Part-IV

Emerging interfaces of nanotechnology

 Nanoelectronics
 Nanophotonics
 Nanosensors
 Molecular nanomachines
 Nanotechnology for energy harvesting
 Nanobiology
 Nanomedicines
 Nanotribology, etc.
 Nanoelectronics
Nanoelectronics refer to the use of nanotechnology on electronic components, especially transistors.
Although the term nanotechnology is generally defined as utilizing technology less than 100 nm in size,
nanoelectronics often refer to transistor devices that are so small that inter-atomic interactions and
quantum mechanical properties need to be studied extensively. As a result, present transistors (such as in
recent Intel Core i7 processors) do not fall under this category, even though these devices are
manufactured under 65 nm or 45 nm technology.
Nanoelectronics are sometimes considered as disruptive technology because present candidates are
significantly different from traditional transistors. Some of these candidates include: hybrid
molecular/semiconductor electronics, one dimensional nanotubes/nanowires or advanced molecular
electronics. The sub-voltage and deep-sub-voltage nanoelectronics are specific and important fields of
R&D, and the appearance of new ICs operating almost near theoretical limit (fundamental, technological,
design methodological, architectural, algorithmic) on energy consumption per 1 bit processing is
inevitable. The important case of fundamental ultimate limit for logic operation is reversible computing.
Fundamental concepts : The volume of an object decreases as the third power of its linear dimensions, but
the surface area only decreases as its second power. This somewhat subtle and unavoidable principle has
huge ramifications. For example the power of a drill (or any other machine) is proportional to the volume,
while the friction of the drill's bearings and gears is proportional to their surface area. For a normal-sized
drill, the power of the device is enough to handily overcome any friction. However, scaling its length down
by a factor of 1000, for example, decreases its power by 10003 (a factor of a billion) while reducing the
friction by only 10002 (a factor of "only" a million). Proportionally it has 1000 times less power per unit
friction than the original drill. If the original friction-to-power ratio was, say, 1%, that implies the smaller
drill will have 10 times as much friction as power. The drill is useless.
For this reason, while super-miniature electronic integrated circuits are fully functional, the same
technology cannot be used to make working mechanical devices beyond the scales where frictional forces
start to exceed the available power. So even though you may see microphotographs of delicately etched
silicon gears, such devices are currently little more than curiosities with limited real world applications,
for example, in moving mirrors and shutters. Surface tension increases in much the same way, thus
magnifying the tendency for very small objects to stick together. This could possibly make any kind of
"micro factory" impractical: even if robotic arms and hands could be scaled down, anything they pick up
will tend to be impossible to put down. The above being said, molecular evolution has resulted in working
cilia, flagella, muscle fibers and rotary motors in aqueous environments, all on the nanoscale. These
machines exploit the increased frictional forces found at the micro or nanoscale. Unlike a paddle or a
propeller which depends on normal frictional forces (the frictional forces perpendicular to the surface) to
achieve propulsion, cilia develop motion from the exaggerated drag or laminar forces (frictional forces
parallel to the surface) present at micro and nano dimensions. To build meaningful "machines" at the
nanoscale, the relevant forces need to be considered. We are faced with the development and design of
intrinsically pertinent machines rather than the simple reproductions of macroscopic ones.
 Approaches to nanoelectronics
Nanofabrication : For example, single electron transistors, which involve transistor operation based
on a single electron. Nanoelectromechanical systems also falls under this category. Nanofabrication
can be used to construct ultra-dense parallel arrays of nanowires, as an alternative to synthesizing
nanowires individually.
Nanomaterials electronics : Besides being small and allowing more transistors to be packed into a
single chip, the uniform and symmetrical structure of nanotubes allows a higher electron mobility
(faster electron movement in the material), a higher dielectric constant (faster frequency), and a
symmetrical electron/hole characteristic. Also, nanoparticles can be used as quantum dots.
Molecular electronics : Single molecule devices are another possibility. These schemes would make
heavy use of molecular self-assembly, designing the device components to construct a larger
structure or even a complete system on their own. This can be very useful for reconfigurable
computing, and may even completely replace present FPGA technology.
Molecular electronics is a new technology which is still in its infancy, but also brings hope for truly
atomic scale electronic systems in the future. One of the more promising applications of molecular
electronics was proposed by the IBM researcher Ari Aviram and the theoretical chemist Mark
Ratner in their 1974 and 1988 papers Molecules for Memory, Logic and Amplification. This is one of
many possible ways in which a molecular level diode / transistor might be synthesized by organic
chemistry. A model system was proposed with a spiro carbon structure giving a molecular diode
about half a nanometre across which could be connected by polythiophene molecular wires.
Theoretical calculations showed the design to be sound in principle and there is still hope that such
a system can be made to work.
 Carbon nanotube field effect transistors (CNFETs)
Silicon-based CMOS is the dominant technology choice for high-performance digital circuits. While silicon technology
continues to scale, researchers are investigating other novel materials, structures, and devices to introduce into future
technology generations, if necessary, to extend Moore's law. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been explored as a possibility
due to their excellent carrier mobility. Studies on different carbon-nanotube-based field-effect transistors (CNFETs) have
been reported including Schottky-barrier (SB) CNFETs, MOS CNFETs, and state-of-the-art Si MOSFETs systematically
from a circuit/system design perspective. Parasitics play a major role in the performance of CNT-based circuits. In
addition, CNFET design's performance is limited by the gate overlap capacitance and the quality of nanocontacts to these
promising transistors. Transient analysis of high-performing single-tube SB CNFET transistors and circuits revealed that
1-1.5 nm is the optimum CNT diameter resulting in best power-performance tradeoff for high-speed digital applications.
Presently, a considerable amount of research is focused on optimal spacing and layout of CNT arrays, an architecture that
is most likely required for driving capacitive loads and interconnects in digital applications. CNTs have an intrinsic
capability to improve performance, but many serious technological and experimental challenges remain that require more
research to harvest their potential.
Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Transistors (CNFETs), consisting of semiconducting single walled Carbon
Nanotubes (CNTs), have several promising applications such as extensions to silicon VLSI and large area
electronics. Ideal CNFETs can provide significant energy and performance benefits over silicon-CMOS, and
CNFET processing is compatible with existing silicon-CMOS processing. While there has been significant
progress at a single-device level, a major gap exists between such results and their transformation into VLSI
CNFET technologies. Future gigascale systems cannot rely solely on existing chemical synthesis for guaranteed
ideal devices. VLSI-scale logic circuits using CNFETs must overcome major challenges posed by :
1) Mis-positioned CNTs 2) Metallic CNTs and 3) Wafer-scale Integration.
A suitable combination of design and processing techniques, can enable VLSI-scale CNFET logic circuits that
are immune to high rates of inherent imperfections. These techniques must be inexpensive compared to traditional
defect- and fault tolerance, do not impose major changes in VLSI design flows, and are compatible with VLSI
processing because they do not require special customization on chip-by-chip basis.
Mis-positioned CNTs can result in incorrect logic functionality of CNFET circuits. New layout design techniques
produce CNFET circuits for arbitrary logic functions that are immune to a large number of mis-positioned CNTs.
These techniques are significantly more efficient compared to traditional defect- and fault-tolerance techniques.
Furthermore, the techniques are VLSI-compatible and do not require changes to existing VLSI design and
manufacturing flows.
A CNT can be semiconducting or metallic depending upon the arrangement of carbon atoms. Typical CNT
synthesis techniques yield 10-50% metallic CNTs. Metallic CNTs create source-drain shorts in CNFETs resulting
in excessive leakage (Ion/Ioff < 10, i.e., orders of magnitude lower than silicon CMOS) and highly-degraded noise
margins. New techniques overcome challenges posed by metallic CNTs by combining layout design with CNFET
processing.
 Magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs)
Magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) consist of thin insulating barrier layers sandwiched
between ferromagnetic layers. The large tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) found in these
structures has led to an intensive investigation of their properties over the last ten years.
Most recently, there have been some exciting developments with the realization of a 2-3
fold increase in the values of TMR compared to those previously obtained, hence making
these structures even more promising for applications in areas such as ‘spintronics’ and
high density magnetic recording. Currently there are several theoretical models
proposing alternative suggestions for the mechanisms underlying the spin-polarized
tunneling. Whilst models for MTJs consisting of crystalline MgO barriers consider the
symmetry of the wave functions to be the key factor, alternative models for Co/alumina
based MTJs suggest that chemical interfacial bonding plays a dominant role. These latter
models also predict a dependence of the interfacial magnetism on the chemical bonding
between ferromagnet and barrier. Thus measurements of the interfacial magnetism can
help to assess the validity of these models.
Magnetic tunnel junctions are manufactured by thin film technology. On an industrial
scale the film deposition is done by magnetron sputter deposition, on a laboratory scale
molecular beam epitaxy, pulsed laser deposition and electron beam physical vapor
deposition are also utilized. The junctions are prepared by photolithography.
 TMR = 2P1P2 /(1- P1P2)

If no voltage is applied to the junction, electrons tunnel in both directions with equal rates. With a bias
voltage U, electrons tunnel preferentially to the positive electrode. With the assumption that spin is
conserved during tunneling, the current can be described in a two-current model. The total current is
split in two partial currents, one for the spin-up electrons and another for the spin-down electrons.
These vary depending on the magnetic state of the junctions.
There are two possibilities to obtain a defined anti-parallel state. First, one can use ferromagnets with
different coercivities (by using different materials or different film thicknesses). And second, one of
the ferromagnets can be coupled with an antiferromagnet (exchange bias). In this case the
magnetization of the uncoupled electrode remains "free".
The TMR decreases with both increasing temperature and increasing bias voltage. Both can be
understood in principle by magnon excitations and interactions with magnons.
It is obvious that the TMR becomes infinite if P1 and P2 equal 1, i.e. if both electrodes have 100% spin
polarization. In this case the magnetic tunnel junction becomes a switch, that switches magnetically
between low resistance and infinite resistance. Materials that come into consideration for this are
called ferromagnetic half-metals. Their conduction electrons are fully spin polarized. This property is
theoretically predicted for a number of materials (e.g. CrO2, various Heusler alloys) but could not be
experimentally confirmed to date.
A magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) consists of two layers of magnetic metal, such as cobalt-iron, separated by
an ultrathin layer of insulator, typically aluminum oxide with a thickness of about 1 nm. The insulating layer is
so thin that electrons can tunnel through the barrier if a bias voltage is applied between the two metal
electrodes. In MTJs the tunneling current depends on the relative orientation of magnetizations of the two
ferromagnetic layers, which can be changed by an applied magnetic field. This phenomenon is called
tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR).

Antiparallel Parallel
magnetizations magnetizations

Ferromagnet
Insulator
Ferromagnet
Tunneling
current
Resistance: R Resistance: R

R   R 
TMR=
R 

Nowadays, MTJs that are based on transition-metal ferromagnets and Al2O3 barriers can be fabricated with
reproducible characteristics and with TMR values up to 50% at room temperature. Recently large values of
TMR observed in crystalline MTJs with MgO barriers further boosted interest in spin dependent tunneling.
MTJs are promising for applications in magnetic storage and sensor industry.
The read-heads of modern hard disk drives work on the basis of magnetic tunnel junctions. TMR, or more
specifically the MTJ, is also the basis of MRAM, a new type of non-volatile memory. The 1st generation
technologies relied on creating cross-point magnetic fields on each bit to write the data on it, although this
approach has a scaling limit at around 90-130nm. There are two 2nd generation techniques currently being
developed: Thermal Assisted Switching (TAS) which is being developed by Crocus Technology, and Spin
Torque Transfer (STT) on which Crocus, Hynix, IBM, and several other companies are working.
 Magnetic random access memories (MRAM)
Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory is a non-volatile computer memory (NVRAM) technology,
which has been under development since the 1990s. Continued increases in density of existing
memory technologies – notably Flash RAM and DRAM – kept it in a niche role in the market, but its
proponents believe that the advantages are so overwhelming that Magnetoresistive RAM will
eventually become dominant for all types of memory, becoming a true universal memory.

Simplified structure of a MRAM cell

Unlike conventional RAM chip technologies, in MRAM data is not stored as electric
charge or current flows, but by magnetic storage elements. The elements are formed
from two ferromagnetic plates, each of which can hold a magnetic field, separated by a
thin insulating layer. One of the two plates is a permanent magnet set to a particular
polarity, the other's field will change to match that of an external field. A memory device
is built from a grid of such "cells".
Reading is accomplished by measuring the electrical resistance of the cell. A particular
cell is (typically) selected by powering an associated transistor which switches current
from a supply line through the cell to ground. Due to the magnetic tunnel effect, the
electrical resistance of the cell changes due to the orientation of the fields in the two
plates. By measuring the resulting current, the resistance inside any particular cell can
be determined, and from this the polarity of the writable plate. Typically if the two plates
have the same polarity this is considered to mean "0", while if the two plates are of
opposite polarity the resistance will be higher and this means "1".
Data is written to the cells using a variety of means. In the simplest, each cell lies
between a pair of write lines arranged at right angles to each other, above and below the
cell. When current is passed through them, an induced magnetic field is created at the
junction, which the writable plate picks up. This pattern of operation is similar to core
memory. This approach requires a fairly substantial current to generate the field,
however, which makes it less interesting for low-power uses, one of MRAM's primary
disadvantages. Additionally, as the device is scaled down in size, there comes a time
when the induced field overlaps adjacent cells over a small area, leading to potential
false writes. This problem, the half-select (or write disturb) problem, appears to set a
fairly large size for this type of cell. One experimental solution to this problem was to use
circular domains written and read using the giant magnetoresistive effect.
Another approach, the toggle mode, uses a multi-step write with a modified multi-layer
cell. The cell is modified to contain an "artificial antiferromagnet" where the magnetic
orientation alternates back and forth across the surface, with both the pinned and free
layers consisting of multi-layer stacks isolated by a thin "coupling layer". The resulting
layers have only two stable states, which can be toggled from one to the other by timing
the write current in the two lines so one is slightly delayed, thereby "rotating" the field.
Any voltage less than the full write level actually increases its resistance to flipping. That
means that other cells located along one of the write lines will not suffer from the half-
select problem, allowing for smaller cell sizes.
A newer technique, spin-torque-transfer (STT) or Spin Transfer Switching, uses spin-aligned
("polarized") electrons to directly torque the domains. Specifically, if the electrons flowing into
a layer have to change their spin, this will develop a torque that will be transferred to the
nearby layer. This lowers the amount of current needed to write the cells, making it about the
same as the read process. There are concerns that the "classic" type of MRAM cell will have
difficulty at high densities due to the amount of current needed during writes, a problem STT
avoids. For this reason, the STT proponents expect the technique to be used for devices of 65
nm and smaller. The downside is the need to maintain the spin coherence. Overall, the STT
requires much less write current than conventional or toggle MRAM. However, higher speed
operation still requires higher current.
Other potential arrangements include “Thermal Assisted Switching" (TAS-MRAM)” which
briefly heats up (reminiscent of phase-change memory) the magnetic tunnel junctions during
the write process and keeps the MTJ's stable at a colder temperature the rest of the time; and
"vertical transport MRAM" (VMRAM), which uses current through a vertical column to change
magnetic orientation, a geometric arrangement that reduces the write disturb problem and so
can be used at higher density.

MRAM array and cell cross section (NEC Corporation)

 Spin batteries
The secret behind this technology is the use of nano-magnets to induce an electromotive force. It uses the
same principles as those in a conventional battery, except in a more direct fashion. The energy stored in a
battery, be it in an iPod or an electric car, is in the form of chemical energy. When something is turned "on"
there is a chemical reaction which occurs and produces an electric current. The new technology converts the
magnetic energy directly into electrical energy, without a chemical reaction. The electrical current made in
this process is called a spin polarized current.
The new discovery advances our understanding of the way magnets work and its immediate application is to
use the MTJs as electronic elements which work in different ways to conventional transistors. Although the
actual device has a diameter about that of a human hair and cannot even light up a LED, the energy that
might be stored in this way could potentially run a car for miles.
The electromotive force predicted by Faraday's law reflects the forces acting on the charge, –e, of an electron
moving through a device or circuit, and is proportional to the time derivative of the magnetic field. This
conventional e.m.f. is usually absent for stationary circuits and static magnetic fields. There are also forces
that act on the spin of an electron; it has been recently predicted that, for circuits that are in part composed
of ferromagnetic materials, there arises an e.m.f. of spin origin even for a static magnetic field. This e.m.f. can
be attributed to a time-varying magnetization of the host material, such as the motion of magnetic domains in
a static magnetic field, and reflects the conversion of magnetic to electrical energy. It has been shown that
such an e.m.f. can indeed be induced by a static magnetic field in magnetic tunnel junctions containing zinc-
blende-structured MnAs quantum nanomagnets. The observed e.m.f. operates on a timescale of
approximately 102–103 seconds and results from the conversion of the magnetic energy of the
superparamagnetic MnAs nanomagnets into electrical energy when these magnets undergo magnetic
quantum tunneling. As a consequence, a huge magnetoresistance of up to 100,000 per cent is observed for
certain bias voltages. The results strongly support the contention that, in magnetic nanostructures, Faraday's
law of induction must be generalized to account for forces of purely spin origin. The huge magnetoresistance
and e.m.f. may find potential applications in high sensitivity magnetic sensors, as well as in new active
devices such as 'spin batteries'.
 Phase change random access memories (PRAM)
Phase-change memory (also known as PCM, PRAM, PCRAM, Ovonic Unified Memory, Chalcogenide
RAM and C-RAM) is a type of non-volatile computer memory. PRAM uses the unique behavior of
chalcogenide glass, which can be "switched" between two states, crystalline and amorphous, with the
application of heat. Recent versions can achieve two additional distinct states, effectively doubling its
storage capacity. PRAM is one of a number of new memory technologies that are attempting to
compete in the non-volatile role with the almost universal Flash memory, which has a number of
practical problems these replacements hope to address.

GeSbTe, AgInSbTe.

A cross-section of two PRAM memory cells. One cell is in low resistance crystalline state, the other in high resistance
amorphous state.
The crystalline and amorphous states of chalcogenide glass have dramatically different electrical
resistivity, and this forms the basis by which data are stored. The amorphous, high resistance state is
used to represent a binary 0, and the crystalline, low resistance state represents a 1. Chalcogenide is
the same material used in re-writable optical media (such as CD-RW and DVD-RW). In those instances,
the material's optical properties are manipulated, rather than its electrical resistivity, as
chalcogenide's refractive index also changes with the state of the material.
Although PRAM has not yet reached the commercialization stage for consumer electronic devices,
nearly all prototype devices make use of a chalcogenide alloy of germanium, antimony and tellurium
(GeSbTe) called GST. The stoichiometry or Ge:Sb:Te element ratio is 2:2:5. When GST is heated to a
high temperature (over 600°C), its chalcogenide crystallinity is lost. Once cooled, it is frozen into an
amorphous glass-like state and its electrical resistance is high. By heating the chalcogenide to a
temperature above its crystallization point, but below the melting point, it will transform into a
crystalline state with a much lower resistance. The time to complete this phase transition is
temperature-dependent. Cooler portions of the chalcogenide take longer to crystallize, and overheated
portions may be remelted. Commonly, a crystallization time scale on the order of 100 ns is used. This
is longer than conventional volatile memory devices like modern DRAM, which have a switching time
on the order of two nanoseconds. However, a January 2006 Samsung Electronics patent application
indicates PRAM may achieve switching times as fast as five nanoseconds.
A more recent advance pioneered by Intel and ST Microelectronics allows the material state to be
more carefully controlled, allowing it to be transformed into one of four distinct states; the previous
amorphic or crystalline states, along with two new partially crystalline ones. Each of these states has
different electrical properties that can be measured during reads, allowing a single cell to represent
two bits, doubling memory density.
 Millipede drive
Millipede is a non-volatile computer memory stored on nanoscopic pits burned into the surface of a
thin polymer layer, read and written by a MEMS-based probe. It promises a data density of more than 1
terabit per square inch (1 gigabit per square millimeter), about 4 times the density of magnetic storage
available today.
Millipede storage technology is being pursued as a potential replacement for magnetic recording in
hard drives, at the same time reducing the form-factor to that of Flash media. IBM demonstrated a
prototype millipede storage device at CeBIT 2005, and was trying to make the technology
commercially available by the end of 2010. At launch, it would probably be more expensive per-
megabyte than prevailing technologies, but this disadvantage is hoped to be offset by the sheer
storage capacity that Millipede technology would offer.
The main memory of modern computers is constructed from one of a number of DRAM-related devices.
DRAM basically consists of a series of capacitors, which store data as the presence or absence of electrical
charge. Each capacitor and its associated control circuitry, referred to as a cell, holds one bit, and bits can be
read or written in large blocks at the same time.
In contrast, hard drives store data on a metal disk that is covered with a magnetic material; data is
represented as local magnetisation of this material. Reading and writing are accomplished by a single "head",
which waits for the requested memory location to pass under the head while the disk spins. As a result, the
drive's performance is limited by the mechanical speed of the motor, and is generally hundreds of thousands
of times slower than DRAM. However, since the "cells" in a hard drive are much smaller, the storage density
is much higher than DRAM.
Millipede storage attempts to combine the best features of both. Like the hard drive, millipede stores data in a
"dumb" medium that is simpler and smaller than any cell used in an electronic medium. It accesses the data
by moving the medium under the "head" as well. However, millipede uses many nanoscopic heads that can
read and write in parallel, thereby dramatically increasing the throughput to the point where it can compete
with some forms of electronic memory. Additionally, millipede's physical medium stores a bit in a very small
area, leading to densities even higher than current hard drives.
Mechanically, millipede uses numerous atomic force probes, each of which is responsible for reading and
writing a large number of bits associated with it. Bits are stored as a pit, or the absence of one, in the surface
of a thermo-active polymer deposited as a thin film on a carrier known as the sled.
Any one probe can only read or write a fairly small area of the sled available to it, a storage field. Normally the
sled is moved to position the selected bits under the probe using electromechanical actuators similar to
those that position the read/write head in a typical hard drive, although the actual distance moved is tiny. The
sled is moved in a scanning pattern to bring the requested bits under the probe, a process known as x/y
scan.
The amount of memory serviced by any one field/probe pair is fairly small, but so is its physical size. Many
such field/probe pairs are used to make up a memory device. Data reads and writes can be spread across
many fields in parallel, increasing the throughput and improving the access times. For instance, a single 32-
bit value would normally be written as a set of single bits sent to 32 different fields. In the initial experimental
devices, the probes were mounted in a 32x32 grid for a total of 1,024 probes. Their layout looked like the legs
on a millipede, and the name stuck.
The design of the cantilever array is the trickiest part, as it involves making numerous mechanical
cantilevers, on which a probe has to be mounted. All the cantilevers are made entirely out of silicon, using
surface micromachining at the wafer surface.
 Holographic data storage system (HDSS)
Holographic storage uses two laser beams, a reference and a data beam to create an interference
pattern at a medium where the two beams intersect. This intersection causes a stable physical or
chemical change which is stored in the medium. This is the write sequence. During reading, the action
of the reference beam and the stored interference pattern in the medium recreates this data beam
which may be sensed by a detector array. The medium may be a rotating disk containing a polymeric
material, or an optically sensitive single crystal. The key to making the holographic data storage
system work is the second laser beam which is fired at the crystal to retrieve a page of data. It must
match the original reference beam angle exactly. A difference of just a thousandth of a millimeter will
result in failure to retrieve the data. Holography is expected to be of value in archival or library storage
applications where large quantities of data are required to be retained at the very lowest costs
possible.
Since it involves no moving parts, holographic data storage will be far more reliable than existing hard
disk technologies. IBM has already demonstrated the possibility of holding 1 TB of data in a crystal the
size of a sugar cube and of data access rates of one trillion bits per second. The major challenge ahead
is expected to be the development of a rewritable form of holographic storage.
Laser,
Beam splitter : object, reference beams
Spatial light modulator,
Scanner assembly : A mechanical scanner that
changes the angle of the reference beam. Changing
this angle allows the slices of information to be
layered on the cube.
Cube : A light sensitive crystal or a photopolymer.
Hologram reader : CCD camera
 Nanophotonics
It is considered as a branch of optical engineering which deals with optics, or the interaction of light with
particles or substances, at deeply sub wavelength length scales. Technologies in the realm of nano-
optics include near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM), photoassisted scanning tunneling
microscopy, and surface plasmon optics.
Traditional microscopy makes use of diffractive elements to focus light tightly in order to increase
resolution. But because of the diffraction limit (Rayleigh Criterion), propagating light may be focused to
a spot with a minimum diameter of roughly half the wavelength of the light. Thus, even with diffraction-
limited confocal microscopy, the maximum resolution obtainable is on the order of a couple of hundred
nanometers. The scientific and industrial communities are becoming more interested in the
characterization of materials and phenomena on the scale of a few nanometers, so alternative
techniques must be utilized.
The study of nanophotonics involves two broad themes (i) studying the novel properties of light at the
nanometer scale (ii) enabling highly power efficient devices for engineering applications.
The study has the potential to revolutionize the telecommunications industry by providing low power,
high speed, interference-free devices such as electrooptic and all-optical switches on a chip.
Basics : The term “nanophotonics” typically refers to phenomena of ultraviolet, visible and near IR light,
with a wavelength of approximately 300 nm to 1.2 µm.
The interaction of light with these nanoscale features leads to confinement of the electromagnetic field
to the surface or tip of the nanostructure resulting in a region referred to as the optical near field. This
effect is to some extent analogous to a lightning rod, where the field concentrates at the tip. In this
region, the field may need to adjust to the topography of the nanostructure (boundary conditions of
Maxwell's equations). This means that the electromagnetic field will be dependent on the size and shape
of the nanostructure that the light is interacting with.
This optical near field can also be described as a surface bound optical oscillation which can
vary on length scale of tens or hundreds of nanometers - a length scale smaller than the
wavelength of the incoming light. This can provide higher spatial resolution beyond the
limitations imposed by the law of diffraction in conventional far-field microscopy. The
technique derived from this effect is known as near-field microscopy, and opens up many new
possibilities for imaging and spectroscopy on the nanoscale. A novel embodiment which has
picometer resolution in the vertical plane above the waveguide surface is dual polarisation
interferometry.
Novel optical properties of materials can result from their extremely small size. A typical
example of this type of effect is the color change associated with colloidal gold. In contrast to
bulk gold, known for its yellow color, gold particles of 10 to 100 nm in size exhibit a rich red
color. The critical size where these and related effects take place are correlated with the mean
free path of the conduction electrons of the metal.
In addition to these extrinsic size effects that determine a material's optical response to
incoming light, the intrinsic properties of the material can change. These size effects occur as
particles become even smaller. At this stage some of the intrinsic electronic properties of the
medium itself change. One example of this phenomenon is in semiconductor nanostructures
where the extremely small particle size confines the quantum mechanical wavefunction,
leading to discrete optical transitions, e.g., fluorescence colors that depend on the size of the
particle. The changing bandgap of the semiconductor is the reason for this color change. This
effect, however, since not directly correlated with optical wavelength, is not unanimously
included when referring to nano-optics.
 Nanosensors
Nanosensors are any biological, chemical, or electronic sensory points used to convey information about
nanoparticles to the macroscopic world. Their use may include various medicinal purposes as well as gateways
to building other nanoproducts, such as computer chips and nanorobots. Presently, there are several ways
proposed to make nanosensors, including top-down and bottom-up design, top-down lithography, bottom-up
assembly, and molecular self-assembly.
Medicinal uses of nanosensors mainly revolve around the potential of nanosensors to accurately identify
particular cells or places in the body in need. By measuring changes in volume, concentration, displacement
and velocity, gravitational, electrical, and magnetic forces, pressure, or temperature of cells in a body,
nanosensors may be able to distinguish between and recognize certain cells, most notably those of cancer, at
the molecular level in order to deliver medicine or monitor development to specific places in the body. In
addition, they may be able to detect macroscopic variations from outside the body and communicate these
changes to other nanoproducts working within the body.
One example of nanosensors involves using the fluorescence properties of CdSe quantum dots as sensors to
uncover tumors within the body. By injecting a body with these quantum dots, a doctor could see where a tumor
or cancer cell was by finding the injected quantum dots, an easy process because of their fluorescence.
Developed nanosensor quantum dots would be specifically constructed to find only the particular cell for which
the body was at risk. A downside to the CdSe dots, however, is that they are highly toxic to the body. As a result,
researchers are working on developing alternate dots made out of a different, less toxic material while still
retaining some of the fluorescence properties. In particular, they have been investigating the particular benefits
of ZnS quantum dots which, though they are not quite as fluorescent as CdSe, can be augmented with other
metals including manganese and various lanthanide elements. In addition, these newer quantum dots become
more fluorescent when they bond to their target cells. (Quantum) Potential predicted functions may also include
sensors used to detect specific DNA in order to recognize explicit genetic defects, especially for individuals at
high-risk and implanted sensors that can automatically detect glucose levels for diabetic subjects more simply
than current detectors. DNA can also serve as sacrificial layer for manufacturing CMOS IC, integrating a
nanodevice with sensing capabilities. Therefore, using proteomic patterns and new hybrid materials,
nanobiosensors can also be used to enable components configured into a hybrid semiconductor substrate as
part of the circuit assembly. The development and miniaturization of nanobiosensors should provide interesting
new opportunities.
A nanosensor probe carrying a laser beam (blue) penetrates a living cell to detect the presence of a product indicating
that the cell has been exposed to a cancer-causing substance.

Self-Assembled DNA Nanostructures. (A) DNA “tile” structure consisting of four branched junctions oriented at 90°
intervals. These tiles serve as the primary “building block” for the assembly of the DNA nanogrids shown in (B). Each
tile consists of nine DNA oligonucleotides as shown. (B) An atomic force microscope image of a self-assembled DNA
nanogrid. Individual DNA tiles self-assemble into a highly ordered periodic two-dimensional DNA nanogrid.
One of the first working examples of a synthetic nanosensor was built by researchers at the Georgia
Institute of Technology in 1999. It involved attaching a single particle onto the end of a carbon
nanotube and measuring the vibrational frequency of the nanotube both with and without the particle.
The discrepancy between the two frequencies allowed the researchers to measure the mass of the
attached particle.
Chemical sensors, too, have been built using nanotubes to detect various properties of gaseous
molecules. Carbon nanotubes have been used to sense ionization of gaseous molecules while
nanotubes made out of titanium have been employed to detect atmospheric concentrations of
hydrogen at the molecular level. Many of these involve a system by which nanosensors are built to
have a specific pocket for another molecule. When that particular molecule, and only that specific
molecule, fits into the nanosensor, and light is shone upon the nanosensor, it will reflect different
wavelengths of light and, thus, be a different color.
There are currently several hypothesized ways to produce nanosensors. Top-down lithography is the
manner in which most integrated circuits are now made. It involves starting out with a larger block of
some material and carving out the desired form. These carved out devices, notably put to use in
specific MEMS used as microsensors, generally only reach the micro size, but the most recent of these
have begun to incorporate nanosized components.
Another way to produce nanosensors is through the bottom-up method, which involves assembling the
sensors out of even more minuscule components, most likely individual atoms or molecules. This
would involve moving atoms of a particular substance one by one into particular positions which,
though it has been achieved in laboratory tests using tools such as AFMs, is still a significant difficulty,
especially to do en masse, both for logistic reasons as well as economic ones. Most likely, this process
would be used mainly for building starter molecules for self-assembling sensors.
 Molecular nanomachines
The concept of molecular nanomachines has become a reality in the past few years in organic and
supramolecular chemistry, in biochemistry and in atom-scale manipulation with the scanning tunneling
microscope (STM).
In chemistry, molecules can be designed and synthesized to have specific electrical, mechanical,
optical or reactive properties. In biochemistry, single natural biomolecules can be isolated and
activated as nanomachines. In atom-scale manipulation, the STM can be used to power and to control
the operation of individual molecules as molecular nanomachines.
Azobenzene is an incredible small organic molecule that has the potential to perform as a
photoswitchable nanoscale piston on a surface. Azobenzene exists in two different shapes (isomers,
labeled trans and cis) and can be reversibly and reliably driven between these two shapes by shining
UV and blue light on it (photoisomerization). The lengthening and contracting of azobenzene as it
changes shape allows it to do mechanical work.
 Nano solar cells

Conventional solar cells have two main drawbacks: they can only achieve efficiencies around ten
percent and they are expensive to manufacture. The first drawback, inefficiency, is almost unavoidable
with silicon cells. This is because the incoming photons, or light, must have the right energy, called the
band gap energy, to knock out an electron. If the photon has less energy than the band gap energy then
it will pass through. If it has more energy than the band gap, then that extra energy will be wasted as
heat. These two effects alone account for the loss of around 70 percent of the radiation energy incident
on the cell”. Consequently, according to the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the maximum
efficiency achieved today is only around 25 percent . Mass-produced solar cells are much less efficient
than this, and usually achieve only ten percent efficiency.
Nanotechnology might be able to increase the efficiency of solar cells, but the most promising
application of nanotechnology is the reduction of manufacturing cost. Chemists at the University of
California, Berkeley, have discovered a way to make cheap plastic solar cells that could be painted on
almost any surface. These new plastic solar cells achieve efficiencies of only 1.7 percent. These new
plastic solar cells utilize tiny nanorods dispersed within in a polymer. The nanorods behave as wires
because when they absorb light of a specific wavelength they generate electrons. These electrons flow
through the nanorods until they reach the aluminum electrode where they are combined to form a
current and are used as electricity. This type of cell is cheaper to manufacture than conventional
ones for two main reasons. First, these plastic cells are not made from silicon, which can be very
expensive. Second, manufacturing of these cells does not require expensive equipment such as
clean rooms or vacuum chambers like conventional silicon based solar cells. Instead, these plastic
cells can be manufactured in a beaker.
Another potential feature of these solar cells is that the nanorods could be ‘tuned’ to absorb
various wavelengths of light. This could significantly increase the efficiency of the solar cell
because more of the incident light could be utilized.
 Nano fuel cells
A fuel cell produces electricity using fuels. Normally, the fuels are mainly H2 and O2.
Chemicals such as methane and methanol also can be used for fuel.

The two electrodes are separated by an electrolyte, a material that allows charged
molecules or “ions” to move through it.
Motorola

NEC

Toshiba
Catalysts are used with fuels such as hydrogen or methanol to produce hydrogen ions.
Platinum, which is very expensive, is the catalyst typically used in this process.
Companies are using nanoparticles of platinum to reduce the amount of platinum
needed, or using nanoparticles of other materials to replace platinum entirely and
thereby lower costs.
Fuel cells contain membranes that allow hydrogen ions to pass through the cell but do
not allow other atoms or ions, such as oxygen, to pass through. Companies are using
nanotechnology to create more efficient membranes; this will allow them to build lighter
weight and longer lasting fuel cells.
Small fuel cells are being developed that can be used to replace batteries in handheld
devices such as PDAs or laptop computers. Most companies working on this type of
fuel cell are using methanol as a fuel and are calling them DMFC's, which stands for
direct methanol fuel cell. DMFC's are designed to last longer than conventional
batteries. In addition, rather than plugging your device into an electrical outlet and
waiting for the battery to recharge, with a DMFC you simply insert a new cartridge of
methanol into the device and you're ready to go.
Fuel cells that can replace batteries in electric cars are also under development.
Hydrogen is the fuel most researchers propose for use in fuel cell powered cars. In
addition to the improvements to catalysts and membranes discussed above, it is
necessary to develop a lightweight and safe hydrogen fuel tank to hold the fuel and
build a network of refueling stations. To build these tanks, researchers are trying to
develop lightweight nanomaterials that will absorb the hydrogen and only release it
when needed.
A scanning electron microscopy image of platinum nanostructures synthesized via a
simple wet chemical method, at room temperature, using neither template nor
surfactant. The nanostructures consisted of numerous single-crystal Pt nanowires
with diameters of 4 nm and lengths that may reach hundred nanometers. Right is
detail view of left image.
 Nano medicine
Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. The approaches to nanomedicine range
from the medical use of nanomaterials, to nanoelectronic biosensors, and even possible future
applications of molecular nanotechnology. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding
the issues related to toxicity and environmental impact of nanoscale materials.
Medical use of nanomaterials :
 Drug delivery
 Protein and peptide delivery
 Cancer treatment
 Visualization/Imaging
 Surgery
 Cell repair machines
 Nano biotechnology
Nanobiotechnology is the branch of nanotechnology with biological and biochemical applications or
uses. Nanobiotechnology often studies existing elements of nature in order to fabricate new devices.
The term bionanotechnology is often used interchangeably with nanobiotechnology, though a
distinction is sometimes drawn between the two. If the two are distinguished, nanobiotechnology
usually refers to the use of nanotechnology to further the goals of biotechnology, while
bionanotechnology might refer to any overlap between biology and nanotechnology, including the
use of biomolecules as part of or as an inspiration for nanotechnological devices.
Nanobiotechnology is that branch of one, which deals with the study and application of biological
and biochemical activities from elements of nature to fabricate new devices like biosensors.
Nanobiotechnology is often used to describe the overlapping multidisciplinary activities associated
with biosensors particularly where photonics, chemistry, biology, biophysics nanomedicine and
engineering converge. Measurement in biology using for example, waveguide techniques such as
dual polarisation interferometry are another example.