
exhaled by astronauts. The lithium hydroxide reacts with gaseous carbon dioxide to
form solid lithium carbonate and liquid water. How many grams of carbon dioxide
can be absorbed by 1.00 g of lithium hydroxide?

LIMITING REACTANTS
Limiting reactant or limiting reagent = the reactant completely consumed in a reaction
It determines or limits the amount of product formed.
The other reactants are sometimes called either excess reactant or excess reagents.

EXAMPLE. The most important commercial process for converting N2 from the air into
nitrogen-containing compounds is based on the reaction of N2 and H2 to form ammonia
(NH3). How many moles of NH3 can be formed from 3.0 mol of N2 and 6.0 mol of H2?
EXAMPLE. Consider the reaction 2 Al(s) + 3 Cl2 (g)  2 AlCl3(s). A mixture of 1.50 mol of
Al and 3.00 mol of Cl2 is allowed to react. (a) Which is the limiting reactant? (b) How many
moles of AlCl3 are formed? (c) How many moles of the excess reactant remain at
the end of the reaction?
Answers: (a) Al, (b) 1.50 mol, (c) 0.75 mol Cl2

THEORETICAL YIELDS
The quantity of product calculated to form when all of the limiting reactant reacts.
The amount of product actually obtained in a reaction is called the actual yield.
The actual yield can never be greater than the theoretical yield:
- part of the reactants may not react (side reactions)
- non-effective collisions
- not possible to recover all of the products from the reaction mixture

Example. Adipic acid, H2C6H804 is used to produce nylon. The acid is made commercially
by a controlled reaction between cyclohexane (C6H12). (a) Assume that you carry out this
reaction starting with 25.0 g of cyclohexane and that cyclohexane is the limiting reactant.
What is the theoretical yield of adipic acid? (b) if you obtain 33.5 g of adipic acid from your
reaction, what is the percent yield of adipic acid?
Example. Imagine that you are working on ways to improve the process by which iron
ore containing Fe2O3 is converted into iron. a) If you start with 150 g of Fe203 as the
limiting reagent, what is the theoretical yield of Fe? (b) If the actual yield of Fe in your test
was 87.9 g, what was the percent yield? Answers: (a) 105 g Fe, (b) 83.7%

EXPRESSION OF CONCENTRATION IN GASES

CONCENTRATION OF A GAS
The concentration of a gas, A, in a gas mixture, A+B, (usually in a confined space) can be
expressed by means of the mole fraction
The volume of a gas is very sensitive to the temperature and pressure.

T and P must be always indicated (if not, standard conditions must be supposed).
Air contains 78% of nitrogen (N2) and 21% of oxygen (O2 ), which means that in every
100 moles of air there are 78 moles of N2 and 21 moles of O2 (There are also trace
amount of Ar, CO2 and other gases).
N2 mole fraction=78/100=0.78
N2 mole % =(78/100)x100%=78%
O2 mole fraction=21/100=0.21
O2 mole % =(21/100)x100%=21%

PRESSURE AND CONCENTRATION OF A GAS
Pressure: the force exerted collectively by gas molecules colliding on the surface (in all
walls of a container) of unit area.
Within a same space (volume) at the same temperature, the more gas molecules there
are, the more intense the collision of these molecules on the wall, thus a higher pressure it
will be.
Ideal Gas Law (or Perfect Gas Law):
for most common gases (called ideal gases or perfect gases), the following relation is
observed:
P: absolute pressure (atm)

V: volume of gas (l)
n: number of mole of gas
T: absolute temperature (K, K =ºC + 273)
R: gas constant (0.082 atm·l/K·mol);

PARTIAL PRESSURE OF A GAS
If a gas mixture contains n1 moles of A, n2 moles of B, n3 moles of C,…, the mixture is
held in a container of vol. V and kept at temperature T, for each gas, we can write:
P
 n i
RT
Ptotal=P1+P2+P3+…
ntotal=n1+n2+n3+…
i
V
Pi is called partial pressure of a component i, which can be interpreted as ‘a fraction of
pressure’ contributed by each component to the overall pressure.
The pressure/volume ratio of gases in a mixture is directly proportional to their mole ratio
The pressure/volume fraction of a gas in a mixture is proportional to its mole fraction
1 mol of any ideal gas under standard conditions (273 K and 1 atm) occupies 22,4 liters.

EXAMPLES
Example. Air contains 78% of N2 and 21% of O2 . Indicate the partial pressures.
if air pressure is 1 atm.,
- the N2 partial pressure PN = 0.78 atm
2
-the O2 partial pressure PO =0.21 atm
2
Example. A gas cylinder at 200 bar contains 5% hydrogen (H2) in Argon (Ar).
What is the mole fraction of each gas? What is the partial pressure of each gas?
Note. In gases, unless explicitally indicated, the concentration expressed in “%” must be
taken in volume, not weigth.
mole fraction: for H2: 5%=0.05 for Ar: (100%- 5%) = 95% = 0.95
n1 P n1
partial pressure:  1  P1  Ptotal
ntotal Ptotal ntotal
for H2: 0.05x200= 10 bar for Ar: 0.95x200= 190 bar

EXAMPLES
Example. Calculate from the ideal gas law the volume of 1 mole gas at 0°C and
20°C and 1 atm.
nRT 1(mole)  0.08206(litre  atm/mol  K)  273.14(K)
at 0°C V   22.4(litre)
P 1(atm)
nRT 1(mole)  0.08206(litre  atm/mol  K)  (273.14  20)(K)
at 20°C V   24.1(litre)
P 1(atm)
Example. The reaction 2NO + O2 = 2 NO2 occurs at 2 bar and 300°C. Initially there are
200 moles of NO and 200 moles of O2. After time t, 120 moles of NO is converted.
Calculate the partial pressure of each component in the gas phase at t, assuming the
pressure remains constant.

EXAMPLES
If a gas mixture contains n1 moles of A, n2 moles of B, n3 moles of C,…, the mixture is
held in a container of vol. V and kept at temperature T, for each gas, we can write:
P
 n i
RT
Ptotal=P1+P2+P3+…
ntotal=n1+n2+n3+…
i
V
Pi is called partial pressure of a component i, which can be interpreted as ‘a fraction of
pressure’ contributed by each component to the overall pressure.
The pressure/volume ratio of gases in a mixture is directly proportional to their mole ratio
The pressure/volume fraction of a gas in a mixture is proportional to its mole fraction
1 mol of any ideal gas under standard conditions (293 K and 1 atm) occupies 22,4 liters.

RELACIÓN DE PROBLEMAS (V)
1.- El carbonato cálcico, CaCO3(s) se descompone por calentamiento para generar CaO(s) y CO2(g).
Una muestra de CaCO3 se descompone, y el dióxido de carbono resultante se recoge en un frasco de
250 ml de capacidad. Tras la descomposición, el gas en el interior del frasco tiene una presión de 1.3
atm a una temperatura de 31ºC. ¿Cuántos moles de CO2 se han generado? Solución: 0.013 moles.
2.- En el ejercicio anterior, suponga la presión medida en el frasco es de 0.75 atmósferas. Indique
cuántos ramos de CaCO3 quedan, y el rendimiento de la reacción.
3.- Las pelotas de tenis se rellenan de aire o de N2 a presiones superiores a la atmosférica con objeto
de mejorar su bote. Si una pelota de tenis tiene un volumen de 144 cm3 y contiene 0.33 g de N2, ¿cuál
es la presión en su interior a una temperatura de 24ºC? Solución: 2 atm.
4.- La presión del gas en una bote de aerosol doméstico es de 1.5 atm a 25ºC. Asumiendo que el gas
en su interior es perfecto, ¿qué presión alcanzará si se lanza a una chimenea y se calienta hasta los
450ºC? Solución: 3.6 atm.
5.- La presión en las ruedas de un vehículo es de 2.2 atm. En un día frio a -15ºC, el volumen es de
3.25 x 103 m3. ¿Cuál será el volumen en un día de Agosto a 31ºC? Solución: 3.83 x 103 m3.
6.- El airbag de un coche se infla con N2 gracias a la descomposición rápida de la azida de sodio
según la reacción: 2 NaN3(s)  2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g). Si un airbag inflado tiene un volumen de 36 litros y
se llena de N2 hasta una presión de 1.15 atm, ¿cuántos gramos de NaN3 son necesarios
descomponer? Solución: 72 gramos.

RELACIÓN DE PROBLEMAS (VI)
7.- Una mezcla gaseosa hecha de 6.00 g de O2(g) y 9.00 g de metano, CH4, se introduce en un frasco
de 15.0 l de capacidad a 0ºC. ¿Cuál es la presión parcil de cada gas, y cuál será la presión total en el
frasco? Solución: P(O2): 0.281 atm; P(CH4): 0.841 atm. P(total) = 1.122 atm.
8.- ¿Cuál es la presión total resultante de mezclar 2.00 g de H2 y 8.00 g de N2 a 273 K en un frasco de
10 litros? Solución: 2.86 atm.
9.- Un recipiente de 2.5 litros de capacidad se llena completamente de aire a 300ºC hasta alcanzar una
presión de 3 atmósferas. Indique el número de moles de O2 en el recipiente. Repita el experimento
suponiendo que introducimos en el recipiente NO2, que a la temperatura indicada se descompone
completamente siguiendo la reacción: 2 NO2  N2 + 2 O2.
10.- A partir de los datos proporcionados por la sonda Voyager 1, los científicos han determinado la
composición de la atmósfera de Titán (el mayor satélite de Jupiter). La presión total de la superficie de
Titán es 1220 torr. La atmósfera está formada por un porcentaje molar del 82% de N2, 12% de Ar y 6%
de CH4. Calcular la presión parcial de cada uno de los citados gases en la atmósfera de Titán.
Solución: 1 x 103 torr de N2; 1.5 x 102 torr de Ar; 73 torr de CH4.
11.- Una bombona de buceo contiene 0.29 kg de O2 comprimido en un volumen de 2.3 L. Calcular: (a)
la presión del gas contenido a 9ºC, (b) el volumen que ocuparía a 26ºC y a una presión de 0.95 atm.
Solución: (a) 91 atm. (b) 2.3 x 102 L.


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INTRODUCTION

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

• changes in structure & composition

• energy involved in these changes

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Law of conservation of energy:

Law of conservation of mass:

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Anything that occupies space and has mass.

¿Petrol inside rocks? ¿A molecule of water?

¿Gas inside rocks? ¿An atom of oxygen?

¿Air? ¿An electron?

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Physical Metallic Physical Chemical

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

(Plutonium) (Mercury) (Chlorine)

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

(Ruby) (Moon rock)

(Bronze) (Agate) (Carbon) (Ice)

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Pure substances: have a definite chemical composition and properties.

Compound: pure substance which can be further broken down by

Element: pure substance which cannot be further broken down by

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Composition is variable Composition is fixed

Properties are related to those of Properties are unlike those of its

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

ELEMENT SYMBOL ELEMENT SYMBOL

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Amount of substance (n): the number of specified entities of a pure

Electric current (I): rate of transfer of electricity

Luminous intensity (Iv): rate of transfer of light energy

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Area Length x length m2

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

ENTITY NUMBER OF ENTITIES MASS (g)

Hg 6.02 x 1023 atoms 200.59

KCl 6.02 x 1023 molecules 74.56

SO42- 6.02 x 1023 ions 96.06

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Precise Precise Imprecise

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Size: 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers (1nm = 1x10-9m)

Mass: H atom = 1.67x10-24g = 1.008 atomic mass units (a.m.u.)

Electrical charge: neutral

Composition: contains electrons, protons, and neutrons (except H).

Particle Mass (a.m.u.) Charge

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Nucleus: protons and neutrons

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Atomic number: number of protons in an atom. Symbol: Z

Atomic mass: mass of an atom in a.m.u. (~number of protons +

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)

Mass number Number and sign of charge

Atomic number Number of atoms in entity

Chemistry for Mechanical Engineering (2015-2016)