The Eye as an Optical

Instrument

Winston S. Abena, RMT, MD, FPASMAP, COSH

Saint Paul University Philippines
School of Medicine

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 I. ANATOMY OF THE EYE
• the eyeball is spherical in shape & varies in
size but is on the average about 24 mm in
diameter
• it lies in front of the orbital cavity loosely
embedded in fatty tissue & protected by the
eyelids
• it is composed of 3 outer layers

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A. Layers:
1. Sclera
• comprises the greater part of the external surface &
appears as the white of the eye
• anteriorly, this layer becomes the cornea w/c is
transparent & w/c has a greater curvature than the rest
of the eye
2. Choroid
• this is the middle layer w/c is very vascular & pigmented
• anteriorly, it becomes modified into the:
a) iris
b) ciliary body – w/c contains the ciliary muscles & the
ciliary glands, & to w/c the suspensory ligaments are
attached

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3. Retina
• the innermost layer consisting of
a) a pigmented layer next to the choroid
b) the nervous layer, exposed to the vitreous humor
• in the portion of the retina opposite the pupil is a yellow spot, the
macula lutea – its depressed center, the fovea centralis (most
sensitive portion of the retina)
• the optic nerve enters the eye a little to the left of the center in
the case of the left eye; the area surrounding the optic nerve as it
enters the retina is referred to as the optic disc
At the center of the optic disc is a small depression called the
optic cup, through w/c the blood vessels of the retina make their
entrance & exit. There are no end organs in the disc; hence, it is
insensitive to light & is called the blind spot
• it consists of 2 types of visual cells:
a) the rods
b) the cones
These cells differ not only anatomically but physiologically as well.
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B. Lens:
• a transparent, colorless body enveloped by a
capsule
• it is a biconvex lens w/ different convexities of
the anterior & posterior surface
• in front of the lens is the thin muscular layers
the iris – w/c gives the color to the eye; it has
an opening at the center, the pupil

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C. Humors:
• the lens divide the eye cavity into an anterior space
(between the cornea & the lens), containing the aqueous
humor; and a posterior space (between the lens & the
retina), containing the vitreous humor

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D. Extrinsic Muscles of the Eye:
• movement of the eyes is a function of the 6
muscles w/c are attached to the eyeball
Eye Muscle Movement
Superior rectus ------------------- Up and in
Inferior rectus ------------------- Down and in
Medial rectus ------------------- In
Lateral rectus ------------------- Out
Superior oblique -------------------Down and out
Inferior oblique ------------------- Up and out
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 II. OPTICS: FORMATION OF THE
RETINAL IMAGE
• the eye may be considered as an optical
instrument that is physically adapted to form an
image on its retina & w/c is provided w/ certain
physiologic regulatory mechanisms
• the formation of the image on the retina is by
virtue of the refractive surfaces of the cornea &
the lens; the curved surfaces of these transparent
bodies are substantially like a convex lens, & the
physics of the formation of an image by such a
lens is used to explain the refractive processes in
the eye

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A. Refraction of Light
• light rays, on passing obliquely from one transparent
medium to another of a different optical density, are
deflected from their path, i.e. they are bent or refracted
• if from a rarer to a denser medium towards the
perpendicular; if from a denser to a rarer medium, away
from the perpendicular
• for example, a ray of light (incident ray), on passing from
air to a sheet of glass of greater optical density, is
deflected towards the perpendicular; on passing out of
the glass sheet into air at the opposite surface, it is again
deflected, but this time away from the perpendicular
• the incident ray form the angle of incidence w/ the
perpendicular to the surface; the refracted ray forms the
angle of refraction w/ the perpendicular

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• the refractive index of a medium is the ratio of
the sine of the angle of incidence & the sine of
the angle of refraction; it is also the ratio of the
velocities of light in air & in the medium
Index of refraction = velocity in air = sine (i)__
Velocity in (x) sine (r)
• light waves travel through air & a vacuum at
approximately 300,000 km/sec. The refraction
index of air or a vacuum is arbitrarily considered
to be 1.0 & the refractive index of a transparent
substance is inversely proportional to the speed
at w/c light travels through the substance

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B. Image formation by a Convex Lens
• the most common artificial lens is a piece of glass w/
polished spherical surfaces surrounded by air; such lenses
are the converging lenses w/ convex surfaces (thick in the
middle) & the diverging lens w/ concave surfaces (thin in the
middle)
• the principal axis of a lens w/ 2 spherical surfaces is a line
passing through the centers of curvature, & therefore
perpendicular to these surfaces where it pierces them

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• real images that may be caught on a screen are formed
by convex lenses
• light from a point on the principal axis so distant that
the rays are parallel when they strike the lens, will
converge at a point, the principal focus, on the principal
axis behind the lens (absolutely parallel rays emanate
from an infinitely distant source of light; for purposes of
optics, a distance of 20 feet or 6 m. may be considered
as already infinity)
• the distance between the principal focus & the lens is
the principal focal distance, w/c is a measure of the
refractive power or “strength” of the lens; the unit for
the refractive power of a lens is the diopter, w/c is the
reciprocal of the principal focal distance expressed in
meters; this refractive power depends upon the
curvature of the lens surface & the refractive index of
the material the lens is made of
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• if a luminous point source is placed in front of the lens at a
distance (f) between infinity (20 ft) & the principal focal
distance, the cone of diverging rays from the source will
focus at a point (f’) farther away behind the lens, than the
principal focus. Conversely, the rays of light from a point
source at f’ will be brought to a focus at f. Such points as f &
f’ are called conjugate foci.

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• if the luminous point source is placed in front of
the lens at the same distance as the principal
focal distance, the cone of diverging rays will
emerge as parallel rays behind the lens
• if the luminous point source is placed nearer the
lens than the principal focal distance, the cone of
strongly divergent rays, although refracted, is still
divergent after leaving the lens; they are not
focused & forms no real image of the point

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 • any lens contains the optical center or nodal point, on the
principal axis; all rays of light passing through the optical
center, i.e. coincident w/ the principal axis or any secondary
axes, are not bent in passing through the lens; moreover,
the conjugate focus of any luminous point not on the
principal axis will lie somewhere upon the secondary axis
where a parallel ray of light after being refracted & passing
through the principal focus crosses the secondary axis 23
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C. Image Formation of the Eye
• the eye contains several refracting media:
a) the cornea c) the lens
b) the aqueous humor d) the vitreous humor
• for simplification in tracing a ray of light w/ accuracy, the
reduced eye has been conceived; light is considered as
being refracted only on entering eye, w/c is supposed to
be a homogenous optical medium w/ the same index of
refraction as water, 1.333; the optical center is situated
in the principal axis, 5 mm behind the cornea; the retina
is 15 mm behind the optical center; the distance from
the cornea to the retina is 20 mm; & parallel rays of light
that enter the reduced eye are focused exactly on the
retina; the total refractive power is 65D.
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• a real, inverted image, smaller than the object is formed on
the retina; the size of the object can be calculated based on
the principle of 2 similar triangles w/ this formula:
size of the object = distance from object to optical center
size of the image distance from image to optical center
• the visual angle is formed at the optical center by the
limiting rays from the object; this angle increases as the
object is placed closer to the eye, i.e. the visual angle is
inversely proportional to the distance between the object &
the eye
• although retinal images are inverted, they are perceived as
“erect” (in the correct position) & “projected”; the “righting”
of the image is a psychological process, w/c is begun in
childhood by the association of the visual image w/ other
sensations especially tactile; projection consists of the
localization of objects at a distance from the receptor

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D. Accommodation of the Eye for
Objects at different distances
• in the emmetropic eye or ideal refractive state, parallel
rays from distant objects are brought to a focus on the
retina when the eye is at rest; when objects are brought
closer to the eye, however, the rays proceeding from
them become more & more divergent; where the eye to
remain unchanged, the rays would strike the retina
before coming to a focus; in consequence, each
luminous point in the object, instead of forming a point
on the retina, would form a circle, known as the
diffusion circle; thus, the retinal image as a whole,
would be blurred. Up to a certain distance the eye
accommodates itself to focus rays from nearer objects so
that blurring does not occur.
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1. Accommodation for Near Vision involves:
a) Increased curvature of the lens of the eye.
• the lens is suspended by the zonula, w/c consists of
delicate transparent membranes & fibers bridging
between the ciliary body & the elastic capsule covering
the lens
• when the ciliary muscle is relaxed, the zonula is under
tension & pulls on the equator of the lens so that the
lens is flattened
• when the ciliary muscle contracts, it pulls the ciliary
body towards the lens, relaxing the zonula; the tension
w/c held the lens in its flattened shape having been
reduced or abolished, the elasticity of the capsule, like
the rubber of a toy balloon, tends to mold the plastic
lens into a more convex form; in this way, the refractive
power of the lens is increased
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b) Constriction of the pupils.
• by constricting, the iris
1) excludes the periphery of the lens, where spherical &
chromatic aberrations are greatest
2) increases the depth of focus, i.e. the diffusion circles
produced by cones of light from points just too near or
too far to be in focus are reduced in area
3) diminishes the quantity of light entering the eye
c) Convergence of the eyeballs.
• by converging the eyeballs, the visual axes are so
directed that the images will be formed on the
corresponding points of the retina
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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Changes in the Lens Shape

 Ciliary muscle can vary
its aperture.
 Distance > 20 feet:
 Relaxation places tension
on the suspensory
ligament.
 Pulls lens taut.
 Lens is least convex.
 Distance decreases:
 Ciliary muscles contract.
 Reducing tension on
suspensory ligament.
 Lens becomes more
rounded and more
convex.
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2. Near Points & Far Points of Distinct Vision:
• when the object is brought closer & closer to
the eye, a point is reached at w/c even the
strongest contraction of the ciliary muscle will
not result in a clear image of the object
• the nearest point at w/c an object can be
distinctly seen, w/ full accommodation, is
called the near point
• the distance between the near point & the
eye increases w/ age, slowly in early life, most
rapidly in the early 40’s & very slowly after 50

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• recession of the near point is usually ascribed to a
progressive loss of the plasticity of the lens; the
decline in the power of accommodation is little
noticed until it begins to interfere w/ reading,
usually between the 40th & 50th years, when the
condition is called presbyopia or old-sightedness
• in the normal eye, parallel rays are brought to a
focus on the retina from infinity; if large enough,
object at distances > 20 ft are seen distinctly w/o
accommodation, that is, w/ the eyes at rest.
Practically, then, a distance of 6 m. or 20 ft. is the
far point of the normal eye.

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3. Refractive Power & Amplitude of Accommodation:
• the refractive power of a lens is usually expressed in
terms of its principal focal distance
• a lens w/ a focal distance of 1 m. is taken as a unit & is
designated as having a refractive power of 1 diopter (D);
compared w/ this unit, the refractive power of these
lenses is expressed in terms of the reciprocal of their
focal distances measured in meters; thus, a lens w/ a
principal focal distance of 1/10 meter is a lens of 10 D, &
one w/ a focal distance of 5 meters is 1/5 D
• the reduced eye has a refractive power of 66 2/3 D w/c
is the reciprocal of the focal distance in air when
measured in meters (1/0.015 = 66 2/3 D) or the
reciprocal of the focal distance w/in the medium of the
eye multiplied by the refractive index of the medium
(1.333/020 = 66 2/3 D)
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• the cornea contributes about 2x as much to this
power as does the lens; the lens has a refractive
power of 20 D.
• the amplitude of accommodation is expressed by
the number of diopters added to the refractive
power of the eye by the action of the ciliary
muscles; this is about 12 D in children & 10 D in
young adults; as one grows older, the
accommodating power of the lens becomes
progressively reduced so that the amplitude of
accommodation is only about 5.4 D at 40 years,
1.9 D at 50 years, & 1.0 D at 70 years

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E. Optic Defects & Abnormalities
1. Optical Defects of the Emmetropic Normal Eye:
a) Spherical Aberration
- in the optical lens, the marginal rays are focused in front of the focus
of the central rays; thus, blurring the image
- in the eye, this defect is corrected by elimination of the peripheral rays
(constriction of the iris) & by the greater optical density of the nucleus
of the lens w/ respect to the cortex
b) Chromatic Aberration
- this is due to the different dispersion of the light rays by the lens,
according to their wavelength, so that the focus for violet rays is placed
nearer the lens than that of the red rays, w/ a series of intermediate
foci for the other colors of the spectrum
- it is most marked to wavelengths at the end of the spectrum, the
extreme reds & blues, but to w/c the retina is less sensitive
c) Blind Spot
- the point in the retina at w/c the optic nerve enters the eye has no
cones & no rods; this produces a blind spot in the visual field
- it is 15 degrees to the temporal side of the visual field
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2. Optical Defects in the Ametropic Eye:
• Emmetropia – is that refractive state of the
eyes in w/c, w/o accommodation, parallel rays
focus on the sensitive layer of the retina; the
far point is at infinity & the near point is 10
cm; any deviation from emmetropia is called
ametropia.
• this deviation from normal maybe due to
disproportions in axial length (axial
ametropia) or refractive power of cornea &
the lens (refractive ametropia)
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a) MYOPIA
- parallel rays of light w/o accommodation come to a focus
in front of the retina due to either the eyeball is too long or
the lens is too thick
- the far point is nearer than infinity & from w/c point the
light is sufficiently divergent to come to a focus on the
retina of the accommodated eye
- this distance maybe only a few centimeters & all distant
objects appear blurred
- w/ full accommodation, the myopic eye can focus very near
objects, that is, its near point is nearer than that of an
emmetropic w/ equal amplitude of accommodation. Thus
the term “nearsightedness”
- for distant vision, the remedy is the use of concave lenses

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 b) HYPEROPIA/HYPERMETROPIA

- parallel rays of light w/o accommodation are

focused behind the retina, that is, the retina is
reached by the rays before they come to focus
- the uncorrected hyperope may see distant
objects clearly only by the use of his
accommodation
- the near point is > 10 cm
- the term “farsightedness” refers mainly to the
excessive distance of the near point
- correction is by the use of convex lenses
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c) PRESBYOPIA: “OLD-SIGHTEDNESS”

- a decrease in the amplitude of accommodation

as a consequence of aging
- the near point of distinct vision recedes farther
& farther from the eye until near work is
difficult or impossible
- all properly corrected eyes will become
presbyopic at about the same time, at an age
approximately 45

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d) ASTIGMATISM
- an error of refraction due to the uneven
curvature of the cornea; the corneal surface is
not spherical, so there is a meridian of least
curvature & meridian of greatest curvature at
right angle to the first
- rays falling on the greatest curvature are
focused earlier than those falling on the least
curvature
- correction is by the use of cylindrical lenses

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 F. Visual Acuity
1. Visual acuity is the sharpness of w/ w/c details &
contours of objects are perceived & constitutes the
basis for form or object vision.
It is not uniform over the entire retinal surfaces.
The fovea centralis is a region specialized for high
visual acuity. The zone immediately surrounding the
fovea possesses the next greater capacity for detailed
vision. Visual acuity diminishes further towards the
periphery. The fovea is specialized for detailed vision in
4 ways:
1) the cones are more slender & densely packed
2) it is rod-free
3) blood vessels & nerves detour around it, & the cellular layers
are deflected to the side, removing the scattering of light
4) each cone is connected to one ganglion cell
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2. Measurement of Visual Acuity.
- visual acuity is usually expressed in terms of
minimum separable, the smallest distance by w/c
2 lines may be separated w/o appearing as a
single line
- the angle that these 2 lines subtend at the eye is
called the visual angle, w/c is one minute for the
normal eye; the minimum separable is analogous
to 2-point discrimination in cutaneous sensations
- visual acuity can also be expressed in terms of
minimum visible, the narrowest line or the finest
thread that can be discriminated from a
homogenous background
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3. Factors modifying Visual Acuity:
a) Factors dependent upon the stimulus.
Visual acuity increases w/:
(a) brightness of object in contrast w/ dark background
(b) intensity of illumination
(c) size of object
b) Dioptric Factors. Normal retinal images may be distorted by:
(a) spherical aberration
(b) chromatic aberration
(c) error of refraction
(d) composition of light (monochromatic light improves
visual acuity by decreasing chromatic aberration)
c) Retinal Factors. The fovea centralis is adapted for acutest
vision as explained previously.

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4. Clinical Tests for Visual Acuity:
Snellen’s Test Chart
- consists of 9 lines of letters in w/c the letters in each
line are smaller than those in the previous line
- the chart is viewed at a distance of 20 ft or 6 m
- if at 20 ft the individual reads the letters of the line
marked 20, visual acuity is 20/20 w/c is considered
normal
- if the individual can read only the line marked 100 (w/c
a normal individual can read at 100 ft), his visual acuity
is 20/100
Visual acuity = distance of subject from the chart
distance at w/c letter can be read
by the normal eye
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 Procedure of testing

 E-chart – used in illiterate patients

 Simple picture charts for children.
 Bailey-Lovie chart (NEI-ETDRS)

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 PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION

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 III. PERCEPTION OF LIGHT
A. 1. Receptor
• the retina performs a dual function involving the
2 different receptors, the rods & the cones, so
named after their shape
• the cones number about 6 million; more
concentrated centrally & diminishing towards the
periphery of the retina; the only receptors found
in the fovea centralis; have a higher threshold;
concerned w/ daylight vision (photopic vision);
adapts faster; concerned w/ color vision; the
photochemical substance is probably iodopsin

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• the rods number about 120 million; absent in the
fovea centralis; increasing in number towards the
periphery of the retina; have a lower threshold;
concerned w/ night vision (scotopic vision);
adapts slowly; the photochemical substance is
rhodopsin
2. Stimulus
• the eye is sensitive to a narrow band of
wavelengths, the visible spectrum (723 – 397 mu)
lying between the long infrared waves & the
short ultraviolet “chemical waves”
• the wavelengths w/in this range are not equally
effective in stimulating the retina; the wavelength
influences the intensity of light necessary to elicit
a sensation & also determines the hue of chroma
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B. The Photochemical Basis of Vision:
• Light waves set up chemical changes in rods & cones
w/c, in turn, give rise to nerve impulses. In the rods:
Visual Purple or Rhodopsin
(1) light

Retinene + Protein + Energy

dark (2)
Vitamin A + Protein
(1) fast resynthesis of rhodopsin
(2) slow resynthesis of rhodopsin
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C. Dark & Light Adaptation:
• the retina possesses to a remarkable degree the ability
to become sensitive to dim light; this is especially true of
the periphery of the retina
• when one passes from daylight into a dark room, vision
is at first imperfect but it rapidly improves “as the eye
becomes accustomed to the dark”; this change is known
as dark adaptation; Dark adaptation is about 60%
accomplished in the first 5 minutes & virtually
completed in 20 minutes; loss of sensitivity attained
through dark adaptation occurs upon re-exposure of the
eyes to light & this is called as light adaptation; after a
period of darkness, light of moderate intensity at first
seems intense, dazzling & even painful, but after a few
minutes, the eye becomes less sensitive; it takes much
less time to lose dark adaptation than to acquire it

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1. Changes taking place during dark adaptation:

a)resynthesis of rhodopsin
b)dilatation of the pupil
c)Purkinje shift – change in relative sensitivity of the
eye to different wavelength w/c occurs at the
lower ranges of intensity; blind to red end of the
spectrum & increased sensitivity to the blue-green
region w/c appears brightest
d)change over from cone vision to rod vision

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2. Changes involved in light adaptation:

a)bleaching of rhodopsin
b)constriction of the pupil
c) Purkinje shift to the yellow side
d)change over from rod vision to cone vision

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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Effect of Light on Rods

 Rods and cones are
activated when light
produces chemical
change in rhodopsin.
 Bleaching reaction:
 Rhodopsin dissociates
into retinene
(rentinaldehyde) and
opsin.
 11-cis retinene
dissociates from opsin
when converted to all-
trans form.
 Initiates changes in
ionic permeability to
produce APs in
ganglionic cells.
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The precursor of 11-cis-retinal is the alcohol all-trans-retinol, commonly
known as Vitamin A. This molecule cannot be synthesised by mammals and
has to be acquired through the diet. Precursors to Vitamin A are carotenes,
which are found in many vegetables including carrots.
Opsin does not absorb visible light, but when it is bonded with 11-cis-retinal
to form rhodopsin, the new molecule has a very broad absorption band in
the visible region of the spectrum. The peak of the absorption is around 500
nm, which matches the output of the sun closely. When a photon of light
falls onto rhodopsin, the molecule absorbs the energy and the cis-double-
bond between C-11 and C-12 in the retinal is temporarily converted into a
single bond. This means the molecule can now rotate around this bond,
which it does by swivelling through 180°. The double bond then reforms and
locks the molecule back into position in a trans configuration. Thus the light
has isomerised the molecule from cis to trans, and as it did so, it changed
the shape of the retinal from curved to straight. Essentially, the energy in a
photon has been converted into atomic motion. Whereas the 11-cis-retinal
fitted into the opsin binding site perfectly, all-trans-retinal is the wrong
shape. The Schiff base linkage becomes unstable, and the molecule
undergoes a series of shape changes to try and better fit the binding site,
before eventually breaking free of the opsin altogether.

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 Electrical Activity of Retinal Cells
 Ganglion cells and amacrine cells are only neurons
that produce APs.
 Rods and cones; bipolar cells, horizontal cells produce EPSPs
and IPSPs.
 In dark, photoreceptors release inhibitory NT that
hyperpolarizes bipolar neurons.
 Light inhibits photoreceptors from releasing inhibitory
NT.
 Stimulates bipolar cells through ganglion cells to
transmit APs.
 Dark current:
 Rods and cones contain many Na+ channels that are open in
the dark.
 Causes slight membrane depolarization in dark.
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 Electrical Activity of Retinal Cells
(continued)

 Na+ channels rapidly close in response to

light.
 cGMP required to keep the Na+ channels open.
 Opsin dissociation causes the alpha subunits of G-
proteins to dissociate.
 G-protein subunits bind to and activate
phosphodiesterase, converting cGMP to GMP.
 Na+ channels close when cGMP converted to GMP.
 Absorption of single photon of light can block Na+
entry:
 Hyperpolarizes and release less inhibiting NT.
 Light can be perceived.

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 IV. PERCEPTION OF COLOR
Color Vision is a function of the light adapted eye & is dependent upon the
acuity of the cones.
A. Attributes of Color
1. Tone/Hue – dependent upon the wavelength of the light stimulus w/c
determines in turn the actual color as red, green, etc.
2. Brightness of luminosity – varies according to the amount of light
involved (intensity or radiation)
- a color can be described as lighter, darker, or equal in brightness to a
given white standard
- in daylight vision, yellow is the brightest color
3. Saturation/Purity – dependent upon the accompanying white sensation
- the purity of a color increases as the amount of white diminishes
Primary colors: red, green & blue, when combined will give rise to a
sensation of white; these three are then considered as the primary
colors
Complimentary colors: these are pair of colors w/c when combined will
give rise to a sensation of white; thus, red & greenish blue, orange
& cyan blue, yellow & indigo blue can produce the sensation of white

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 B. Young-Helmholtz Theory of Color Visions
• many theories have been proposed to explain
facts of color vision, none of them is entirely
successful; the oldest & simplest theory is that of
Young-Helmholtz
• this was proposed by Young in 1801 & later
modified by Helmholtz
• this theory assumes 3 fundamental color
sensations – red, green, & violet; corresponding
w/ these are 3 fundamental classes of cones
containing 3 different photochemical substances;
decomposition of each of these substances
stimulate different nerve fibers & the impulses
conducted thru different systems of nerve cells in
the visual cortex
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• the theory, therefore, assumes specific nerve
fibers & specific cortical cells corresponding to
red, green, & violet photochemical substances
respectively
• when these 3 cones are stimulated equally, a
sensation of white results; all other color
sensations, including yellow, are compounded by
combined stimulation of the 3 receptors in
different proportions
• it is assumed furthermore, that each
photochemical substance is acted upon to some
degree by all the visible rays of the spectrum, but
that the rays of long wavelengths at the red end
of the spectrum affect the red substance more
strongly, etc.
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Evidences in Favor of this Theory:

1)it is in accord w/ the doctrine of specific nerve

energies
2)it explains the positive & negative after images
3)blindness to one color is explained by the
absence of one photochemical substance

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Evidences Against this Theory:

1)it cannot explain the sensation of gray & white

arising in the peripheral portions of the retina not
sensitive to color
2)total color blindness w/ persistence of the vision
of form
3)sensation of yellow given by stimulation of the
area outside of retina
• sensitive to red & green (red + green = yellow)
• color visual fields: green (smallest)-yellow-red-
blue-white (biggest)
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C. Color Blindness
• it was first accurately described by John Dalton in 1776
• 9% of otherwise normal & healthy men, & 2% of women
are color blind to a certain degree
• according to Young-Helmholtz theory, color blindness
would be due to abnormality in one or more of the 3
types of cones
• Von Kries proposed a classification of color blindness
based on the Young-Helmholtz theory as follows:
(1) Trichromats (2) Dichromats (3) Monochromats
(a) Normal (a) Protanopia (a) Achromat
(b) Protanomalous (b) Deuteranopia
(c) Deuteranomalous (c) Tritanopia
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• Normal Vision is considered trichromatic.
Trichromats who perceive red & green differently
from normal subjects, although not blind to these
colors are anomalous trichromats.
Protanomalous individuals are deficient in vision
of red (they require more red in mixing w/ green
to form yellow), & Deuteranomalous ones are
deficient in vision of green.
• In Protanopia, the most common anomaly there
is, is blindness to red; green is deficiently
perceived & blue is seen normally. In
Deuteranopia, there is blindness to green; red is
deficiently perceived & blue is seen normally. In
Tritanopia, there is blindness to blue, but green &
red are perceived normally. Tritanopia is much
less frequent.
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• Dichromats are individuals who do not see one of
the colors, supposedly because the corresponding
receptor is missing. They see however, the other
colors although w/ certain deficiencies. They learn
however, to recognize the color of usual objects
from their brightness & from previous experience.
• Monochromatic vision: Achromatopsia or total
color blindness. Monochromats do not perceive
color. They see only white, black, & different
shades of gray. They distinguish color by
differences in brightness. In these individuals,
apparently there is only rod vision; cones do not
function. Night vision in these individuals is of
course normal.
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D. Tests for Color Vision
1. Holmgren Test – the subject is given a skein of
colored wool & told to choose from skeins of
assorted colors, those of similar hues
2. Ishihara’s Test (Modification of Stilling’s test) – it
consists of a series of plates in w/c a digit formed
of spots of one color is “hidden” in field of other
colored spots
3. Matching of Spectral Colors – the subject is asked
to match yellow by mixing red & green. The
proportions of each color used are compared w/
those used by normal subjects. This is the most
accurate method.
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 V. VISUAL FIELDS
• the visual field is the extent of the external world w/c can be
seen w/o a change in the fixation of the eye; because of the
lens, the visual field is inverted upon the retina, so that the
images of the objects on the right side of each eye fall upon
the left side of the retina whereas, the images of the objects
on the left side of each eye fall upon the right side of the
retina
• the visual field of each eye is limited by the nose on the
nasal side, eyebrows & the cheeks above & below, giving an
irregular outline
• the visual field of each eye can be mapped out separately w/
an instrument called the perimeter; one eye is covered while
the other is fixed upon a central point; a small object is
moved towards this central point along the various
meridians & the location in degrees of arch away from the
central point that it first becomes visible is plotted
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• the central part of the 2 visual fields overlap; therefore,
anything in this portion of the field is viewed w/ binocular
vision
• the impulses set up in the 2 retinas by light rays from an
object are fused at the cortical level into a single image
(fusion)
• for an object to be seen as one, the 2 images must fall on
corresponding points of the retinas such as: the 2 fovea;
right halves of both eyes; left halves of both eyes; upper
halves of both eyes & lower halves of both eyes
• non-corresponding points in the 2 retinas are points when
stimulated give rise to 2 visual sensations (diplopia); when
visual images chronically fall on non-corresponding points in
the 2 retinas, one is eventually suppressed & diplopia
disappears; this suppression is a cortical phenomenon, the
suppressed eye eventually shows a reduction or loss of
visual acuity, even blindness, when tested separately, a
condition called amblyopia
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Advantages of Binocular Vision over Monocular Vision:

1.Optical defects of one eye is masked by well

defined images of the other eye
2.Defective vision in parts of the visual fields of
both eyes are hidden as long as defects do not
affect the same spot or part of the fields.
Example: the blind spot
3.Combined fields of the 2 eyes is larger than
either alone
4.Provides a very accurate perception of depth,
size & distance, called stereoscopic vision

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 VI. PERCEPTION OF MOVEMENT OF
AN OBJECT
• perception of a moving object is maximal in light &
when the image falls at a distance of 10 - 15˚ from the
fovea
• the lateral vision of an object gives a better idea of its
movements than central or foveal vision
• the smallest movement perceived is a displacement of
an angle of 1’ in 1 second if there are stationary objects
in the neighborhood; if there are no other objects, the
movements must be 10 – 20x greater to be perceived
• the perception of the movement of an object may be
due to the successive stimulation of groups of receptors
as the image moves over the retina
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 VII. PERCEPTION OF DISTANCE (or
DEPTH) OF AN OBJECT

• Our visual judgment of solidity that is, our

recognition that the object has depth as well
as height & width, is due largely to the fact
that vision is normally binocular &
corresponding points in the 2 retinas receive
slightly dissimilar images of any given object.

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1. Determination of distance by relative sizes of objects.

• If a person knows that a man is 6 feet tall &

then he sees this man even w/ one eye, he
can determine how far away the man is simply
by the size of the man’s image in his retina. His
brain has learned to determine automatically
from the image sizes the distance of objects
from the eye when the dimensions of these
objects are already known. The greater the
distance, the smaller the image & the lesser
the distance, the larger the image.

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2. Determination of distance by moving parallax.

• If a person looks off into the distance w/ his

eyes completely still, he perceives no moving
parallax, but when he moves his head to one
side or the other, the image of objects close to
him move rapidly across his retinas while the
images of distant objects remain stationary.
Thus one can tell, by this moving parallax, the
relative distances of different objects.

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3. Determination of distance by stereopsis (binocular vision).
• Because one eye is a little more than
2 inches to one side of the other eye,
the image on the 2 retinas are
different, that is, an object that is one
inch in front of the bridge of the nose
will form an image on the temporal
portion of the retina of each eye,
whereas a small object 20 ft away in
front of the nose will have its image at
closely corresponding points in the
middle of the eye. This type of
parallax is present all the time when
both eyes are being used. That is why
persons w/ 2 eyes can judge better
relative distance when objects are
nearby than a person who has only
one eye. This mechanism, however, is
useless for depth perception beyond
20 feet.
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4. Accommodation of the eye.

• Since near objects require a greater effort of

accommodation than does a more distant
object for its image to be focused upon the
retina, some cue may be possibly given as to
the relative distances of 2 objects from the
eye.

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5. The apparent change in the color of an object w/
distance.
Tree-clad hills, w/c we know to be green, appear
bluish in the distance; the colors of many objects
appear to fade in the distance.
6. The blocking out of parts of a distant view by
objects in between it & the eyes, gives a sensation
of depth, for the overlapping of parts of farther
objects by nearer ones gives an indication of their
relative distances from the eyes.
7. Linear perspective. Straight lines moving into the
distance w/c are actually parallel are convergent in
the retinal image.

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 VIII. VISUAL PATHWAYS
• the fibers composing the optic
nerve originate in the ganglion
cells of the inner layer of the
retina; they converge to form the
optic nerve, & pierce the choroid
& scleral coats of the eyeball; the
nasal retinal fibers are situated on
the median or internal side of the
nerve, & the temporal retinal
fibers in the lateral or external
side
• at the optic chiasm, fibers from
the temporal hemiretina pass into
the optic tract of the same side;
those from the nasal hemiretina
decussate & pass into the optic
tract of the opposite side
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• the optic tract ends in the lateral geniculate body
where functional regrouping of the fibers occur;
visual fibers, that is, those carrying impulses that
provoke visual sensations enter the lateral
geniculate body, while the afferent fibers of the
pupillary light reflexes end in the pretectal region;
some of the macular fibers are bilateral
• the axons of the geniculate neurons form the
geniculo-striate bundle w/c end in a fan-like
manner in the striate area, in the deep & lower
and upper lips of the calcarine fissure of the
occipital cortex
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 Lesions of the Visual Pathway:
1. Section of the Optic nerve. This results in total blindness of the
corresponding eye.
2. Section thru midline of the Optic chiasm. This results in
bitemporal hemianopsia. Fibers from the nasal quadrants of
both eyes (fibers that cross) are cut, so vision is lost in the
temporal half of the visual fields of the eyes. The blindness
refers to the visual field defect rather than the retinal field.
3. Section of the Optic tract of either side. Right homonymous
hemianopsia if the left optic tract is cut. Fibers from the
temporal half of the retina on the same side & the nasal half in
the opposite side are interrupted, and so the right half of both
visual field is deficient. “Homonymous” because the
corresponding halves of the 2 retinas are blinded.
4. Lesions of the left Occipital lobe (or the left geniculate
calcarine projection) will result in right homonymous
hemianopsia w/ macular sparing.
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