INTRODUCTION

MORPHOLOGY

There is no doubt that knowledge of grammar rules is essential for the mastery of a
language. Knowing about grammar knowing what a verb is, what the present or past tense is
of limited use unless you know how to put this knowledge to work. Moreover, grammar is just
one area of what is called ‘linguistic competence’, other areas being, for example, knowledge
of vocabulary and of phonology. Linguistic competence, in turn, is just one of a number of
competences that contribute to overall communicative competence. We are required to use our
knowledge of the language system in order to achieve some kind of communicative purpose.

Nevertheless, the grammar of a language is highly generative it is the basis from which
it is possible to construct an infinite number of sentences. Grammatical knowledge (whether
explicitly taught or picked up unconsciously) is probably therefore a necessary though not
sufficient condition for language acquisition.
Grammar is traditionally divided into two different but inter - related areas of study:
morphology and syntax. The word morphology comes from Greek morphé = form + logos =
word (The term is also used in other contexts, e.g. in biology.) Morphology is the study of
how words are formed out of smaller units (traditionally called morphemes). It focuses on the
structure of words, dealing with inflectional endings. Morphology deals with the internal
structure of words, in other words, morphology is the study of morphemes and the way they
are joined together to make words.
A. Morpheme
The term morpheme is used to refer to the smallest, indivisible units of semantic
content or grammatical function which words are made up of. As the smallest linguistic units
they have both form and meaning. The meaning of the morpheme is called sememe. The form
of the morpheme is called formeme. The term morpheme represents an abstract unit. It is the
unit of “langue” of the language system. Its concrete realizations are called morphs. Thus, the
past tense morpheme –ed is found in three different pronunciations /d/ /t/ /id/. Since these
three elements all represent a single morpheme, they are called morphs. If different morphs
represent the same morpheme, they are called allomorphs of that morpheme. There are 2 basic
types of morphemes:

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 1. Free morphemes can stand freely by themselves as independent words (e.g. fast, build,
tiger, free)
2. Bound morphemes can´t stand freely and independently, like prefixes and suffixes.
They are bound or connected to free morphemes. Bound morphemes can be further divided
into 2 groups:
a. Derivational morphemes - allow us to make new words in the language and to change
one word class into another( quiet -quietness, mystery - mysterious). They are affixes,
further subdivided into prefixes (re-open, un-happy), infixes (kangaroo – kanga-
bloody-roo, impossible – im-fuckin-possible and suffixes (happi-ness, open-er)
b. Inflectional morphemes - don´t create new words or word classes but they show the
grammatical function of a word. They always come at the end of the word after
derivational morphemes. There are 8 of them.
4 attached to verbs, 2 attached to nouns, 2 attached to Adj
-s (walks) -s (rivers) -er (greater)
-ing (teaching) -´s (boy´s) -est (greatest)
-ed (jumped)
-en (given) - irreg. V

B. Conversion
Lexemes can change their word class without the addition of an affix - a process
known as a conversion. (V to N - to swim, have a swim, Adj to N - national, N to V -
bottle, to bottle, Adj. to V - dirty, empty -to dirty, to empty)

C. Compounds
A compound is a unit of vocabulary which consists of more than one lexical stem.
On the surface, there appear to be two or more lexemes present, but in fact the parts are
functioning as a single item, which has its own meaning and grammar. So, flower-pot
doesn´t refer to a flower and a pot, but to a single object. It is pronounced as a unit, with a
single main stress.

D. Word Classes - Parts Of Speech

All words can be divided into two major types:

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1. Content words allow us to create an image of some kind in our minds. Thus, if we hear
the word tiger we are able to imagine a picture of a large striped cat. Content words
are nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.
2. Function words serve only to show a relationship to or between content words.
Function words are pronouns, auxiliary verbs, determiners, prepositions and
conjunctions.

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 WEEKLY REPORTS
1 Introduction

The term ‘word’ is part of everyone’s vocabulary. We all think we understand what
words are. What’s more, we are right to think this, at some level. In this book not suggest that
our ordinary notion of the word needs to be replaced with something radically different.
After reading this book, you will still go on using the term ‘word’ in talking about language,
both in everyday conversation and in more formal contexts, such as literary criticism or
English language study but, in these more formal contexts, you will talk about words more
confidently, knowing exactly which ingredients of the notion you have in mind at any one
time, and able where necessary to use appropriate terminology in order to make your meaning
absolutely clear.
A good way of teasing apart the ingredients in the notion ‘word’ is by explicitly contrasting
them. Here are the contrasts that we will be looking at, and the chapters where they will be
discussed:
• Words as units of meaning versus units of sentence structure (Chapters 2, 6, 7)
• Words as pronounceable entities (‘word forms’) versus more abstract entities (sets of
word forms) (Chapters 3, 4, 5)
• Inflectionally related word forms (forms of the same ‘word’) versus derivationally
related words (different ‘words’ with a shared base) (Chapters 4, 5)
• The distinction between compound words and phrases (Chapters 6, 7)
• The relationship between the internal structure of a word and its meaning (Chapter 7)
• Productive versus unproductive word-forming processes (Chapter 8)
• Historical reasons for some of the contemporary divisions within English morphology,
especially Germanic versus Romance wordformation processes (Chapter 9).

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 2 Words, sentences and dictionaries

When a baby begins to speak, the way the excited mother reports what has
happened is: their baby has said her (or his) first word!’ We would be surprised at a
mother who described little their baby first utterance as a sentence. Sentences come later,
we are inclined to feel, when words are strung together meaningfully. That is not to say
that a sentence must always consist of more than one word. One-word commands such as
‘Go!’ or ‘Sit!’, although they crop up relatively seldom in everyday conversation or
reading, are not in any way odd or un-English. Nevertheless, learning to talk in early
childhood seems to be a matter of putting words together, not of taking sentences apart.
There is a clear sense, then, in which words seem to be the buildingblocks of
language. Even as adults, there are quite a few circumstances in which we use single
words outside the context of any actual or reconstructable sentence. Here are some
examples:
• Warning shouts, such as ‘Fire!’
• Conventional commands, such as ‘Lights!’, Camera!’, ‘Action!’
• Items on shopping lists, such as ‘carrots’, ‘cheese’, ‘eggs’.

A word is not just a building-block of sentences: it is a building-block with a

meaning that is unpredictable, or at least sufficiently unpredictable that learners of
English, and even sometimes native speakers, may need to consult a dictionary in order to
discover it.
A. Words as types and words as tokens

The type–token distinction is relevant to the notion ‘word’ in this way. Sentences
(spoken or written) may be said to be composed of wordtokens, but it is clearly not word-
tokens that are listed in dictionaries. It would be absurd to suggest that each occurrence of
the word next in (1) merits a separate dictionary entry. Words as listed in dictionaries
entries are, at one level, types, not tokens – even though, at another level, one may talk of
distinct tokens of the same dictionary entry, inasmuch as the entry for month in one copy
of the Concise Oxford Dictionary is a different token from the entry for month in another
copy.
B. Words with predictable meanings

There are some words whose sound seems to reflect their meaning fairly directly.
These include so-called onomatopoeic words, such as words for animal cries: bow-wow,

5
miaow, cheep, cock-a-doodle-doo. But even here convention plays a large part. sound
symbolism is sets of words in which some similarity in sound (say, in the cluster of
consonants at the beginning) seems to reflect a vague similarity in meaning, such as
smoothness or wetness or both in the set of words slip, slop, slurp, slide, slither, sleek,
slick, slaver, slug.
Any words that are composed of independently identifiable parts, where the
meaning of the parts is sufficient to determine the meaning of the whole word. Here is an
example. Most readers of this book have probably never encountered the word dioecious
(also spelled diecious), a botanical term meaning ‘having male and female flowers on
separate plants’. (It contrasts with monoecious, meaning ‘having male and female flowers,
or unisexual flowers, on the same plant’.) sound symbolism is sets of words in which
some similarity in sound (say, in the cluster of consonants at the beginning) seems to
reflect a vague similarity in meaning, such as smoothness or wetness or both in the set of
words slip, slop, slurp, slide, slither, sleek, slick, slaver, slug.
C. Non-words with unpredictable meanings

Non-word with unpredictable meaning divided int three types that are idiom
collocation and proverb. for example of idiom, red herring is an idiom meaning ‘irrelevant
argument’, so that and mean the same thing. Other noun-like idioms are white elephant
‘unwanted object’, dark horse ‘competitor whose strength is unknown’, Aunt Sally ‘target
of mockery’. Collocation white wine
• White coffee
• White noise
• White man

Semantically, these phrases are by no means totally idiosyncratic: they denote a

kind of wine, coffee, noise and man, respectively. Nevertheless, in a broad sense they
may count as idiomatic, because the meaning that white has in them is not its usual
meaning; rather, when collocated with wine, coffee, noise and man respectively, it has the
meanings ‘yellow’, ‘brown (with milk)’ (at least in British usage), ‘containing many
frequencies with about equal amplitude’, and ‘belonging to an ethnic group whose
members’ skin colour is typically pinkish or pale brown’. Proverbs A proverb is a
traditional saying, syntactically a sentence, whose conventional interpretation differs
from what is suggested by the literal meaning of the words it contains. Examples are: Too
many cooks spoil the broth. ‘Having too may people involved in a task makes it harder to
complete.’

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7
 3 A word and its parts: roots, affixes and their shapes

Morphemes are smaller parts of words. (The area of grammar concerned with the
structure of words and with relationships between words involving the morphemes that
compose them is technically called morphology, from the Greek word morphe ‘form, shape’;
and morphemes can be thought of as the minimal units of morphology.) morphemes can
devide into two kinds, namely free morpheme and bound morpheme.
- Free morphemes is morphemes that can stand on their own.
e.g. : read, hear, large, perform, white and dark
- Bound morpheme is morphemes that can’t stand on their own
e.g. : less, leg, ify, ity

A name commonly given to such bound morphemes is cranberry morpheme. For example
strawberry, blackberry and blueberry.
Kinds of morpheme: root, affix, combining form
1. Root
Root is the basic words which can stand alone without affixes .Example : read,
perform ,brain .
2. Affix
Affix is term form prefixes and suffixes . broadly speaking, for all morphemes
that are not roots . Prefixes is non-morphemes that precede the root.
Example : enlarge = En – large En = prefix Large = root
Suffixes is non-root morpheme which follow the root or placed after the root.
Example : performance Perform = rootMance = suffix
3. Combining form
Combining form is combination of two roots or more to make new words .
Example: Photo+graphy = photo graphy
Micro + film = microfilm
In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme, that is, when a unit of
meaning varies in sound without changing the meaning. Allomorphs is in English, -ed marks
the past tense, but it doesn’t always have the same pronounciation. Speakers pronounce it as
[t] in helped but [d] in cubed. Past-tense [t] and [d] are simply two allomorphs of the same
morpheme /d/.

Identifying morphemes independently of meaning

A somewhat different kind of lexical conditioning can be introduced by means of the
prefix re- and its possible allomorphs. This prefix can be added to verbs quite freely,
contributing the meaning ‘again’, as in rewrite, reread, repaint, revisit. Many English words

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(mainly verbs and words related to them) form a complex network, with what looks like a
prefix–root structure (the root being usually bound), but without any clear consistent meaning
being ascribable to either the prefix or the root. Here is just a small part of that network:
refer prefer confer defer transfer infer
reduce conduce deduce induce
revoke convoke invoke
reserve preserve conserve deserve
relate collate translate

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 4 A word and its forms: inflection

Inflectional morphemes indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word.

A. Regular and irregular inflection
The plural form of any countable noun will be formed by adding to the singular
form the suffix –s for example, CHILD has the plural form children, THOOTH has the
plural teeth, and MAN has the plural men.
a. Forms of nouns
Cat – cats
Apple – apples
Book- books
b. Forms of pronouns and determiners
Pronoun : I/me, she/her, we/us, they/them, you/you, he/him,it/it etc.
Determiners : a, an, the, this, these etc.
Example : This pianist and these pianists
He loves her.
She loves him
c. Forms of verbs
GIVE
a) Third person singular present tense: gives
Example : Mary gives a lecture every year.
b) Past tense: gave
Example : Mary gave a lecture last week.
c) progressive participle: giving
Example : Mary is giving a lecture today.
d) Perfect or passive participle: given
Example :Mary has given a lecture today.
The lecture is always given by Mary.
e) Basic form (used everywhere else): give
Example : Mary may give a lecture.
Mary wants to give a lecture.
Mary and John give a lecture every year.
d. Forms of adjectives
Positive Comparative Superlative

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happy happier happiest
long longer longest
pure purer purest
untidy untidier untidiest
good better best

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 5 A word and its relatives: derivation

Derivational morpheme is an affix—a group of letters added before the beginning

(prefix) or after the end (suffix)—of a root or base word to create a new word or a new form
of an existing word.
A. Adverbs derived from adjectives
Simple or monomorphemic adverbs, though few in number, include some very
common words (OFTEN, SELDOM,NEVER,SOON), and some other adverbs are
morphologically complex without containing -ly (NOWHERE, EVERYWHERE,
TODAY,YESTERDAY). Also, there are common adverbs that are formed by conversion:
FAST (as in The car was driven fast) and HARD (as in They worked hard), derived from
the adjective FAST (as in a fast car) and HARD (as in hard work).
B. Nouns derived from nouns
• ‘small X’: -let, -ette, -ie

e.g. droplet, booklet, cigarette, doggie

• ‘female X’: -ess, -ine

e.g. waitress, princess, heroine

• ‘inhabitant of X’: -er, -(i)an

e.g. Londoner, New Yorker, Texan, Glaswegian

• ‘state of being an X’: -ship, -hood
e.g. kingship, ladyship, motherhood, priesthood
• ‘devotee of or expert on X’: -ist, -ian

e.g. contortionist,, Marxist, logician, historian

C. Nouns derived from members of other word classes
o -ity,
e.g. purity, equality, ferocity, sensitivity
o -ness,
e.g. goodness, tallness, fierceness, sensitiveness
o -ism,
e.g. radicalism, conservatism
Even more numerous are suffixes for deriving nouns from verbs. Here are just
a few:
-ance, -ence : performance, ignorance, reference, convergence

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 -ment : announcement, commitment, development, engagement
-ing : painting, singing, building, ignoring
-((a)t)ion : denunciation, commission, organisation, confusion
-al : refusal, arrival, referral, committal
-er : painter, singer, organiser, grinder
D. Adjectives derived from adjectives
Un- , in-
eatable/uneatable
edible/inedible
readable/unreadable
egible/illegible
lawful/unlawful
legal/illegal
touchable/untouchable
tangible/intangible

E. Adjectives derived from members of other word classes

Further suffixes that commonly form adjectives from verbs, with their basic
meanings, are:
-able ‘able to be Xed’: breakable, readable, reliable, watchable
-ent, -ant ‘tending to X’: repellent, expectant, conversant
-ive ‘tending to X’: repulsive, explosive, speculative
Suffixes that form adjectives from nouns are more numerous. Here are some:
-ful : joyful, hopeful, helpful, meaningful
-less : joyless, hopeless, helpless, meaningless
-al : original, normal, personal, national
-ish : boyish, loutish, waspish, selfish
F. Verbs derived from verbs
Most prominent are re- and the negative or ‘reversive’ prefixes un-, de- and dis-, as
in the following examples:
o Paint, enter repaint, re-enter
o Tie, tangle untie, untangle
o Compose, sensitise decompose, desensitise

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 o Entangle, believe disentangle, disbelieve
Intransitive Transitive
LIE (past lay) LAY (past laid)
RISE (past rose) RAISE(past raised)
FALL(past fell) FELL (past felled)
SIT (past sat) SET (past set)
G. Verbs derived from members of other word classes
Nouns Verbs
Bath Bathe
Breath Breathe
House(...s) House(...z)
Wreath Wreathe

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 6 Compound words, blends and phrasal words

A. Compound verbs
Verbs formed by compounding are much less usual than verbs derived by
affixation. Nevertheless, a variety of types exist which may be distinguished according
to their structure:
- verb–verb (VV): stir-fry, freeze-dry
- noun–verb (NV): hand-wash, air-condition, steam-clean
- adjective–verb (AV): dry-clean, whitewash
- preposition–verb (PV): underestimate, outrun, overcook
Compound adjectives On the analogy above, here are some examples of right-headed
compound adjectives:
- noun–adjective (NA): sky-high, coal-black, oil-rich
- adjective–adjective (AA): grey-green, squeaky-clean, red-hot
- preposition–adjective (PA): underfull, overactive
B. Compound Nouns
It is with nouns that compounding really comes into its own as a word forming
process in English. Example :
- verb–noun (VN): swearword, drophammer, playtime
- noun–noun (NN): hairnet, mosquito net, butterfly net, hair restorer
- adjective–noun (AN): blackboard, greenstone, faintheart
- preposition–noun (PN): in-group, outpost, overcoat
C. Headed and headless compounds
N-type compound nouns resemble secondary compounds in that the noun at the
right is interpreted as the object of the verb:
- Pickpocket
- Killjoy
- Cutpurse
Nouns consist of a verb and a preposition or adverb:
- Take-off
- Sell-out
- Wrap-up
- Sit-in

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 Headless adjectives, there are quite a number consisting of a preposition and a
noun: overland, in-house, with-profits, offshore, downmarket, upscale, underweight,
over-budget.
The word class of these headless compounds is not determined by any element
inside them (that they have no internal ‘centre’, one might say) has led some
grammarians to call them exocentric – that is, having a ‘centre’ outside themselves,
figuratively speaking. According to this approach, headed compounds would be
regarded as having an internal ‘centre’; and, sure enough, they are sometimes called
endocentric.
D. Blends and acronyms
A kind of compound where at least one component is reproduced only partially.
These are known as blends. A straightforward example is smog, blended from smoke
and fog; a more elaborate one is chortle (first used by Lewis Carroll in Through the
Looking Glass), blended from chuckle and snort.
Blends made up of initial letters are known as acronyms, of which well-known
examples are NATO (for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), ANZAC (for Australian
and New Zealand Army Corps), RAM (for random access memory), SCSI
(pronounced scuzzy, from small computer systems interface), and AIDS (from
acquired immune deficiency syndrome).
E. Compounds containing bound combining forms
The vocabulary of English, especially in scientific and technical areas, includes
a huge repertoire of compounds that are made up of bound roots, known as combining
forms. Example, anthropology, sociology, cardiogram, electrocardiogram, retrograde,
retrospect, plantigrade.
F. Phrasal words
An example of a phrasal word is the noun jack-in-the-box. Structurally this has
the appearance of a noun phrase in which the head noun, jack, is modified by a
prepositional phrase, in the box, exactly parallel to the phrases people in the street or
(a) book on the shelf.

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 7 A word and its structure

A. More elaborate word forms: multiple affixation

Many derived words contain more than one affix. Examples are unhelpfulness
and helplessness. Successive processes of affixation (with N, V and A standing for
noun, verb and adjective respectively): (1) help N + -ful → helpfulA un- + helpful →
unhelpfulA unhelpful + -ness → unhelpfulness N (2) help N + -less → helplessA
helpless + -ness → helplessness N
B. More elaborate word forms: compounds within compounds

Compound is a word and that compounds contain words, it makes sense that,
in some compounds, one or both of the components should itself be a compound – and
(8), with its most natural interpretation, shows that this is indeed possible, at least with
compound nouns. For example is window oven cleaner. Window oven cleaner is not
naturally interpreted to mean something that cleans both windows and ovens; rather, it
means something that cleans window ovens (that is, ovens that have a see-through
panel in the door). However these examples are to be analysed structurally, their
existence seems to show that, in derivation and compounding as well as in inflection,
semantic pressures can sometimes enforce the existence of an expression with a
certain meaning, and the expression chosen for that meaning need not be structurally
ideal. The language’s acceptance of this expression, nevertheless, shows that, although
word-structure guides interpretation, it does not dictate it.

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 8 Productivity
A. Kinds of productivity

Productivity in shape: formal generality and regularity

The suffix -ness is formally general in the sense that, when attached to most
adjectives, it yields an abstract noun which is either in common use (greyness, richness etc.)
or would not need to be listed as a lexical item because its existence is predictable, given the
existence of the adjective. The suffix -ness is also formally regular, in the sense that one can
specify what sort of structure an adjective must have in order to be a possible base for it –
namely, any structure whatever. That is, whatever adjective -ness is attached to, the result
sounds like a possible noun, even though it may not be one that is conventionally used (e.g.
sensitiveness, pureness, longness).
B. Productivity in meaning: semantic regularity

A derivational process is semantically regular if the contribution that it makes to the

meaning of the lexemes produced by it is uniform and consistent. An example is adverb-
forming -ly. This is not only formally regular (like -ness) but also semantically regular, in that
it almost always contributes the meaning ‘in an X fashion’ or ‘to an X degree’. Formal status,
by comparison with other noun-forming suffixes, as shown in

-ion -al -ment -ance Stress shift

Admit  
Commit   
Permit  
Remit   
Transmit  ? ?
(The question marks indicate words which are not in my active vocabulary but which I
would not be surprised to hear; indeed, transmittance exists as a technical term in physics,
meaning ‘measure of the ability to transmit radiation’.)
Such a situation exists with some nouns that classify domestic animals according
to sex and age:
Species Horse Pig Cow Sheep Goose
Adult : Male Stallion Boar Bull Ram Gander
Female Mare Sow Cow Ewe Goose
Young Foal Piglet Calf Lamb Gosling

C. Semantic blocking

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 Let us define semantic blocking as the phenomenon whereby the existence of a
word (whether simple or derived) with a particular meaning inhibits the morphological
derivation, even by formally regular means, of another word with precisely that meaning.
For a nice illustration of the operation of semantic blocking, consider the nouns
corresponding to the adjectives curious and glorious. The suffix -ous yields a formally
regular base for the suffixation of -ity, so we might expect the corresponding nouns to be
curiosity and ‘gloriosity’. In fact, curiosity is in regular use but ‘gloriosity’ is not. The
reason is that ‘gloriosity’ is blocked semantically by the noun glory, which (so to speak)
pre-empts the relevant meaning. On the other hand, there is no noun such as ‘cury’ that
might block the derivation of curiosity from curious.
D. Productivity in compounding
The semantic irregularity of primary compounds does not entail any formal
irregularity, however. In fact, any two nouns whatever can be juxtaposed in English to
produce a formally acceptable root compound. For example, bóat moon and brídge cloud,
with stress on the first element as indicated, are possible English nouns even though
neither has ever been used (so far as I know) and it is not clear what either of them would
mean except in the vaguest terms (‘moon associated somehow with boats’ and ‘cloud
associated somehow with bridges’).
E. Measuring productivity: the significance of neologisms
A process to be productive, in one sense, it should be a process that can be used to
form brand new lexemes, or neologisms. Such studies shed interesting new light on the
relationship between the familar pair -ity and -ness. In the Cobuild corpus of about
eighteen million English word-tokens (based at Birmingham University and used by the
dictionary publisher Collins), the number of word-types exhibiting -ity (roughly 400) is
not greatly less than the number exhibiting -ness (roughly 500).

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 9 The historical sources of English word formation

A. Germanic, Romance and Greek vocabulary

English is a West Germanic language, related closely to the other West Germanic
languages (Dutch, German, Frisian and Afrikaans) and less closely to the North Germanic
languages (Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and Faeroese). the vocabulary of
English contains a high proportion of words borrowed from French – a much higher
proportion than in the other Germanic languages.
French is one of the so-called Romance languages, descended from Latin, along
with Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, Provençal, Romansh (spoken in Switzerland), Italian
(with its many diverse dialects), and Romanian. Most words borrowed from French
therefore come from Latin indirectly.
Another Indo-European root that has reached modern English vocabulary through
three distinct sources of borrowing as well as by direct inheritance is the root from which
the verb bear is derived. This shows up in Latin as fer- and in Greek as pher-, both
meaning ‘carry’.
A striking feature of these words is that the inherited Germanic forms, heart and
bear, are free, whereas in the forms borrowed from Latin, French or Greek the cognate
roots are bound. some borrowed roots are free, and a few inherited ones are bound. It is
still true, however, that most of the roots that are bound in all contexts (that is, most of the
roots that have no free allomorphs) do not belong to the vocabulary that English has
inherited from its ProtoGermanic ancestor.
B. The rarity of borrowed inflectional morphology
English does not use French or Latin inflectional affixes on verbs borrowed from
those languages. If English speakers import a new verb V from French, they will not
import just its past tense form (say), since (as explained in Chapter 4) we expect to be able
to express in English not only the grammatical word ‘past tense of V’ but also the
grammatical words ‘third person singular present of V’, ‘perfect participle of V’, and so
on.

Source language Singular Plural

Greek phenomenon phenomena
schema schemata
Latin cactus cacti
formula formulae

20
 datum data
Hebrew cherub cherubim
kibbutz kibbutzim

C. The reduction in inflectional morphology

These two numbers and four cases yielded a pattern of eight grammatical words
for each noun lexeme,
Singular Plural
Nominative nama ‘name’ naman
Accusative naman naman
Genitive naman namena
Dative naman namum

D. Characteristics of Germanic and non-Germanic derivation

Germanic Romance or Greek -ish -((a)t)ion -ed -(i)an -en -(i)fy -er -al -hood -ance,
-ence -ie (as in doggie) -ar -let -ent, -ant -ship -ess -y (as in misty) -ette -ine -ise -ism –ist
-ment dedis-
E. Fashions in morphology
The first is a fashion for certain Latin- and Greek-derived prefixes; the second is a
fashion for a certain kind of headless compound.
Latin- and Greek-derived prefixes ,since the nineteenth century a small
countertrend has set in, involving the Latin-derived prefixes super- and sub- and Greek-
derived ones such as hyper-, macro-, micro- and mega-. Words such as superman
(originally a translation by George Bernard Shaw of Nietzsche’s German coining
Übermensch), superstar, super-rich and supercooling illustrate the use with free Germanic
roots of a prefix that was once typical with Latin-derived roots, often bound, as in
supersede and superimpose.
Headless or exocentric compound nouns such as redhead, lazybones and
pickpocket do not reflect productive patterns in modern English. It would be a rash writer
or speaker who coined a word such as climbrock or longneck, expecting the reader or
hearer to interpret it unthinkingly as meaning ‘rock climber’ or ‘person with a long neck’.
However, there is another kind of exocentric compound noun involving a verb and an
adverb or preposition, illustrated by write-off, call-up, take-over and breakdown.

21
 10 Conclusion: words in English and in languages generally

In this chapter explain the previous material from chapter 1-9. Give the conclusion about
all of the chapter that we learn in morphology book.
A. A puzzle : disentangling lexemes, word forms and lexical, in this unit explain about
chapter I.
B. Lexeme and lexical items : possible reasons for their overlap in English.
This unit explain the relationship between lexemes and lexical items. e.g. : sang, sung
C. Lexemes and lexical items : the situation outside English
This unit give the example of words/language that not from English but other kind like
Vietnamese and French.
Example : English French
Teacup Tasse a the (cup to tea)
Tablewin Vin de table (wine of table)
D. Lexemes and word forms : the situation outside English

22
 MINI DICTIONARY AND PUZZLE
Theme : Social
A
Accomodation /əˌkäməˈdāsh(ə)n/: a room,
group of rooms, or building in which someone
may live or stay.
Activisim /ˈaktəˌvizəm/: the policy or action of
using vigorous campaigning to bring about
political or social change."growing activism on
the abortion issue"
Activistnoun /ˈæk.tɪ.vɪst/ /ˈæk.tə.vɪst/:a person w
ho believes strongly in political or social change a
nd takes part in activities such
as public protests to try to make this happen
Activity noun /ækˈtɪv.ə.ti/ /ækˈtɪv.ə.tti/:
the situation in which a lot of things
are happening or people are moving around
Advance verb /ədˈvɑːns/ /ədˈvæns/:to go
or move something forward, or
to develop or improve something
Altruism noun /ˈæl.tru.ɪ.zəm/ /ˈæl.tru.ɪ.zəm/:
willingness to do things
that bring advantages to others, even if
it results in disadvantage for yourself
Amnesty /ˈamnəstē/:noun an official pardon for
people who have been convicted of political
offenses.verb agrant an official pardon to
Antisocial adjective/ˌæn.tiˈsəʊ.ʃəl/ /ˌæn.tti
ˈsoʊ.ʃəl/:harmful to society
Apathy noun/ˈæp.ə.θi/ /
ˈæp.ə.θi/:behaviour that shows no interest or ene
rgy and shows that someone is unwilling to
take action, especially over something important
Assassinate verb /əˈsæs.ɪ.neɪt/ /ə
ˈsæs.ə.neɪt/:to kill someone famous or import
ant
Assimilationnoun /əˌsɪm.ɪˈleɪ.ʃən/ /əˌsɪm.ə
ˈleɪ.ʃən/:the process of becoming a part, or
making someone become a part, of
a group, country, society, etc.
Associate verb /əˈsəʊ.si.eɪt/ /ə
ˈsoʊ.ʃi.eɪt/:to connect someone or something
in your mind with someone or something else
Associationnoun /əˌsəʊ.siˈeɪ.ʃən/ /əˌsoʊ.si
ˈeɪ.ʃən/:a group of people who work together
in a single organization for
a particular purpose
Aware adjective/əˈweər/ /ə
ˈwer/:knowing that something exists, or
having knowledge or experience of
a particular thing
Awareness noun/əˈweə.nəs/ /ə
ˈwer.nəs/:knowledge that something exists,
or understanding of a situation or subject at
the present time based on information or exp
erience
B
Battle noun /ˈbæt.əl/ /
ˈbætt.əl/:a fight between armed forces
Barragenoun /ˈbær.ɑːʒ/ /bəˈrɑːʒ/:the action o
f continuously firing large guns to protect sold
iers advancing on an enemy
Bilingualism noun /baɪˈlɪŋ.ɡwəl.ɪ.zəm/ /baɪ
ˈlɪŋ.ɡwəl.ɪ.zəm/: the fact of being able to use
23
Aristocracynoun /ær.ɪˈstɒk.rə.si/ /ˌer.ə
ˈstɑː.krə.si/:a class of people who hold high social
rank
Boycott verb /ˈbɔɪ.kɒt/ /
ˈbɔɪ.kɑːt/:to refuse to buy a product or
take part in an activity as a way
of expressing strong disapproval
Brokenadjective /ˈbrəʊ.kən/ /
ˈbroʊ.kən/:damaged, no longer able to work
C
careernoun /kəˈrɪər/ /kəˈrɪr/:the job or series of
jobs that you do
during your working life, especially if
you continue to
get better jobs and earn more money
castenoun /kɑːst/
/kæst/:a system of dividing Hindu society into cla
sses, or any of these classes
children noun /ˈtʃɪl.drən/ /ˈtʃɪl.drən/:plural
of child
citizennoun/ˈsɪt.ɪ.zən/ /ˈsɪtt.ə.zən/:a person who
is a member of a particular country and who
has rights because of being born there or
because of being given rights, or
a person who lives in a particular town or city
citizenshipnoun[/ˈsɪt.ɪ.zən.ʃɪp/ /ˈsɪtt.ə.zən.ʃɪp/:the
state of being a member of
a particular country and having rights because of
it
civicadjective /sɪv.ɪk/ /ˈsɪv.ɪk/:of a town or city or
the people who live in it
clannoun/klæn/ /klæn/:a group of families, espe
cially in Scotland, who originally came from the
two languages equally well
colonynoun /ˈkɒl.ə.ni/ /ˈkɑː.lə.ni/:a country or
area controlled politically by a
more powerful country that is often far away
communismnoun /ˈkɒm.jə.nɪ.zəm/ /
ˈkɑː.m.jə.nɪ.zəm/:the belief in
a society without different social classes in
which
the methods of production are owned and con
trolled by all its members and
everyone works as much as they can
and receives what they need
competitionnoun /ˌkɒm.pəˈtɪʃ.ən/ /ˌkɑːm.pə
ˈtɪʃ.ən/:a situation in which someone
is trying to win something or be
more successful than someone else
confederacy/kənˈfed(ə)rəsē/:nouna league or
alliance, especially of confederate states.
conflictnoun/ˈkɒn.flɪkt/ /ˈkɑːn.flɪkt/:an active
disagreement between people with opposing
opinions or principles
conquistador /kônˌkēstəˈdôr,känˈkistə
ˌdôr/:nouna conqueror, especially one of the
Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru in the
16th century.
conservative/kənˈsərvədiv/:adjectiveholding
to traditional attitudes and values and
cautious about change or innovation, typically
in relation to politics or religion.
Continent /ˈkänt(ə)nənt/:Noun any of the
world's main continuous expanses of land
(Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe,
24
same family and have the same name
classnoun /klɑːs/ /klæs/:
a group of people within society who have the
same economic and social position
corporation/ˌkôrpəˈrāSH(ə)n/:nouna company or
group of people authorized to act as a single
entity (legally a person) and recognized as such in
law.
corruption /kəˈrəpSH(ə)n/:Noun dishonest or
fraudulent conduct by those in power, typically
involving bribery.
crusade/kroooˈsād/:nouna medieval military
expedition, one of a series made by Europeans to
recover the Holy Land from the Muslims in the
11th, 12th, and 13th centuries.verblead or take
part in an energetic and organized campaign
concerning a social, political, or religious issue.
culturenoun/ˈkʌl.tʃɚ/:the way
of life, especially the general customs and beliefs,
of a particular group of people at
a particular time
customnoun /ˈkʌs.təm/:a way of behaving or
a belief that has been established for a long time
currency/ˈkərənsē/: noun system of money in
general use in a particular country.
D
democracy/dəˈmäkrəsē/:nouna system of
government by the whole population or all the
eligible members of a state, typically through
elected representatives.
North America, South America).
contributionnoun /ˌkɑːn.trɪ
ˈbjuː.ʃən/:something that you contribute or do
to help produce or achieve something
together with other people, or to help make
something successful
dictator/ˈdikˌtādər/:nouna ruler with total
power over a country, typically one who has
obtained control by force.
discord/ˈdiskôrd/:noundisagreement between
people.
Discovery /dəˈskəv(ə)rē/:nounLAWthe
compulsory disclosure, by a party to an
action, of relevant documents referred to by
the other party.
Disease/dəˈzēz/:nouna disorder of structure
or function in a human, animal, or plant,
especially one that produces specific signs or
symptoms or that affects a specific location
and is not simply a direct result of physical
injury.
diversity/dəˈvərsədē,dīˈvərsədē/:nounthe
state of being diverse; variety.
division/dəˈviZHən/:noundisagreement
between two or more groups, typically
producing tension or hostility.
domain/dōˈmān/:nounan area of territory
owned or controlled by a ruler or
government.
donation/dōˈnāSH(ə)n/:Noun something that
is given to a charity, especially a sum of
money.
devastation/ˌdevəˈstāSH(ə)n/:noungreat
25
depression/dəˈpreSH(ə)n/:noun feelings of
severe despondency and dejection.
despair/dəˈsper/:Noun the complete loss or
absence of hope.
detente/dāˈtänt/:nounthe easing of hostility or
strained relations, especially between countries.
descendant/dəˈsendənt/:nouna person, plant, or
animal that is descended from a particular
ancestor
dynasty/ˈdīnəstē/:nouna line of hereditary rulers
of a country.
E
economy/əˈkänəmē/:noun the wealth and
resources of a country or region, especially in
terms of the production and consumption of
goods and services.
education/ˌejəˈkāSH(ə)n/:Noun the process of
receiving or giving systematic instruction,
especially at a school or university.
effect/əˈfekt/:nouna change which is a result or
consequence of an action or other cause.
emigrate/ˈeməˌɡrāt/:verbleave one's own
country in order to settle permanently in
another.
empire/ˈemˌpī(ə)r/:nounan extensive group of
states or countries under a single supreme
authority, formerly especially an emperor or
empress
enemy/ˈenəmē/:nouna person who is actively
opposed or hostile to someone or something.
expedition/ˌekspəˈdiSH(ə)n/:nouna journey or
voyage undertaken by a group of people with a
particular purpose, especially that of exploration,
destruction or damage.
developmentnoun /dɪˈvel.əp.mənt/:the proce
ss in which someone or
something grows or changes and becomes mo
re advanced
drastic/ˈdrastik/:adjlikely to have a strong or
far-reaching effect; radical and extreme.
duty/ˈd(y)ooodē/:Noun a moral or legal
obligation; a responsibility.
establishment/əˈstabliSHmənt/:nounthe
action of establishing something or being
established
etiquette/ˈedəkət,ˈedəˌket/:nounthe
customary code of polite behavior in society or
among members of a particular profession or
group.
event/əˈvent/:nouna planned public or social
occasion.
expansion/ikˈspanSHən/:nounthe action of
becoming larger or more extensive.
expedition/ˌekspəˈdiSH(ə)n/:nouna journey or
voyage undertaken by a group of people with
a particular purpose, especially that of
exploration, scientific research, or war.
F
Funeral /ˈfjuːnərəl/ : a (usually religious)
ceremony for burying or burning the body of a
dead person
Fiance /fɪˈɑːnseɪ/ : the man who a woman is
engaged to be married to
Fiancee /fiˈɑɑ ː n  .seɪ/ : the woman who a man
is engaged to be married to
Friendship /ˈfrɛndʃɪp/ : when two people are
26
scientific research, or war
epidemic/ˌepəˈdemik/:nouna widespread
occurrence of an infectious disease in a
community at a particular time
epoch/ˈepək/:nouna period of time in history or
a person's life, typically one marked by notable
events or particular characteristics.
era/ˈirə,ˈerə/:nouna long and distinct period of
history with a particular feature or characteristic.
Female /ˈfiːmeɪl/ : belonging or relating to
women, or the sex that can give birth to young or
produce eggs
Findings /ˈfaɪndɪŋz/ : a piece of information that
is discovered during an official examination of a
problem, situation or object
Fire pit /ˈfaɪə pɪt/ : a pit dug into the ground or
encased in a surrounding structure (as of
masonry or steel) in which a fire is kept burning
for cooking, warmth, etc.
Formations /fɔːˈmeɪʃənz/ : the way something is
naturally made or the way it has been arranged
Founds /faʊndz/ : to bring something into
existence
G
Gossip /ˈgɒsɪp/ : (a) conversation or reports
about other people's private lives which might
be unkind, disapproving or not true
Gentleman’s agreement /ˈʤɛntlmənz ə
ˈgriːmənt/ : an agreement which is based on
trust and is not written down
Go between /gəʊ bɪˈtwiːn/ : someone who takes
messages between people who are unable or
unwilling to meet
friends
Failure /ˈfeɪljə/ : when someone or something
does not succeed
Familiar community /fəˈmɪliə kəˈmjuːnɪti/ : a
group of people living in the same place, well
known from long or close association.
Factors /ˈfæktəz/ : a fact or situation which
influences the result of something
Features /ˈfiːʧəz/ : a typical quality or an
important part of something
Government /ˈgʌvnmənt/ : the group of people
who officially control a country
Guy /gaɪ/ : A man
Guideline /ˈgaɪdlaɪn/ : information intended to
advise people on how something should be
done or what something should be
Graduate / ˈgrædjʊət / : a person who has a
first degree from a university or college
Generation /ʤɛnəˈreɪʃən/ : all the people of
about the same age within a society or within a
particular family
Glamorous /ˈglæmərəs/ : attractive in an
exciting and special way
General /ˈʤɛnərəl/ : involving or relating to
most or all people, things or places, especially
when these are considered as a unit
H
Habit /ˈhæbɪt/ : something which you do often
and regularly, sometimes without knowing that
you are doing it
Honeymoon /ˈhʌnimuːn/ : a holiday taken by a
man and a woman immediately after their
marriage
Happiness /ˈhæpɪnɪs/ : the feeling of being
27
Gains /geɪnz/ : to get something that is useful,
that gives you an advantage, or that is in some
way positive, especially over a period of time
Gender /ˈʤɛndə/ : the physical and/or social
condition of being male or female
Genealogy /ˌʤiːnɪˈæləʤi/ : (the study of) the
history of the past and present members of a
family
Grid /grɪd/ : a pattern or structure made from
horizontal and vertical lines crossing each other
Historical /hɪsˈtɒrɪkəl/ : connected with the
study or representation of things from the
past
Holes /həʊlz/ : a mistake or problem in the
reasoning of an argument, discussion, plan,
etc
Hours /ˈaʊəz/ : a period of 60 minutes
Hypothesis /haɪˈpɒθɪsɪs/ : an idea or
explanation for something that is based on
known facts but has not yet been proved
Honorable /ˈɒnərəbl/ : honest and fair, or
deserving praise and respect
Homely /ˈhəʊmli/ : plain or ordinary, but
pleasant
Hospitable /ˈhɒspɪtəbl/ : friendly and
welcoming to guests and visitors
Homely /ˈhəʊmli/ : (of a person) unattractive
in appearance.
Harmonious /hɑːˈməʊniəs/ : friendly and
peaceful
I :The habitual committing of criminal acts or
Inheritance /ɪnˈhɛrɪtəns/ : money or objects
that someone gives you when they die
happy
Have the grace /hæv ðə greɪs/ : to be
so aware of what is proper as (to do something)
Household /ˈhaʊshəʊld/ : a group of people,
often a family, who live together
Heritage /ˈhɛrɪtɪʤ/ : features belonging to the
culture of a particular society, such as
traditions, languages or buildings, which still
exist from the past and which have a historical
importance
Interest /ˈɪntrɪst/ : the feeling of wanting to give
your attention to something or of wanting to be
involved with and to discover more about
something
Interpretation /ɪnˌtɜːprɪˈteɪʃən/ : an explanation
or opinion of what something means
Isolation /aɪsəʊˈleɪʃən/ : the condition of being
alone, especially when this makes you feel
unhappy
Isolated /ˈaɪsəleɪtɪd/ : feeling unhappy because of
not seeing or talking to other people
Insecure /ɪnsɪˈkjʊə/ : Insecure people have little
confidence and are uncertain about their own
abilities and about whether other people really
like them
J
Juvenile /ˈʤuːvɪnaɪl/ : formal or ilegal relating to
a young person who is not yet old enough to be
considered an adult
Juvenile delinquency /ˈʤuːvɪnaɪl dɪˈlɪŋkwənsi/
offenses by a young person, especialy one below
the age at which ordinaly criminal prosecution is
28
Influence /ˈɪnflʊəns/ : the power to have an
effect on people or things, or a person or thing
that is able to do this
Illustrate /ˈɪləstreɪt/ : to show the meaning or
truth of something more clearly, especially by
giving examples
Illustration /ɪləsˈtreɪʃən/ : an example that
explains or proves something
Implementation /ɪmplɪmɛnˈteɪʃən/ :
implementation of the law/agreement
Indicate /ˈɪndɪkeɪt/ : to show, point or make
clear in another way
K
Key performance indicator /kiːpɚˈfɔːr.məns
ˈɪn.də.keɪ.tɚ/: A metric that defines whether a
marketing campaign or other initiative has
succeeded or failed.
Kingdom /ˈkɪŋ.dəm/: the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
L connection’s recognition of another person’s skill,
Labor /ˈleɪ.bɚ/: the Labor Party, an Australian
political party that believes in social equality
and the rights of workers.
Landform /ˈlænd.fɔːrm/: a feature of Earth's
surface, such as a mountain range, plain, or
plateau
Large-scale maps /Lɑːrdʒˈskeɪl/ : maps that
provide more details about smaller areas and
measure distance in larger units.
Latitude /ˈLæt.ə.tuːd/:distance north or south
of the equator; measured by a set of
imaginary lines, or parallels, that run east and
possible.
Justice /ˈʤʌstɪs/ : the system of laws in a country
which judges and punishes people
Jobless /ˈʤɒblɪs/ : unemployed
Joined /ʤɔɪnd/ : Link;connect
Judgmental /ʤʌʤˈmɛnt(ə)l/ : too quick to
criticize people
Jurisdictional /ʤʊərɪsˈdɪkʃən(ə)l/ : the authority
of an official organization to make and deal with
especially legal decisions
Like /laɪk/: to enjoy or approve of something or
someone.
Like bait /laɪkbeɪt/: The annoying practice of
explicitly requesting likes (or shares and
comments) to increase engagement on Facebook.
LinkedIn /'linked.n/: the social network for
businesses and professionals.
LinkedIn endorsement /'linked.nɪnˈdɔːrs.mənt/: A
such as Content Marketing, Web Programming, or
Cake Baking.
Linkedln recommendation /'linked.n ˌRek.ə.men
ˈdeɪ.ʃ ə n /: A written compliment from a
connection that you can display on your LinkedIn
profile to impress hiring managers, potential
clients, and the 428 conference attendees you
carpet bombed with your business card.
List /lɪst/: a curated group of Twitter accounts.
Live Stream /ˈlaɪv.striːm/: Live broadcasting
through social media.
Locator /loʊˈkeɪ.tɚ/:a small map that shows
where the subject area of a main map is located.
29
west around Earth.
Latin /ˈlæt .ɪn/: the language used by ancient
Romans and as the language of educated
people in many European countries in the
past.
legend /ˈledʒ.ənd/: a very old story or set of
stories from ancient times, or the stories, not
always true, that people tell about a famous
event or person.
Levee /ˈlev.i/: a wall built along a river bank
tok prevent flooding.
Levy /ˈlev.i/: an amount of money, such as a
tax, that you have to pay to a government or
organization.
Loess /ˈloʊ.es/: a fine, yellow soil that is easily
carried by wind and rain, found in China.
Lookalike audience /ˈlʊk.ə.laɪkˈɑː.di.əns/: In
digital advertising, a group of users who are
similar to people who already interact with your
business online.
Longitude /ˈlɑːn.dʒə.tuːd/: distance east or west
of the prime meridian measured by a set of
imaginary lines, or meridians, that run north and
south from Earth's poles.

Lower /ˈloʊ.ɚ/: the northern part of ancient person through media, speech, gestures, and
Egypt. other forms of communication.
Lurker /ˈlɝː.k.ɚ/: a social media user that Mention /ˈmen.ʃən/: the act of tagging
observes conversations but doesn’t participate
another user’s handle or account name in a
M social media message.
Messenger /ˈmes.ɪn.dʒɚ/: computer
Macedonia /ˌmæs.əˈdoʊ.ni.ə/: an ancient
programmes that mimic conversation with
kingdom ruled by Alexander the Great that
people using artificial intelligence.
conquered Greece and the Persian empire
Messiah /məˈsaɪ.ə/: a special leader the
in the 300s B.C.
Jewish people believe will be sent by God to
Machine Learning /məˌʃiːn ˈlɜ˞ː.nɪŋ/: An
guide them and set up God's rule on Earth;
algorithm that allows software to become
Christians believe Jesus to be the Messiah.
more accurate in predicting outcomes
Metric /ˈmet.rɪk/: a social media metric is a
without being explicitly programmed to do
statistic that measures the performance of
so.
your posts, ads, or overall account.
Mandate /ˈmæn.deɪt/: the that the
Microblogging / ˈMaɪ.kroʊˌblɑː.ɡɪŋ /:
Chinese emperor's right to rule came from
Publishing smaller, more frequent quantities
the gods.
of content to platforms such as Twitter or
Marketing automation /ˈmɑːr.kɪ.tɪŋˌⱭː.tə

30
ˈmeɪ.ʃ ə n /: A combination of tactics and
technology platforms that enable
automatic delivery of personalized content
to prospects and customers through a
variety of online channels.
Map /mæp/: a list of map symbols that
tells what each symbol stands for
Meme /miːm/: An idea, fashion, or
behavior that is transmitted from person
to
Millet /ˈmɪl.ɪt/: a type of grain that grows
in long spikes and has a strong flavor; it is
a major food grain in Africa and Asia
Monarchy /ˈmɑː.nɚ.ki/: a government
ruled by a king or queen
Monk /mʌŋk/: a man who devotes his life
to a religious group, often giving up all he
owns
Monotheism /ˌmɑː.noʊˈθiː.ɪ.zəm/: a belief
in one God
Mosey /ˈmoʊ.zi/: a prophet who led the
Israelites out of slavery in Egypt
Mosque /mɑːsk/: a Muslim place of
worship.
Mute /mjuːt/: A Twitter feature that
allows you to edit users out of your feed
without them knowing.
N
Native /ˈneɪ.tɪv/: disguised as content,
native advertising is a technique which
Tumblr.
Middle /ˈmɪd.əl/: in Buddhism, a way of life,
neither too strict nor too easy, that results
from following the Eightfold Path
Migrate /ˈmaɪ.ɡreɪt/: to move from one
place to another to live, especially a large
group of people
Neolithic /ˌniː.oʊˈlɪθ.ɪk/: the period of
human prehistory that lasted from 12,000
years ago to about 6,000 years ago, during
which people still depended mainly on stone
tools and began experimenting with
agriculture.
Newsfeed /ˈnuːz.fiːd/: a list of news posted
on a particular platform.
New Testament / ˌNuː ˈtes.tə.mənt /: the
second part of the Christian Bibl, containing
descriptions of the life and teachings of Jesus
and of his early followers.
Nil /nɪl/: the world's longest river, which
flows northward through East Africa into the
Mediterranean Sea.
Noble /ˈnoʊ.bəl/: member of a ruling family
or one of high rank.
Normalization / ˈNɔːr.məlzeʃ ə n/: in a
preservation context, normalization refers to
a preservation strategy that involves the
imposition of standard formats and rules to
31
incorporates tactics including in-feed
sponsored content.
Nazi / ˈNɑːt.si /: a member of the National
Socialist (German Workers') Party, led by
Adolf Hitler, which controlled Germany
from 1933 to 1945.
create preservable file formats.
North China Plain /nɔːrθ/: a large, lowland
region of eastern China that is watered by the
Huang River; the "birthplace" of Chinese
civilization.
Notification /ˌnoʊ.tə.fəˈkeɪ.ʃən/: a message
or update sharing new social media activity.

Nubile /ˈnuː.baɪl/: A nubile woman is young Pain = /ˈpædʒ.ənt/ a competition for young
and sexually attractive. women in which they are judged on their
beauty and other qualities
O
Pamphlet = /ˈpæm.flət/ a thin book with
Oasis /oʊˈeɪ.sɪs/: a fertile area in a desert
only a few pages that gives information or
that is watered by a spring.
an opinion about something
Ocean /ˈoʊ.ʃən/: a large body of salt water;
Panic = /ˈpæn.ɪk/ a sudden strong feeling of
oceans cover much of Earth's surface.
fear that prevents reasonable thought and
Oceanic /ˌoʊ.ʃiˈæn.ɪk/: relating to oceans.
action
Oligarchy /ˈɑː.lɪ.ɡɑːr.ki/: a type of
Patience = /ˈpeɪ.ʃəns/ the ability to wait, or
government in which a small group of
to continue doing something despite
citizens control decision-making.
difficulties, or to suffer without complaining
Oracle bone /ˈɔːr.ə.kəl/: in ancient China, a
or becoming annoyed
cattle or sheep bone used to predict the
Peace = /piːs/ freedom from war and
future.
violence, especially when people live and
Oral tradition /ˌɔːr.əl trəˈdɪʃ.ən/: the
work together happily without
passing on of history, beliefs, or customs by
disagreements
word of mouth.
Pejorative = /pɪˈdʒɔːr.ə.ttɪv/ expressing
P disapproval, or suggesting that something is
not good or is of no importance
Pacify = /ˈpæs.ə.faɪ/ to cause someone who
Petit bourgeois = /pəˌtiː bʊrˈʒwɑː/
is angry or upset to be calm and satisfied
belonging to the lower middle social class,
Pact = /pækt/ a formal agreement between
or having the characteristics that are
two people or groups of people

32
Pageant = /ˈpædʒ.ənt/ a competition for
young women in which they are judged on
their beauty and other qualities
Pluralism = /ˈplʊr.əl.ɪ.zəm/ the existence of
different types of people, who have
different beliefs and opinions, within the
same society
Privacy = /ˈpraɪ.və.si/ someone's right to
keep their personal matters and
relationships secret
Privilege = /ˈprɪv.əl.ɪdʒ/ an advantage that
only one person or group of people has,
usually because of their position or because
they are rich
Property = /ˈprɑː.pɚ.tti/ an object or objects
that belong to someone
Prosperous = /ˈprɑː.spɚ.əs/ successful,
usually by earning a lot of money
Prostitution = /ˌprɑː.stəˈtuː.ʃən/ the work of
a prostitute
Q extreme social or political change
Quandary = /ˈkwɑːn.dri/ a state of not
being able to decide what to do about a
situation in which you are involved
Quarrel = /ˈkwɔːr.əl/ an angry disagreement
between two or more people or groups
Quell = /kwel/ to stop something, especially
by using force
considered typical of this class, such as
thinking money and possessions are more
important than other things, and not
trusting new or different ideas
Querulous = /ˈkwer.jə.ləs/ often
complaining, especially in a weak high voice
Quibble = /ˈkwɪb.əl/ to argue about, or say
you disapprove of, something that is not
important
Quiet = /ˈkwaɪ.ət/ making very little noise
Quota = /ˈkwoʊ.ttə/ a fixed, limited amount
or number that is officially allowed
R
Racism = /ˈreɪ.sɪ.zəm/ the belief that
people's qualities are influenced by their
race and that the members of other races
are not as good as the members of your
own, or the resulting unfair treatment of
members of other races
Radical = /ˈræd.ɪ.kəl/ believing or expressing
the belief that there should be great or
Rage = /reɪdʒ/ (a period of) extreme or
violent anger
Raid = /reɪd/ a short sudden attack, usually
by a small group of people
Reaction = /riˈæk.ʃən/ behaviour, a feeling
or an action that is a direct result of
something else
33
Readjustment= /ˌriː.əˈdʒʌst.mənt/ the
S
process of changing in order to fit a
Safety = /ˈseɪf.ti/ a state in which or a place
different situation, or the act of changing
where you are safe and not in danger or at
something slightly in order to improve it
risk
Realize = /ˈriː.ə.laɪz/ to understand a
Sadness = /ˈsæd.nəs/ the feeling of being
situation, sometimes suddenly
unhappy, especially because something bad
Reassure = /-ˈʃʊr/ to comfort someone and
has happened
stop them from worrying
Sagacious = /səˈɡeɪ.ʃəs/ having or showing
Relation = /rɪˈleɪ.ʃən/ the way in which two
understanding and the ability to make good
people or groups of people feel and behave
judgments
towards each other
Scandal = /ˈskæn.dəl/ (an action or event
Remember = /rɪˈmem.bɚ/ to be able to
that causes) a public feeling of shock and
bring back a piece of information into your
strong moral disapproval
mind, or to keep a piece of information in
Scorn = /skɔːrn/ a very strong feeling of no
your memory
respect for someone or something that you
Responsible = /rɪˈspɑːn.sə.bəl/ to have
think is stupid or has no value
control and authority over something or
Scum = /skʌm/ a layer of unpleasant or
someone and the duty of taking care of it,
unwanted material that has formed on the
him, or her
top of a liquid
Reputation = /ˌrep.jəˈteɪ.ʃən/ the opinion
Shy = /ʃaɪ/ nervous and uncomfortable with
that people in general have about someone
other people
or something, or how much respect or
Socialite = /ˈsoʊ.ʃə.laɪt/ someone, usually of
admiration someone or something receives,
high social class, who is famous for going to
based on past behaviour or character
a lot of parties and social events
Ritual = /ˈrɪtʃ.u.əl/ a set of fixed actions and
Socialize = /ˈsoʊ.ʃə.laɪz/ to spend time when
sometimes words performed regularly,
you are not working with friends or with
especially as part of a ceremony
other people in order to enjoy yourself.

Society = /səˈsaɪ.ə.tti/ a large group of Terror = /ˈter.ɚ/ extreme fear

people who live together in an organized Thank = /θæŋk/ to express to someone that

34
way, making decisions about how to do
things and sharing the work that needs to
be done. All the people in a country, or in
several similar countries, can be referred to
as a society
Success = /səkˈses/ the achieving of the
results wanted or hoped for
Suggestion = /səˈdʒes.tʃən/ an idea, plan, or
action that is suggested or the act of
suggesting it
Survive = /sɚˈvaɪv/ to continue to live or
exist, especially after coming close to dying
or being destroyed or after being in a
difficult or threatening situation
T
Tact = /tækt/the ability to say or do the
right thing without making anyone unhappy
or angry
Talk = /tɑːk/ to say words aloud; to speak to
someone
Talkative = /ˈtɑː.kə.ttɪv/ talking a lot
Teenager = /ˈtiːnˌeɪ.dʒɚ/ a young person
between 13 and 19 years old
Unresponsive [ ˌ/ʌn.rɪˈspɑːn.sɪv/ ] ; not
reacting to some influence or stimulus.
Unruly [ /ʌnˈruː.li/ ] ; noisy and lacking in
restraint or discipline.
Unambiguous [ /ˌʌn.æmˈbɪɡ.ju.əs/] ;
having or exhibiting a single clearly defined
you are pleased about or are grateful for
something that they have done
Thanksgiving = /ˌθæŋksˈɡɪv.ɪŋ/ the act of
saying or showing that you are grateful,
especially to God
Tradition = /trəˈdɪʃ.ən/ a belief, principle, or
way of acting that people in a particular
society or group have continued to follow
for a long time, or all of these beliefs, etc. in
a particular society or group
Treasure = /ˈtreʒ.ɚ/ very valuable things,
usually in the form of a store of precious
metals, precious stones, or money
Tolerance = /ˈtɑː.lɚ.əns/ willingness to
accept behaviour and beliefs that are
different from your own, although you
might not agree with or approve of them
Touch = /tʌtʃ/ to put your hand or another
part of your body lightly onto and off
something or someone
U
Universal [ /ˌjuː.nəˈvɝː.səl/ ] ; applicable to
or common to all members of a group or
set.
Unguent [/ˈʌŋ.ɡju.ɡwənt/ ] ; preparation
applied externally as a remedy or for
soothing.
Unambiguous [ /ˌʌn.æmˈbɪɡ.ju.əs/ ] ; having
or exhibiting a single clearly defined
meaning.
35
meaning.
Uncommunicative [ /ˌʌn.kə
ˈmjuː.nə.kə.ttɪv/] ; not inclined to talk or give
information or express opinions.
Unconscious [ /ʌnˈkɑːn.ʃəs/ ] ; lacking
awareness and the capacity for sensory
perception.
Undulate [ /ˈʌn.djʊ.leɪt/ ] ; move in a wavy
pattern or with a rising and falling motion.
Unfettered [ /ʌnˈfett.ɚd/ ] ; not bound or
restrained, as by shackles and chains.
Unity [ /ˈjuː.nə.tti/ ] ; an undivided or
unbroken completeness with nothing
wanting.
Unconscionable [/ʌnˈkɑːn.ʃən.ə.bəl/ ] ;
greatly exceeding bounds of reason or
moderation.
Unappreciated [ /ˌʌn.əˈpriː.ʃi.ə.tt] ; having
value that is not acknowledged.
Vanguard [ /ˈvæn.ɡɑːrd/] ; a creative group
active in the innovation of new concepts.
Vanquish [/ˈvæŋ.kwɪʃ/] ; defeat in a
competition, race, or conflict.
Vantage [ /ˈvæn.ttɪdʒ/] ; place or situation
affording some benefit.
Vapid [ /ˈvæp.ɪd/] ; lacking significance or
liveliness or spirit or zest.
Variable [ /ˈver.i.ə.bəl/] ; a quantity that can
assume any of a set of values.
Vast [ /væst/] ; unusually great in size or
Untoward [ /ˌʌn.æmˈbɪɡ.ju.əs/] ; not in
keeping with accepted standards of what is
proper.
Unresponsive [/ˌʌn.rɪˈspɑːn.sɪv/ ] ; not
reacting to some influence or stimulus.
Urban [ /ˈɝː.bən/] ; located in or
characteristic of a city or city life.
Utopian [ /juːˈtoʊ.pi.ən/] ; characterized by
or aspiring to impracticable perfection.
Upshot [ /ˈʌp.ʃɑːt/] ; a phenomenon that is
caused by some previous phenomenon.
Unseemly [ /ʌnˈsiːm.li/] ; not in keeping
with accepted standards of what is proper.
Unremitting [/ˌʌn.rɪˈmɪtt.ɪŋ/ ] ; uninterrupted
in time and indefinitely long continuing.
V
Validate[ /ˈvæl.ə.deɪt/] ; show or confirm
the effectiveness or worthiness of
something.
Valiant[/ˈvæl.i.ənt/] ; having or showing
heroism or courage.
Vehement[/ˈviː.ə.mənt/ ] ; marked by
extreme intensity of emotions or
convictions.
Vendetta [/venˈdett.ə/];: a blood feud
between members of opposing parties.
Vendor [/ˈven.dɚ/ ] ; someone who
exchanges goods or services for money.
Veneer[/vəˈnɪr/ ] ; coating consisting of a
thin layer of wood.
36
amount or extent or scope. Venerate[ /ˈven.ɚ.eɪt/] ;regard with feelings
Vault[/vɑːlt/ ] ; a strongroom or of respect and reverence.
compartment for safekeeping of valuables. Verdant[ /ˈvɝː.dənt/] ; characterized by
Veer[ /vɪr/] ; turn sharply; change direction abundance of vegetation and green foliage.
abruptly.
W
Vagary[/ˈveɪ.ɡɚ.i/] ; an unexpected and
Withdrawal[ /wɪðˈdrɑː.əl/] ; the act of
inexplicable change in something.
ceasing to participate in an activity. Witless[
Vagrant[ /ˈveɪ.ɡrənt/] ; a wanderer with no
] ; lacking sense or understanding or
established residence or means of support.
judgment.
Vainglorious[ /ˈveɪ.ɡrənt/] ; feeling self-
Worldly [ /ˈwɝːld.li/ ] ; characteristic of
importance.
secularity rather than spirituality.
Valedictory[ /ˌvæl.əˈdɪk.tɚ.i/] ; of or relating
Writ[ /rɪt/] ; a legal document issued by a
to an occasion or expression of farewell.
court or judicial officer.

Wade [/weɪd] ; walk through relatively Wayward[ /ˈweɪ.wɚd/] ; resistant to

shallow water. guidance or discipline.
Waf [ /wɑːft/] ; be driven or carried along, Welfare[ /ˈwel.fer/ ] ; governmental
as by the air. provision of assistance to persons in need.
Waif[/weɪf/] ; a homeless child especially
X
one forsaken or orphaned.
Xenophobia [ /ˌzen.əˈfoʊ.bi.ə/] ; a fear of
Waiver[/weɪf/] ; a formal written statement
foreigners or strangers.
of relinquishment.
Wallow[/ˈwɑː.loʊ/] ; devote oneself entirely Y
to something.
Yearning [ /ˈjɝː.nɪŋ/] ; prolonged unfulfilled
Wan[ /wɑːn/] ; lacking vitality as from
desire or need.
weariness or illness or unhappiness.
Yeoman [ /ˈjɝː.nɪŋ/] ; a free man who
Wanderlust[ /ˈwɑːn.dɚ.lʌst/ ] ; very strong
cultivates his own land.
or irresistible impulse to travel.
Yokel [ /ˈjoʊ.kəl/] ; a person who is not
Wangle[/ˈwæŋ.ɡəl/] ; accomplishing
intelligent or interested in culture.
something by scheming or trickery.
Wardrobe [ /ˈwɔːr.droʊb ] ; collection of
Z
37
clothing belonging to one person.
Warrant[ /ˈwɔːr.ənt/ ] ; show to be
reasonable or provide adequate ground for.
Warranty[/ˈwɔːr.ən.tti/ ] ; written assurance
that a product or service will be provided.
Wary[/ˈwer.i/] ; openly distrustful and
unwilling to confide.
Watershed[/ˈwɑː.ttɚ.ʃed/] ; the geographical
area drained by a river and its tributaries.
Zealot [/ˈzel.ət/] ; a fervent and even
militant proponent of something.
Zealous [ /ˈzel.əs/] ; marked by active
interest and enthusiasm.
Zenith [ /ˈzen.ɪθ/] ; the point above the
observer directly the nadir.
38
 MY OWN WORD
Word Combination Meaning
Menfess mention + confess A message delivered by a Twitter fanbase
account without informing the author's identity.
Potdog Potato + hotdog Sausage (usually hot dog) stabbed food covered
with flour dough with potatoes and deep fried.
Musball Muscle + meatball Meatball that made from muscle

39
 RESERACH ARTICLE RESUME

ARTICLE 1
Title of Article : The Common Core, English Learners, and Morphology 101:
Unpacking LS.4 for ELLs
Author(s) : Pamela J. Hickey and Tarie Lewis
Publication : Journal Articles; Reports - Descriptive
Year : 2013
Background 1. This research talking about morphological development
1. What was the context of across grade levels, a focus that holds particular advantages
for this research? and issues for second language learners.
2. What has been studied 2. This research identify the issues around the development of
or determined already? morphological awareness in English for second language
learners, and share effective instructional practices and
resources for appropriately supporting the morphological
development of bilingual students.
Methods & Nature of this 1. The objective of this research is to identify the issues around
Study the development of morphological awareness in English for
1. What was the objective? second language learners and share effective instructional
2. How did the author(s)
practices and resources for appropriately supporting the
collect data?
morphological development of bilingual students.
3. When and where did the
2. The author collected the data through books and online
research take place?
resources like article and journal
3. This research is done in United State
Results 1. The researcher found that students who speak a Romance
1. What highlights language can have an advantage and serve as a resource to
emerged? their peers regarding morphemes with Latin word elements.
2. Were there any
Students who speak other Indo-European languages will also
surprises?
likely share a number of cognates with English.

Data 1. The most striking about the table of this journal is

1. What is most striking Morphological awareness examples from CCLS language
about the tables, graphs, standard 4 vocabulary acquisition and use.
2. The authors include this table because the author will show
illustrations?
2. Why did the author(s) that in the CCLS student learn morphology since
include them? kindergarten.

40
learn overall? and its importance in reading comprehension, especially for
English learners, it is vital that we provide systematic and
explicit morphological instruction for our students. In order to
implement such instruction effectively, teachers need to have a
strong understanding of morphology, of morphological
processes in English, and the issues around supporting English
morphological development for language learners.
Next Steps For further researchers may be able to research effective
What is implied or literacy instruction for English learners or unpack the specific
proposed for future study? resources and challenges that bilingual students bring to the
classroom.
Significance Because this article identifies the issues around the
Why does this research development of morphological awareness in English for second
matter? language learners, and give effective instructional practices and
resources for appropriately supporting the morphological
development of bilingual students that useful for English
teacher.
My Thoughts & Questions 1. In my opinion learning morphology is important for English
learners. This is to facilitate them in understanding English.
Learning morphology is very good to learn as a child because
it can help them determine or clarify the meaning of
unknown words and phrases and have many meanings by
using context clues, analyzing parts of meaningful words.
2. What is the best strategy to teach morphology to young
learners?

41
 EVALUATION FROM MATE

Evaluator : Dian Islamiati

In my opinion, my friend Nurul Islamiyati has nice attention during the morphology
class, I know she also does the task or assignment on time. but there is something that may be
disturbed her learning morphology process like about time, during the learning process I often
saw that she feels bored and sometimes sleepy, I think it’s because the morphology class held
in the afternoon so she feels tired.in this evaluation, I would like to give her some suggestions
to make her didn’t feel bored and sleepy again.
I suggest her before coming to the class to drink water and wash her face to make her
condition more fresh and comfortable. I think there is nothing that make her difficulty in
morphology class, so I just evaluate it.

42