IT6601 Uw PDF

Fatima Michael College of Engineering & Technology
IT6601 MOBILE COMPUTING
UNIT – I
Mr. M. Chander Kumar, Assistant Professor,

Dept of CSE, Fatima Michael College of Engg & Tech,
Madurai & Technology
Fatima Michael College of Engineering
Unit - I
INTRODUCTION
Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs wireless Networking –
Mobile Computing Applications – Characteristics of Mobile
computing – Structure of Mobile Computing Application. MAC
Protocols – Wireless MAC Issues – Fixed Assignment Schemes –
Random Assignment Schemes – Reservation Based Schemes.
*Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, Rajib Mall, “Fundamentals of Mobile Computing”, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi
2
Basic Concepts
 Mobile Handsets, Wireless Communications, and server
applications
 Cell Phone System
 Types of Telecommunication Networks
 Computer Networks
 Controller Area Networks (CANs)
 Network is used to connect the different components of an embedded controller. Eg,
Automobiles industry
 LANs - private owned, building or campus operate at 1 Gbps
 Internetworks – several LANs connected
 LAN Architecture – topologies (ring, mesh..)
3
Basic Concepts
 Components of a wireless communication system
 Transmitter, receiver, filter, antenna, amplifier, mixers
 Wireless Networking Standards (Table1.1)
 ITU, IEEE and ISO
 IEEE 802.11 standards (a,bc,d,e,f…u)
 WLAN Architecture
 Components ( Access point, bridge, and LAN card)
 Applications
 Campus WLANs
 Streamlining inventory management
 Providing LAN
 WLAN connectivity to geographically dispersed computers
 Advantages of wireless LAN over wired LAN
 Mobility
 Simplicity and speedy deployment
4
Wireless Networking Standards
5
What Is Mobile Computing?

• What is computing?
Operation of computers (oxfords advance learner’s dictionary)
• What is the mobile?
That someone /something can move or be moved easily and quickly from place
to place
• What is mobile computing?
Users with portable computers still have network connections while they move
• A simple definition could be:
Mobile Computing is using a computer (of one kind or another) while on the
move
• Another definition could be:
Mobile Computing is when a (work) process is moved from a normal fixed
position to a more dynamic position.
• A third definition could be:
Mobile Computing is when a work process is carried out somewhere where it
was not previously possible.
6
Comparison to Wired Net.
• Wired Networks • Mobile Networks

- high bandwidth - low bandwidth
- low bandwidth variability - high bandwidth variability
- can listen on wire - hidden terminal problem
- high power machines - low power machines
- high resource machines - low resource machines
- need physical - need proximity
access(security) - higher delay
- low delay - disconnected operation
- connected operation
7
Why Go Mobile?
• Enable anywhere/anytime connectivity

• Bring computer communications to areas
without pre-existing infrastructure
• Enable mobility
• Enable new applications
• An exciting new research area
8
Mobile Computing
Vs
Wireless Networking
9
Evolution of Wireless LAN

• In late 1980s, vendors started offering wireless
products, which were to substitute the
traditional wired LAN (Local Area Network)
products.
• The idea was to use a wireless local area
network to avoid the cost of installing LAN
cabling and ease the task of relocation or
otherwise modifying the network's structure.
10

• The question of interoperability between
different wireless LAN products became
critical.
• IEEE standard committee took the
responsibility to form the standard for
WLAN.
• As a result IEEE 802.11 series of standards
emerged.
11

• WLAN uses the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific,
and Medical (ISM) band that different products
can use as long as they comply with certain
regulatory rules
• WLAN is also known as Wireless Fidelity or
WiFi in short
• There are many products which use these
unlicensed bands along with WLAN.
12

• Examples could be cordless telephone, microwave oven
etc.
• There are 3 bands within the ISM bands.
– These are 900-MHz ISM band, which ranges from 902
to 928 MHz;
– 2.4-GHz ISM band, which ranges from 2.4 to 2.4853
GHz; and
– the 5.4 GHz band, which range from 5.275 to 5.85
GHz.
• WLAN uses 2.4 GHz and 5.4 GHz bands.
• WLAN works both in infrastructure mode and ad hoc
mode
13
Evolution of Wireless PAN

• Techniques for WPANs are infrared and radio
waves.
• Most of the Laptop computers support
communication through infrared, for which
standards have been formulated by IrDA
(Infrared Data Association-www.irda.org).
• Through WPAN, a PC can communicate with
another IrDA device like another PC or a
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) or a Cellular
phone.
14
Evolution of Wireless PAN Cont.

• The other best known PAN technology
standard is Bluetooth.
• Bluetooth uses radio instead of infrared.
• It offers a peak over the air speed of about 1
Mbps over a short range of about 10 meters.
• The advantage of radio wave is that unlike
infrared it does not need a line of sight.
• WPAN works in ad hoc mode only
15
New Forms of Computing
Wireless Computing
Nomadic Computing
Mobile Computing
Computing Ubiquitous Computing
Pervasive Computing
Invisible Computing
16
MOBILE COMPUTING
• Mobile computing can be defined as a
computing environment over physical
mobility.
• The user of a mobile computing
environment will be able to access data,
information or other logical objects from
any device in any network while on the
move.
17
MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.
• Mobile computing system allows a

user to perform a task from
anywhere using a computing device
in the public (the Web), corporate
(business information) and personal
information spaces (medical record,
address book).
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• Mobile computing is used in different contexts
with different names. The most common
names are:
– Mobile Computing:
• The computing environment is mobile and moves along
with the user.
• This is similar to the telephone number of a GSM
(Global System for Mobile communication) phone,
which moves with the phone.
• The offline (local) and real-time (remote) computing
environment will move with the user.
• In real-time mode user will be able to use all his remote
data and services online.
Fatima Michael College of Engineering & Technology 19

– Anywhere, Anytime Information: This is the
generic definition of ubiquity, where the
information is available anywhere, all the time.
– Virtual Home Environment: (VHE) is defined as an
environment in a foreign network such that the
mobile users can experience the same computing
experience as they have in their home or corporate
computing environment.
• For example, one would like to put ones room heater on
when one is about 15 minutes away from home.
20

– Nomadic Computing: The computing
environment is nomadic and moves along with the
mobile user.
• This is true for both local and remote services.
– Pervasive Computing: A computing environment,
which is pervasive in nature and can be made
available in any environment.
– Ubiquitous Computing: A disappearing (nobody
will notice its presence) everyplace computing
environment. User will be able to use both local
and remote services.
21

– Global Service Portability: Making a
service portable and available in every
environment. Any service of any
environment will be available globally.
– Wearable Computers: Wearable
computers are those computers that
may be adorned by humans like a hat,
shoe or clothes (these are wearable
accessories).
22
Mobile Computing Functions

• We can define a computing environment as mobile if
it supports one or more of the following
characteristics:
• User Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one physical
location to another location and use the same service.
– The service could be in the home network or a remote
network.
– Example could be a user moves from London to New
York and uses Internet to access the corporate
application the same way the user uses in the home
office.
23
Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

• Network Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one network to

another network and use the same service.
– Example could be a user moves from Hong Kong
to New Delhi and uses the same GSM phone to
access the corporate application through WAP
(Wireless Application Protocol). In home network
he uses this service over GPRS (General Packet
Radio Service) whereas in Delhi he accesses it
over the GSM network.
24
• Bearer Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one bearer to
another and use the same service.
– Example could be a user was using a service
through WAP bearer in his home network in
Bangalore. He moves to Coimbatore, where WAP
is not supported, he switch over to voice or
SMS(Short Message Service) bearer to access the
same application.
25
• Device Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one
device to another and use the same service.
– Example could be sales representatives
using their desktop computer in home
office. During the day while they are on the
street they would like to use their Palmtop
to access the application.
26

• Session Mobility:
– A user session should be able to move from one
user-agent environment to another.
– Example could be a user was using his service
through a CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access) IX network. The user entered into the
basement to park the car and got disconnected
from his CDMA network. User goes to home
office and starts using the desktop. The unfinished
session in the CDMA device moves from the
mobile device to the desktop computer.
27

• Service Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one service to
another.
– Example could be a user is writing a mail. To
complete the mail user needs to refer to some
other information. In a desktop PC, user simply
opens another service (browser) and moves
between them using the task bar. User should be
able to switch amongst services in small footprint
wireless devices like in the desktop.
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• Host Mobility:
– The user device can be either a client or
server.
– When it is a server or host, some of the
complexities change.
– In case of host mobility the mobility of IP
needs to be taken care of.
29
Types of Wireless Devices
• Laptops
• Palmtops
• PDAs
• Cell phones
• Pagers
• Sensors
30
Apple’s Newton
1987
31
The Palm
1990
32
Motorola Marco
• Newton OS 1.3
• 4MB ROM
• 1995 • 687KB Flash RAM
• 320x240 Monochrome LCD resistive
touchscreen
• RS422 serial port
• Localtalk support
• 1 PCMCIA Slot (5V or 12V)
• 1 Sharp ASK infrared port
• 4 AA batteries, rechargeable NiCd
batteries may be used
• First released January 1995
• It weighs 1.8 pounds and is 7.5 inches
high, 5.8 inches wide and 1.4 inches deep
1995 • Street price: USD 900-1400
33
Motorola Envoy
1996
34
The Pocket PC
1998
35
The Nokia 9000 Communicator
1996
36
The Hand-Held Computer:Sharp Zaurus
1998
37
The Vadem Clio: Hand-Held?, Tablet?

Other?
1999
38
The Tablet PC
Fujitsu Stylistic 2300/3400
2002
39
Laptops, Notebook, Sub Notebooks

& Netbooks
Laptops: 1991
Notebooks: 1996
Netbooks: 2006
40
The First Wrist PC: Ruputer, 2000
41
Japan’s PHS Phone, Year 2001
42
Ear Phone, 2000
43
Wearable Computers, 2000
44
More Wearable -- Via PC
Http://ww.via-pc.com
2007
45
Wireless Helmet?
46
The Power Ring
47
NTT Key Fingers
48
The Projection Keyboard
http://www.canesta.com
49
Today
Andriod
The iphone
MyVu
The iPad
Plastic Logic QUE 22Moo Portable projectors

50
Smart Phones
51
Smart Phones
2009

Re-Inventing the Tablet:

The New War of the PADs
2010-2011
2010
Microsoft: Soon

Applications for mobile computing

• There are several applications for mobile computing
including wireless remote access by travelers and
commuters, point of sale, stock trading, medical
emergency care, law enforcement, package delivery,
education, insurance industry, disaster recovery and
management, trucking industry, intelligence and
military.
• Most of these applications can be classified into:
– wireless and mobile access to the Internet
– wireless and mobile access to private Intranets
– wireless and adhocly mobile access between mobile
computers.
54
Mobile Computing - Characteristics

– Mobile devices
• Laptops
• Palmtops
• Smart cell phones
– Requirements
• Data access:
– Anywhere
– Anytime
• Nomadic users
– Constraints
• Limited ressources
• Variable connectivty:
– Performance
– Reliability
55
Application Structure
Ethernet Ethernet
Distributed DB
Database
E-Fax-Order Branch office

Firm
xDSL
Application GSM Ethernet

Cache
Management
Resource DB-Access
Mobile Station
Distributed
Database
Communication path Client X 56
Traffic Telematics Systems

Content Provider
Main Office
Content Provider
ATM
Internet
Beam Radio, ISDN GSM
Radio/Infrared
DAB: Digital Audio Broadcast
RDS/TMC: Radio Data System/ Traffic
Infrastructure Message Channel
57
Mobile Communication Networks: Examples

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications): worldwide standard for
digital, cellular Mobile Radio Networks
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System): European Standard
for future digital Mobile Radio Networks
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System): analog Mobile Radio Networks in
USA
DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications): European standard
for cordless phones
TETRA (Terrestrial Trunked Radio): European standard for circuit switched
radio networks
ERMES (European Radio Message System): European standard for radio
paging systems (Pager)
802.11: International standard for Wireless Local Networks
Bluetooth: wireless networking in close/local area
Inmarsat: geostationary satellite systems
Teledesic: planned satellite system on a non-geostationary orbit 58

Mobile Communication: Development

C D (GSM900) E (GSM1800)
Mobile Phone Networks
HSCSD EDGE
GPRS
Cordless Telephony CT2 DECT
IMT2000/
UMTS
Packet Networks Modacom
Mobitex
Circuit Switched Networks Tetra
Satellite Networks Iridium/

Inmarsat Globalstar
Radio-LAN
Local Networks IEEE 802.11/ MBS
Hiperlan
IR-LAN
1990 1995 2000 2005
59
Used Acronyms
CT2: Cordless Telephone 2. Generation

HSCSD: High Speed Circuit Switched Data
GPRS: General Packet Radio Service
EDGE: Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
IMT2000: International Mobile Telecommunications by
the year 2000
MBS: Mobile Broadband System
60
Wireless MAC Protocols - Issues
61
Hidden Terminal Problem

• A sends to B, C cannot receive A
• C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS
fails)
• collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD
fails)
• A is “hidden” for C
A B C
62
Exposed Terminal Problem
• B sends to A, C wants to send to D

• C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
• since A is outside the radio range of C waiting is not
necessary
• C is “exposed” to B
A B C D
63
Near and Far Terminals

• Terminals A and B send, C receives
– the signal of terminal B hides A’s signal
– C cannot receive A
A B C
• This is also a severe problem for CDMA networks

• precise power control required
64
Classification of
wireless MAC protocols
Wireless MAC protocols
Fixed-assignment Random-access Reservation based

schemes schemes schemes
Eg. FDMA, TDMA & Eg. Aloha & CSMA Eg. MACA
CDMA
Connectionless CO packet-switched
Circuit-switched packet-switched
65
International Cocktail Party

• FDMA – Large room divided up into small
rooms. Each pair of people takes turns
speaking.
• TDMA – Large room divided up into small
rooms. Three pairs of people per room,
however, each pair gets 20 seconds to speak.
• CDMA – No small rooms. Everyone is
speaking in different languages. If voice
volume is minimized, the number of people is
maximized.
66
Fixed-assignment schemes
• TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access
• FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access
• CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
67
TDMA
• Each user transmits data on a time slot on
multiple frequencies
• A time slot is a channel
• A user sends data at an accelerated rate
(by using many frequencies) when its
time slot begins
• Data is stored at receiver and played back
at original slow rate
68
General Specification of TDMA

• Rx: 869-894MHz Tx: 824-849MHz
• 832 Channels spaced 30kHz apart (3
users/channel)
• DQPSK modulation scheme
• 48.6kbps bit rate
• Interim Standard (IS) – 54
• Digital AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone
System)
• Uses Time Division Duplexing (TDD) usually
69
TDMA Operation
• Efficiency of TDMA frame:
bOH - overhead bits per frame
N r - number of reference bursts per frame
N t - number of traffic bursts per frame
br - number of overhead bits per reference burst
bp - number of overhead bits per preamble per slot
bg - number of equivalent bits in each guard time interval
T f - frame duration
Rrf - bit rate of the radio-frequency channel
bOH  N r br  N t bp   N t  N r  bg
btotal  T f  Rrf
 b 
 f  1  OH   100%
 b total 
70
Advantages of TDMA
• Flexible bit rate
• No frequency guard band required
• No need for precise narrowband filters
• Easy for mobile or base stations to initiate and
execute hands off
• Extended battery life
• TDMA installations offer savings in base station
equipment, space and maintenance
• The most cost-effective technology for upgrading a
current analog system to digital
71
Disadvantages to using TDMA
• Requires network-wide timing

synchronization
• Requires signal processing fro matched
filtering and correlation detection
• Demands high peak power on uplink in
transient mode
• Multipath distortion
72
FDMA
• Similar to broadcast radio and TV, assign a
different carrier frequency per call
• Modulation technique determines the
required carrier spacing
• Each communicating wireless user gets his/her
own carrier frequency on which to send data
• Need to set aside some frequencies that are
operated in random-access mode to enable a
wireless user to request and receive a carrier
for data transmission
73
General Specification of FDMA

• Rx: 869-894MHz Tx: 824-849MHz
• 832 Channels spaced 30kHz apart
(3 users/channel)
• DQPSK modulation scheme
• 48.6kbps bit rate
• Used in analog cellular phone systems (AMPS)
• Uses Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
• ISI (Intersymbol Interference) is low
74
FDMA Operation
 f  2   guard
• Number of FDMA Channels N
c
 f - total spectrum
 guard - guard band
 c - channel bandwidth
• In the U.S. each cellular carrier is allocated

416 channels where:   12.5MHz f
 guard  10kHz
 c  30kHz
12.5MHz  2  10kHz
N  416
30kHz
75
Advantages of FDMA
• If channel is not in use, it sits idle
• Channel bandwidth is relatively narrow (30kHz)
• Simple algorithmically, and from a hardware
standpoint
• Fairly efficient when the number of stations is small
and the traffic is uniformly constant
• Capacity increase can be obtained by reducing the
information bit rate and using efficient digital code
• No need for network timing
• No restriction regarding the type of baseband or type
of modulation 76

Disadvantages to using FDMA

• The presence of guard bands
• Requires right RF filtering to minimize
adjacent channel interference
• Maximum bit rate per channel is fixed
• Small inhibiting flexibility in bit rate
capability
• Does not differ significantly from analog
system
77
Frequency vs Time
FDMA Carrier TDMA Hybrid FDMA/TDMA

Frequency
Frequency
Frequency
Time Time Time
Basic principle of communication: Two regions in the time-

frequency plane with equal areas can carry the same amount of
information
78
General Specification of CDMA

• Rx: 869-894MHz Tx: 824-849MHz
• 20 Channels spaced 1250kHz apart
(798 users/channel)
• QPSK/(Offset) OQPSK modulation scheme
• 1.2288Mbps bit rate
• IS-95 standard
• Operates at both 800 and 1900 MHz
frequency bands
79
CDMA Operation
• Spread Spectrum Multiple Access Technologies
80
Advantages of CDMA
• Many users of CDMA use the same frequency,
TDD or FDD may be used
• Multipath fading may be substantially reduced
because of large signal bandwidth
• No absolute limit on the number of users
• Easy addition of more users
• Impossible for hackers to decipher the code sent
• Better signal quality
• No sense of handoff when changing cells
81
Disadvantages to using CDMA
• As the number of users increases, the

overall quality of service decreases
• Self-jamming
• Near- Far- problem arises
82
Random Access Scheme
• ALOHA
• CSMA
83
The ALOHA Protocols
• Developed @ U of Hawaii in early 70’s.

• Packet radio networks.
• “Free for all”: whenever station has a frame to
send, it does so.
– Station listens for maximum RTT for an ACK.
– If no ACK, re-sends frame for a number of times and
then gives up.
– Receivers check FCS and destination address to ACK.
84
Pure ALOHA
• In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at
completely arbitrary times.
85
Collisions
• Invalid frames may be caused by

channel noise or
• Because other station(s) transmitted at
the same time: collision.
• Collision happens even when the last
bit of a frame overlaps with the first bit
of the next frame.
86
Pure ALOHA: Performance

• Vulnerable period for the shaded frame.
87
ALOHA’s Performance (Cont’d)
• S = G e-2G, where S is the

throughput (rate of successful
transmissions) and G is the offered
load.
• S = Smax = 1/2e = 0.184 for G=0.5.
88
Slotted Aloha
• Doubles performance of ALOHA.

• Frames can only be transmitted at
beginning of slot: “discrete” ALOHA.
• Vulnerable period is halved.
• S = G e-G.
• S = Smax = 1/e = 0.368 for G = 1.
89
ALOHA Protocols: Performance

• Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA
systems.
90
ALOHA Protocols: Summary
• Simple.
• But, poor utilization…
– When?
91
Carrier Sense Multiple Access

• The capacity of ALOHA or slotted ALOHA is
limited by the large vulnerability period of a
packet.
• By listening before transmitting, stations try to
reduce the vulnerability period to one
propagation delay.
• This is the basis of CSMA (Kleinrock and
Tobagi, UCLA, 1975).
92
CSMA
• Station that wants to transmit first listens

to check if another transmission is in
progress (carrier sense).
• If medium is in use, station waits; else, it
transmits.
• Collisions can still occur.
• Transmitter waits for ACK; if no ACKs,
retransmits.
93
CSMA Protocol
Packet
ready
Channel
Busy?
yes
no
transmit
delay packet
wait for a transmission
round-trip time k times
positive compute random

yes ack? no backoff integer k
94
CSMA (cont’d)
• Collisions can occur only when 2 or
more stations begin transmitting
within short time.
• If station transmits and no collisions
during the time leading edge of
frame propagates to farthest station,
then NO collisions.
95
CSMA Flavors
• After detecting carrier, a station can persist trying to
transmit after the channel is idle again.
• 1-persistent CSMA (IEEE 802.3)
– If medium idle, transmit; if medium busy, wait until idle; then
transmit with p=1.
– If collision, waits random period and starts again.
• Non-persistent CSMA: if medium idle, transmit; otherwise
wait a random time before re-trying.
– Thus, station does not continuously sense channel when it is in
use.
• P-persistent: when channel idle detected, transmits packet in the
first slot with p.
– Slotted channel, i.e., with probability q = p-1, defers to next
slot. Michael College of Engineering & Technology 96
Fatima
CSMA vs Aloha
• Comparison of the channel utilization versus load

for various random access protocols.
97
CSMA/CD
• CSMA with collision detection.
• Problem: when frames collide, medium
is unusable for duration of both
(damaged) frames.
• For long frames (when compared to
propagation time), considerable waste.
• What if station listens while
transmitting?
98
CSMA/CD Protocol
1. If medium idle, transmit; otherwise 2.
2. If medium busy, wait until idle, then
transmit with p=1.
3. If collision detected, transmit brief
jamming signal and abort transmission.
4. After aborting, wait random time, try
again.
99
CSMA/CD Performance
• Wasted capacity restricted to time to

detect collision.
• Time to detect collision < 2*maximum
propagation delay.
• Rule in CSMA/CD protocols: frames
long enough to allow collision detection
prior to end of transmission.
100
CSMA with Collision Detection
• CSMA/CD can be in one of three states:

contention, transmission, or idle.
101
Ethernet
• IEEE 802. family.
• Standards for LANs and MANs.
• Ethernet defined in the IEEE 802.3
standard.
• PHY, MAC, and LLC.
102
MACA : Multiple Access with

Collision Avoidance
• Exchange of two short messages – Request to Send (RTS), and
Clear to Send (CTS).
• They are fixed size – when A wishes to transmit to B, it sends an
RTS message.
• RTS message contains duration of proposed transmission
• If B knows that the channel is free, it responds with a CTS
message. (CTS also contains duration of proposed communication)
• How does this help ? RTS
A B
CTS D
C
103
MACA
RTS
A B
CTS D
C
• Any station that hears the RTS message, defers all communication
for some time until the associated CTS message has been finished.
• A CTS message defers communication for the duration of the time
indicated in the CTS message.
• When A is transmitting data, C can go ahead and access the
channel.
• What all could go wrong here ?
104
Some effects in MACA

• Node B’s CTS message may not be heard by A.
• B found that the channel was already busy.
• RTS packet might collide.
• If A does not receive a CTS, it times-out and schedules the packet for
retransmission.
• MACA uses the binary exponential back-off algorithm to select the
retransmission time.
• B’s CTS message collides at C.
• This would cause C to be unaware of the pending communication
between nodes A and B.
• NOTE: MACA is used (with Modifications) in the WaveLAN cards.
105
Exponential Back-Off
• RTS and CTS slot times (defined to be 30 bytes) form the
basic slot size.
• If CTS is not heard, a station chooses a time that is
uniformly distributed between 1 and BO (for Back-Off).
What is BO ?
• If a CTS message is received then BO is set to BOmin .
• If a CTS is missed, then, if the previous BO was BOold, the
new BO, BOnew is set to BOnew = Min ( 2 x BOold, BOmin).
• BOmin and BOmax represent the minimum and maximum
back-off intervals.
106
Questions ?

UNIT – II
Mr. M. Chander Kumar, Assistant Professor,Dept of

CSE, Fatima Michael College of Engg & Tech,
Fatima Michael College of Madurai
Engineering & Technology
Unit - II
MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL AND TRANSPORT LAYER
Overview of Mobile IP – Features of Mobile IP – Key Mechanism in
Mobile IP – route Optimization. Overview of TCP/IP – Architecture
of TCP/IP- Adaptation of TCP Window – Improvement in TCP
Performance.
2
Why Mobile IP?

 What do cellular networks and wireless LANs provide?
Wireless connectivity
Mobility at the data link layer
 What is Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)?
It provides local IP addresses for mobile hosts
Is not secure
Does not maintain network connectivity when moving around
 What they do not provide:
Transparent connectivity at the network layer
Mobility with local access
 The difference between mobility and nomadicity!
3
What is Mobile IP?
Mobile IP provides network layer

mobility
Provides seamless roaming
‘‘Extends’’ the home network over
the entire Internet
4
IP Overview (1/3)
IP Addressing :
Dotted Decimal Notation: 32 bits (4x8) used to
represent IPv4 addresses - 192.19.241.18
Network Prefix and Host Portions: p - prefix, h -
host, p + h = 32. If p = 24 then h = 32 - 24 = 8.
Using above address the network prefix will be
192.19.241 and host will be 18. For those of you
familiar with subnet masks, “p” represents the
number of 1’s in the subnet mask. If p = 24, subnet
mask is 255.255.255.0, if p = 26, subnet mask is
255.255.255.192.
5
IP Overview (2/3)
 IP Routing:
 Network prefix is used for routing. Routing tables are used to look
up next hop and the interface on the router that is to be used.
 In the routing tables we use the following notation: target/prefix

length, e.g., 192.19.241.0/24, or 192.19.241.192/26.
 If two subnet masks/prefixes fit the address, the one with the
largest prefix is chosen for routing. E.g., a router with the
following 3 entries in its table: 7.7.7.99/32 (p=32 host specific)
and 7.7.7.0/24 (0<p<32 network prefix) and 0.0.0.0/0 (p=0 default)
will use entry 2 for an IP packet with destination 7.7.7.1 and entry
3 for destination 192.33.14.12.
6
IP Overview (3/3)
 Domain Name System (DNS): used to translate a host name to an IP
address. A host sends a query to a server to obtain the IP address of a
destination of which it only has the host name.
 Link Layer Addresses - Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):
 Once a host has the IP address of a destination it then needs to finds
its layer 2 address or the layer 2 address of the next hop on the path.
A broadcast message is sent and the targeted host responds with its
layer 2 address.
 A proxy ARP is a response by a node for another node that cannot
respond at the time the request is made (e.g. the node is a mobiel
node and not on its host net at the time, its home agent will respond
in its stead).
 A gratuitous ARP, is a reply to no ARP request, used by a node that
just joins the network and wants to make its address known. Can be
used by a mobile node upon its return to its home net.
7
Motivation for Mobile IP

 IP Routing
 based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42)
determines physical subnet
 change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a
topologically correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the
routing tables
 Specific routes to end-systems?
 requires changing all routing table entries to forward packets to the right
destination
 does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in
the location, security problems
 Changing the IP-address?
 adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
 almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take long time
 TCP connections break, security problems
8
What Mobile IP does?

 Mobile IP solves the following problems:
 if a node moves without changing its IP address it will be unable to
receive its packets,
 if a node changes its IP address it will have to terminate and restart
its ongoing connections everytime it moves to a new network area
(new network prefix).
 Mobile IP is a routing protocol with a very specific purpose.
 Mobile IP is a network layer solution to node mobility in the Internet.
 Mobile IP is not a complete solution to mobility, changes to the
transport protocols need to be made for a better solution (i.e., the
transport layers are unaware of the mobile node’s point of attachment
and it might be useful if, e.g., TCP knew that a wireless link was being
used!).
9
Requirements to Mobile IP
 Transparency
 mobile end-systems keep their IP address
 continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
 point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
 Compatibility
 support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP
 no changes to current end-systems and routers required
 mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems
 Security
 authentication of all registration messages
 Efficiency and scalability
 only little additional messages to the mobile system required
(connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link)
 world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the
whole Internet
Mobile IP Terminology
 Mobile Node (MN)
 system (node) that can change the point of connection to the
network without changing its IP address
 Home Agent (HA)
 system in the home network of the MN, typically a router
 registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA
 Foreign Agent (FA)
 system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
 forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the
default router for the MN
 Care-of Address (COA)
 address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
 actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
 can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
 Correspondent Node (CN)
 communication partner 11
Properties of COA
A care-of address is an IP address associated with
mobile node that is visiting a foreign link:
A care-of address is specific to the foreign link currently
being visited by a mobile node
Generally changes every time the mobile node moves from
one foreign link to another
No Mobile IP-specific procedures are needed in order to
deliver packets to a care-of address
Is used as the exit-point of a tunnel from the home agent
toward the mobile node
Is never returned by DNS when another node looks up the
mobile node’s hostname
12
COA
COA
router
home router MN
FA
network HA
foreign
Internet network
CN router
3.
router
home router MN
2. FA
network HA
4.
foreign
Internet network
1.
CN router
13
Types of COA
 A foreign agent care-of address is an IP address of a foreign
agent which has an interface on the foreign link being visited
by a mobile node. Can be shared by many mobile nodes
simultaneously
 A collocated care-of address is an IP address temporarily
assigned to an interface of the mobile node itself. The
network-prefix of a collocated care-of address must equal the
network-prefix that has been assigned to the foreign link being
visited by a mobile node. This type of c/o address might be
used by mobile node in situations where no foreign agents are
available on a foreign link. A collocated c/o address can be
used by only one mobile node at a time
14
Mobile IP Features
Allows a host to be reachable at the same
address, even as it changes its location
makes it seem as one network extends over
the entire Internet
continuous connectivity, seamless roaming
even while network applications are running
fully transparent to the user
15
Example network
HA
MN
router
home network mobile end-system

Internet
(physical home network FA foreign
for the MN)
network
router
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN
end-system router
16
Key Mechanism in Mobile IP

 Home Agents and Foreign Agents advertise their presence on
any attached links by periodically multicasting or broadcasting
special Mobile IP messages called Agent Advertisements
 Mobile Nodes listen to these Agent Advertisements and
examine their contents to determine whether they are
connected to their home link or a foreign link
 A Mobile Node connected to a foreign link acquires a care-of
address. A foreign agent care-of address can be read from one
of the fields within the foreign agent’s Agent Advertisement. A
collocated care-of address must be acquired by some
assignment procedure, such as Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP), the Point-to-Point Protocol’s IP Control
Protocol (IPCP), or manual configuration
17
Data transfer to the mobile system

HA
2
MN
home network 3 receiver

Internet
FA foreign
network
1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)
1 2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA,
CN
by encapsulation
3. FA forwards the packet
sender to the MN
18
Data transfer from the mobile system

HA
1 MN
home network sender

Internet
FA foreign
network
1. Sender sends to the IP address

of the receiver as usual,
CN
FA works as default router
receiver
19
Key Mechanism in Mobile IP

 The mobile IP Registers the care-of address acquired previously with its
home agent, using a message-exchange defined by Mobile IP. It asks for
service from a Foreign Agent, if one is present on the link. In order to
prevent Denial-of-Service attacks, the registration messages are required
to be authenticated
 The Home Agent or some other router on the home link advertises
reachability to the network-prefix of the Mobile Node’s home address,
thus attracting packets that are destined to the Mobile Node’s home
address. The Home Agent intercepts these packets, and tunnels them to
the care-of address that the mobile node registered previously
 At the care-of address – at either the Foreign Agent or one of the
interfaces of the mobile node itself – the original packet is extracted from
the tunnel and then delivered to the Mobile Node
 In the reverse direction, packets sent by the Mobile Node are routed
directly to their destination, without any need for tunneling. The Foreign
Agent serves as a default router for all packets generated by visiting node
20
Route Optimization
 Triangle Routing: tunneling in its simplest form has all packets go to
home network (HA) and then sent to MN via a tunnel.
 This involves two IP routes that need to be set-up, one original and
the second the tunnel route.
 Causes unnecessary network overhead and adds to the latency.
 Route optimization: allows the correspondent node to learn the current
location of the MN and tunnel its own packets directly. Problems arise
with
 mobility: correspondent node has to update/maintain its cache.
 authentication: HA has to communicate with the correspondent
node to do authentication, i.e., security association is with HA not
with MN.
21
Optimization of Packet Forwarding
Change of FA
packets on-the-fly during the change can be
lost
new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss,
old FA now forwards remaining packets to
new FA
this information also enables the old FA to
release resources for the MN
22
Change of foreign agent

CN HA FAold FAnew MN
request
update
ACK
data data
MN changes
location
registration registration
update
ACK
data
data data
warning
update
ACK
data
data
t
23
Problems with Triangle Routing

 Triangle routing has the MN correspond directly with the CN
using its home address as the SA
Firewalls at the foreign network may not allow that
Multicasting: if a MN is to participate in a multicast group, it
needs to use a reverse tunnel to maintain its association with
the home network.
TTL: a MN might have a TTL that is suitable for
communication when it is in its HM. This TTL may not be
sufficient when moving around (longer routes possibly). When
using a reverse tunnel, it only counts as a single hop. A MN
does not want to change the TTL everytime it moves.
 Solution: reverse tunneling
24
Reverse tunneling (RFC 2344)

HA
2
MN
home network sender

1
Internet
FA foreign
network
1. MN sends to FA
3 2. FA tunnels packets to HA
CN by encapsulation
3. HA forwards the packet to the
receiver (standard case)
receiver
25
Mobile IP with reverse tunneling

 Routers accept often only “topologically correct“ addresses
(firewall!)
 a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now
topologically correct
 Multicast and TTL problems solved
 Reverse tunneling does not solve
 all problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to
circumvent security mechanisms (tunnel hijacking)
 optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through
the tunnel via the HA to a sender (longer routes)
 The new standard is backwards compatible
 the extensions can be implemented easily
26
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

 Application
 simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers
 supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS
server address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc.
 enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the
Internet, can be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP
 Client/Server-Model
 the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server
(might be via a DHCP relay) DHCPDISCOVER
DHCPDISCOVER
server client
client relay
27
DHCP - Protocol Mechanisms

server client server
(not selected) initialization (selected)
DHCPDISCOVER DHCPDISCOVER
determine the determine the
configuration configuration
DHCPOFFER DHCPOFFER
collection of replies
selection of configuration
DHCPREQUEST DHCPREQUEST
confirmation of
(reject) (options)
configuration
DHCPACK
initialization completed
release
DHCPRELEASE delete context
28
DHCP characteristics
 Server
several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not
yet standardized (i.e., manual configuration)
 Renewal of configurations
IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified
protocol
 Options
available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time
protocol) timeserver, SLP (service location protocol)
directory, DNS (domain name system)
 Big security problems!
no authentication of DHCP information specified
29
Mobile IP Summary
 Allows node mobility across media of similar or dissimilar types
 Uses the Mobile Node’s permanent home address when it
changes its point of attachment to the Internet
 Not requires any hardware and software upgrades to the
existing, installed base of IPv4 hosts and routers – other than
those nodes specifically involved in the provision of mobility
services
 Mobile Node must provide strong authentication when it
informs its Home Agent of its current location
 Uses tunneling to deliver packets that are destined to the Mobile
Node’s home address
 3 main entities: Mobile Nodes, Foreign Agents and Home
Agents
 3 basic functions: Agent Discovery, Registration, Packet Routing
30
Origins of TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP)
Resulted from a coordinated effort by the U.S. Department
of Defense (DOD)
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
Charged with creating a wide area network (WAN)
Results were TCP/IP and ARPANET
DOD funded two projects
The adaptation of TCP/IP to work with UNIX
The inclusion of the TCP/IP protocol with Berkeley UNIX
(BSD UNIX)
31
Overview of TCP/IP
Reliable, full-duplex, connection-
oriented, stream delivery
Interface presented to the application
doesn’t require data in individual packets
Data is guaranteed to arrive, and in the
correct order without duplications
Or the connection will be dropped
Imposes significant overheads
32
Overview of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The TCP/IP model explains how the protocol

suite works to provide communications
Four layers: Application, Transport, Internetwork,
and Network Interface
Requests for Comments (RFCs)
Define, describe, and standardize the
implementation and configuration of the TCP/IP
protocol suite
33
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
34
TCP/IP Architecture
Application TELNET FTP SMTP DNS SNMP DHCP
Presentation
Session
RIP
Transport RTP Transmission User Datagram

OSPF
RTCP Control Protocol Protocol
IGMP ICMP
Network Internet Protocol
ARP
Data link
Physical Ethernet Token Bus Token Ring FDDI
35
Application Layer
 Protocols at the TCP/IP Application layer include:
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
Network File System (NFS)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Terminal emulation protocol (telnet)
Remote login application (rlogin)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Domain Name System (DNS)
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
36
Transport Layer
Performs end-to-end packet delivery,
reliability, and flow control
Protocols:
TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented
communications between two hosts
Requires more network overhead
UDP provides connectionless datagram services
between two hosts
Faster but less reliable
Reliability is left to the Application layer
37
Transport Layer (continued)

Ports
TCP and UDP use port numbers for
communications between hosts
Port numbers are divided into three ranges:
Well Known Ports are those from 1 through
1,023
Registered Ports are those from 1,024 through
49,151
Dynamic/Private Ports are those from 49,152
through 65,535
38
39
Transport Layer (continued)

TCP three-way handshake
Establishes a reliable connection between two
points
TCP transmits three packets before the actual data
transfer occurs
Before two computers can communicate over TCP,
they must synchronize their initial sequence
numbers (ISN)
A reset packet (RST) indicates that a TCP
connection is to be terminated without further
interaction
40
41
42
43
Adaption of TCP Window

TCP sliding windows
Control the flow and efficiency of communication
Also known as windowing
A method of controlling packet flow between hosts
Allows multiple packets to be sent and affirmed with a
single acknowledgment packet
The size of the TCP window determines the
number of acknowledgments sent for a given data
transfer
Networks that perform large data transfers should
use large window sizes
44
Adaption of TCP Window
TCP sliding windows (continued)

Other flow control methods include
Buffering
Congestion avoidance
45
Internetwork Layer
Four main protocols function at this layer
Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
ARP
A routed protocol
Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses
ARP tables contain the MAC and IP addresses of
other devices on the network
46
Internetwork Layer (continued)

ARP (continued)
When a computer transmits a frame to a
destination on the local network
It checks the ARP cache for an IP to MAC
address mapping for the destination node
ARP request
If a source computer cannot locate an IP to
MAC address mapping in its ARP table
It must obtain the correct mapping
47
48

ARP request (continued)
A source computer broadcasts an ARP request to
all hosts on the local segment
Host with the matching IP address responds this
request
ARP request frame
See Figure 3-7
ARP cache life
Source checks its local ARP cache prior to sending
packets on the local network
49
50

ARP cache life (continued)
Important that the mappings are correct
Network devices place a timer on ARP entries
ARP tables reduce network traffic
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
Similar to ARP
Used primarily by diskless workstations
Which have MAC addresses burned into their network
cards but no IP addresses
Client’s IP configuration is stored on a RARP
server
51

RARP request frame
See Figure 3-8
RARP client
Once a RARP client receives a RARP reply, it
configures its IP networking components
By copying its IP address configuration information
into its local RAM
ARP and RARP compared
ARP is concerned with obtaining the MAC
address of other clients
RARP obtains the IP address of the local host
52
53

 ARP and RARP compared (continued)
The local host maintains the ARP table
A RARP server maintains the RARP table
The local host uses an ARP reply to update its ARP
table and to send frames to the destination
The RARP reply is used to configure the IP protocol
on the local host
 Routers and ARP
ARP requests use broadcasts
Routers filter broadcast traffic
Source must forward the frame to the router
54

ARP tables
Routers maintain ARP tables to assist in
transmitting frames from one network to another
A router uses ARP just as other hosts use ARP
Routers have multiple network interfaces and
therefore also include the port numbers of their
NICs in the ARP table
The Ping utility
Packet Internet Groper (Ping) utility verifies
connectivity between two points
Uses ICMP echo request/reply messages
55
56
57

The Trace utility
Uses ICMP echo request/reply messages
Can verify Internetwork layer (OSI-Network
layer) connectivity
Shows the exact path a packet takes from the
source to the destination
Accomplished through the use of the time-to-live
(TTL) counter
Several different malicious network attacks have
also been created using ICMP messages
Example: ICMP flood
58
59
Network Interface Layer

Plays the same role as the Data Link and
Physical layers of the OSI model
The MAC address, network card drivers, and
specific interfaces for the network card
function at this level
No specific IP functions exist at this layer
Because the layer’s focus is on communication
with the network card and other networking
hardware
60
Traditional TCP
Assume congestion to be the primary

cause for packet losses and unusual
delays
Invoke congestion control and
avoidance algorithms, resulting in
significant degraded end-to-end
performance and very high
interactive delays
61
TCP in Mobile Wireless Networks
Communication characterized by
sporadic high bit-error rates (10-4 to
10-6)
disconnections
intermittent connectivity due to
handoffs
low bandwidth
62
Mobile Networks Topology
FH
BS1 BS2
FH – Fixed Host
BS – Base Station
MH MH
MH – Mobile Host
63
TCP Performance with BER
BER = 10-5 BER = 10-6
Throughput 39.439 87.455

(pkts/sec)
Success Probability 0.9892 0.999
Transfer time of 123.847 58.032
5000 pkts. in
secs.
64
Classification of Schemes
End-to-End protocols
loss recovery handled by sender
Link-layer solutions
hide link-related losses from sender
TCP sender may not be fully shielded
Split-connection approaches
hide any non-congestion related losses from TCP
sender
since the problem is local, solve it locally
65
End-to-End Protocols
Make the sender realize some losses

are due to bit-error, not congestion.
Sender avoid invoking congestion
control algorithms if non-congestion
related losses occur.
E.g. Reno, New-Reno, SACK
66
Link-Layer Protocols
Hides the characteristics of the wireless

link from the transport layer and tries to
solve the problem at the link layer
Uses technique like forward error
correction (FEC)
Snoop, AIRMAIL(Asymmetric Reliable
Mobile Access In Link-layer)
67
Link-layer Protocols
Pros:
The wireless link is made more reliable
Doesn’t change the semantics of TCP
Fits naturally into the layered structure of network
protocols
Cons:
If the wireless link is very lossy, sender times-out
waiting for ACK, and congestion control algorithm
starts
68
Split Connection
Split the TCP connection into two
separate connections.
1st connection: sender to base station
2nd connection: base station to receiver
The base station simply copies packets
between the connections in both directions.
antenna
69
Split Connection
Pros:
Sender shielded from wireless link.
Better throughput can be achieved by fine
tuning the wireless protocol link.
Cons:
Violates the semantics of TCP
Extra copying at the Base station.
70
Classification of Schemes
End to End Split Connection Link layer
Reno SACK AIRMAIL Snoop

New-Reno
I-TCP M-TCP
71
Improving TCP/IP Performance

Over Wireless Networks
72
Snoop-TCP
A (snoop) layer is added to the routing
code at BS which keep track of packets in
both directions
Packets meant to MH are cached at BS, and
if needed, retransmitted in the wireless link
BS suppress DUPACKs sent from MH to
FH
BS use shorter local timer for local timeout
73
Snoop-TCP
Changes are restricted to BS and

optionally to MH as well
E2E TCP semantics is preserved
74
Snoop Performance
Poisson
Distributed bit
error model.
Max. Bandwidth
– 2Mbps
75
Snoop connection behavior

Error rate: 3.9x10-6
(A bit error every 256
Kbits on Average)
Aggregate bandwidth:
Snoop – 1Mbps,
TCP – 0.25 Mbps
Sequence numbers of the received TCP packets versus time
76
I-TCP: Indirect TCP for Mobile Hosts
I-TCP – connection setup

77
I-TCP – LAN Performance
Normal and overlapped – effective reaction to high BER.

Non-Overlapped – No congestion avoidance algorithm.
78
I-TCP – WAN Performance
79
I-TCP
Disadvantages
End-to-end semantics is not followed
MSR sends an ack to the correspondent but
loses the packet to the mobile host
Copying overhead at MSR
Conclusion
I-TCP particularly suited for applications
which are throughput intensive
80
Slow Start
Sender starts by transmitting 1
segment Sender Receiver
On receiving Ack, congestion
window is set to 2.
On receiving Acks, congestion
window is doubled.
Continues until Timeout occurs
After ssthresh, the sender
increases its window size by
1/[current_window] on
receiving Ack. (Congestion
Avoidance phase)
81
Fast Retransmission
Sender Receiver
Uses Duplicate
Ack to retransmit
Packet Loss
Dup ACK 1
Dup ACK 2
Dup ACK 3
Retransmits
without waiting
for timeout.
82
Fast Recovery
After Fast retransmit, perform congestion
avoidance instead of slow start.
Why?
Duplicate ACK indicates that there are still
data flowing between the two ends →
Network resources are still available.
TCP does not want to reduce the flow
abruptly by going into slow start.
83
End to End Protocols

Tahoe: Original TCP
Slow start, Congestion avoidance, Fast retransmit
Reno: TCP Tahoe + Fast Recovery
Significant Improvement - single packet loss.
Suffers when multiple packets are dropped.
New-Reno: Reno + Stay in Fast Recovery
The first non-duplicate ACK but not the expected
one.
SACK: Reno + SACK option
When multiple packets are dropped
84
Packet Loss Scenario

Tahoe
Fast Retransmission
ssthresh = 0.5 x current window size
congestion window = 1
Reno, New-Reno and SACK
Fast Retransmission
Fast Recovery
congestion window = 0.5 x current window size +
3 x segment size
Increase window size by 1 on receiving a dup
ACK
85
Questions ?

UNIT – III
Dr.A.Kathirvel, Professor and Head, Dept of IT

Mrs. D. Anbarasi, Asst. Professor/IT
Anand Institute of Higher Technology, Chennai
Unit - III
MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) –

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) – Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System (UMTS).
2
Synopsis
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
GSM Services
System Architecture of GSM
GSM Security
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
GPRS Services
GPRS Architecture
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)
UMTS Network Architecture
3
What is GSM?
GSM (Global System for Mobile communication)
is a digital mobile telephony system that is widely
used in Europe and other parts of the world.
GSM is a second generation cellular standard
developed to cater voice services and data delivery
using digital modulation.
GSM uses a variation of time division multiple
access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the
three digital wireless telephony technologies
(TDMA, GSM, and CDMA).
4
What is GSM?
GSM digitizes and compresses data,

then sends it down a channel with two
other streams of user data, each in its
own time slot.
It operates at either the 900 MHz or
1800 MHz frequency band
5
GSM Services
TELE SERVICES : Includes mobile

phones, emergency calling etc.
DATA SERVICES : Includes SMS
(Short message service), fax, voicemail,
electronic mail.
SUPPLYMENTARY SERVICES : I/C
& O/G calls, call forwarding, call hold,
call waiting, conference, etc.
6
GSM Subscriber Services

 Dual-Tone MultiFrequency (DTMF)—DTMF is a tone
signaling scheme often used for various control purposes via
the telephone network, such as remote control of an answering
machine. GSM supports full-originating DTMF.
 facsimile group III—GSM supports CCITT Group 3
facsimile. As standard fax machines are designed to be
connected to a telephone using analog signals, a special fax
converter connected to the exchange is used in the GSM
system.
 short message services—A convenient facility of the GSM
network is the short message service. A message consisting of
a maximum of 160 alphanumeric characters can be sent to or
from a mobile station.
7
GSM Subscriber Services

 cell broadcast—A variation of the short message service is the
cell broadcast facility. A message of a maximum of 93
characters can be broadcast to all mobile subscribers in a certain
geographic area. Typical applications include traffic congestion
warnings and reports on accidents.
 voice mail—This service is actually an answering machine
within the network, which is controlled by the subscriber. Calls
can be forwarded to the subscriber's voice-mail box and the
subscriber checks for messages via a personal security code.
 fax mail—With this service, the subscriber can receive fax
messages at any fax machine. The messages are stored in a
service center from which they can be retrieved by the
subscriber via a personal security code to the desired fax
number.
8
GSM Supplementary Services

 call forwarding—This service gives the subscriber the ability
to forward incoming calls to another number if the called
mobile unit is not reachable, if it is busy, if there is no reply, or
if call forwarding is allowed unconditionally.
 barring of incoming calls—This function allows the subscriber
to prevent incoming calls. The following two conditions for
incoming call barring exist: baring of all incoming calls and
barring of incoming calls when roaming outside the home
PLMN.
 advice of charge (AoC)—The AoC service provides the mobile
subscriber with an estimate of the call charges. There are two
types of AoC information: one that provides the subscriber with
an estimate of the bill and one that can be used for immediate
charging purposes.
9

 call hold—This service enables the subscriber to interrupt an
ongoing call and then subsequently reestablish the call. The
call hold service is only applicable to normal telephony.
 call waiting—This service enables the mobile subscriber to
be notified of an incoming call during a conversation. The
subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the incoming call.
Call waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications
services using a circuit-switched connection.
 multiparty service—The multiparty service enables a
mobile subscriber to establish a multiparty conversation—
that is, a simultaneous conversation between three and six
subscribers. This service is only applicable to normal
telephony.
10

 Calling line identification presentation/restriction—
These services supply the called party with the integrated
services digital network (ISDN) number of the calling
party. The restriction service enables the calling party to
restrict the presentation. The restriction overrides the
presentation.
 Closed user groups (CUGs)—CUGs are generally
comparable to a PBX. They are a group of subscribers
who are capable of only calling themselves and certain
numbers.
 Barring of outgoing calls—This service makes it
possible for a mobile subscriber to prevent all outgoing
calls.
11
GSM Architecture
Network sub-system
Radio sub-system
Operation and maintenance sub-system
12
GSM Architecture
13
Mobile Station(MS)
 The Mobile Station is made up of two entities:
 Mobile Equipment (ME)
 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
Mobile Equipment (ME)
 Portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device
 Uniquely identified by an IMEI (International Mobile
Equipment Identity)
 Voice and data transmission
 Monitoring power and signal quality of surrounding cells
for optimum handover
 Power level : 0.8W – 20 W
 160 character long SMS.
14
Mobile Station(MS)
Subscriber Identity Module(SIM)

 Smart card contains the International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
 Allows user to send and receive calls and
receive other subscribed services
 Protected by a password or PIN
 Can be moved from phone to phone –
contains key information to activate the
phone
15
Network sub-system/Switching System

Home location register (HLR) —The HLR is a
database used for storage and management of
subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most
important database, as it stores permanent data about
subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile,
location information, and activity status.
Mobile services switching center (MSC) —The
MSC performs the telephony switching functions of
the system. It controls calls to and from other
telephone and data systems. It also performs such
functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing,
common channel signaling, and others.
16

Visitor location register (VLR) —The VLR is a
database that contains temporary information about
subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to
service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always
integrated with the MSC.
Authentication center (AUC) —A unit called the
AUC provides authentication and encryption
parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure
the confidentiality of each call. The AUC protects
network operators from different types of fraud found
in today's cellular world.
17
Equipment identity register (EIR) —The

EIR is a database that contains information
about the identity of mobile equipment that
prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or
defective mobile stations. The AUC and
EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes
or as a combined AUC/EIR node.
18
Base Station System/Radio Sub-System

BSC —The BSC provides all the control functions
and physical links between the MSC and BTS. It is a
high-capacity switch that provides functions such as
handover, cell configuration data, and control of
radio frequency (RF) power levels in base
transceiver stations. A number of BSCs are served by
an MSC.
BTS —The BTS handles the radio interface to the
mobile station. The BTS is the radio equipment
(transceivers and antennas) needed to service each
cell in the network. A group of BTSs are controlled
by a BSC.
19
Base Station System/Radio Sub-System
20
OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE SUBSYSTEM
Dynamic monitoring and controlling of
network.
Operation and maintenance data function.
Configuration management.
Fault report and alarm handling.
Performance supervision.
Storage of software and data.
Stores data for minimum one year.
21
Security in GSM
On air interface, GSM uses encryption and

TMSI instead of IMSI.
SIM is provided 4-8 digit PIN to validate the
ownership of SIM
3 algorithms are specified
 A3 algorithm for authentication
 A5 algorithm for encryption
 A8 algorithm for key generation
22
GSM Security Design Requirements

Add significant overhead on call set up
Increase bandwidth of the channel
Increase error rate
Add expensive complexity to the system
Cost effective scheme
Define security procedures
Generation and distribution of keys
Exchange information between operators
Confidentiality of algorithms
23
GSM Security Features

Key management is independent of equipment
Subscribers can change handsets without
compromising security
Subscriber identity protection not easy to identify the
user of the system intercepting a user data
Detection of compromised equipment - Detection
mechanism whether a mobile device was
compromised or not
Subscriber authentication - The operator knows for
billing purposes who is using the system
Signaling and user data protection- Signaling and
data channels are protected over the radio path
24
Authentication and Encryption Scheme

Mobile Station Radio Link GSM Operator
Challenge RAND
SIM
Ki Ki
A3 A3
Signed response (SRES)
SRES SRES
A8 Authentication: are SRES A8

values equal?
Kc Kc
mi Encrypted Data mi
A5 A5
25
A3 – MS Authentication Algorithm
Goal
Generation of SRES response to MSC’s random
challenge RAND
RAND (128 bit)
Ki (128 bit) A3
SRES (32 bit)
26
A8 – Voice Privacy Key Generation
Algorithm
Goal
Generation of session key Kc
A8 specification was never made public
RAND (128 bit)
Ki (128 bit) A8
KC (64 bit)
27
Logical Implementation of A3 and A8

Both A3 and A8 algorithms are implemented
on the SIM
Operator can decide, which algorithm to use.
Algorithms implementation is independent of
hardware manufacturers and network operators.
COMP128 is used for both A3 and A8 in most
GSM networks.
COMP128 is a keyed hash function
28
A5 – Encryption Algorithm
A5 is a stream cipher
Implemented very efficiently on hardware
Design was never made public
Leaked to Ross Anderson and Bruce Schneier
Variants
A5/1 – the strong version
A5/2 – the weak version
A5/3
GSM Association Security Group and 3GPP design
Based on Kasumi algorithm used in 3G mobile systems
29
A5 Encryption
Mobile Stations Base Station Network Subscriber and terminal
Subsystem Management equipment databases
OMC
BTS
Exchange
System
VLR
BTS BSC MSC
HLR AUC
BTS EIR
A5 Encryption
30
General packet radio service (GPRS)
General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet

oriented mobile data service on the 2G and 3G cellular
communication system's global system for mobile
communications(GSM). GPRS was originally
standardized by European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) in response to the
earlier CDPD and i-mode packet-switched cellular
technologies.
31
GPRS
Networks based on the Internet Protocol (IP) and X.25
Theoretically maximum rate is just 171. 2 Kbits/sec.
A realistic estimation on transfer is between 5 and 40
kbps.
It applies a packet radio principle to transfer user data
packets in an efficient way.
This principle offers a more user-friendly billing than
that offered by circuit switched services.
User can be "online" over a long period of time but
will be billed based on the transmitted data volume.
32
GPRS Architecture
33
GPRS Architecture
A serving GPRS support node (SGSN) is responsible
for
Delivery of data packets from and to the mobile
stations within its service area.
Packet routing and transfer
Mobility management (attach/detach and location
management)
Authentication and charging functions. The location
register of the SGSN stores location information and
user profiles (IMSI, addresses used in the packet data
network) of all GPRS users registered with this
SGSN.
34
GPRS Architecture
A gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) acts as an
interface between the GPRS backbone network and the
external packet data networks.
It converts the GPRS packets coming from the SGSN
into the appropriate packet data protocol (PDP) format
(IP or X.25) and sends them out on the corresponding
packet data network.
In the other direction, PDP addresses of incoming data
packets are converted to the GSM address of the
destination user. The readdressed packets are sent to
the responsible SGSN. For this purpose, the GGSN
stores the current SGSN address of the user and his or
her profile in its location register.
Also performs authentication and charging functions.
35
GPRS Mobility Management
GPRS Attachment
GPRS Detachment
Location Management
36
GPRS Attachment Procedure

 Before a mobile station can use GPRS services, it must register with an
SGSN of the GPRS network. This procedure follows as
Attach request which includes IMSI which then processed by the network
to P-TMSI.
mobile is authenticated
with the mobile's Home
Location Register
SGSN does an update
of the GPRS location
SGSN sends an "Attach
Accept" message to the
mobile
mobile responds with
an "Attach Complete"
37
GPRS Detachment Procedure

The disconnection from the GPRS. It can be initiated
by the mobile station or by the network (SGSN).
In MS initiated one; MS informs that it wants to leave
the system, this is MS’s wish. If any contexts are
active, network will clear them. Afterwards MS’s
location is not tracked anymore.
In Network initiated one; Network wants to “get rid of
the MS” because of;
Ill behaving mobile
Congested network
Immediate service termination (IST)(E.g. Bills are
not paid)
Load new parameters (Configuration has been
changed and they should be taken into use)
Location Management
Aim is to keep track of the user's current location,
so that incoming packets can be routed to his or
her MS.
If the MS sends update messages seldom, its
location is not known exactly, resulting in a
significant delivery delay.
On the other hand, if location updates happen
very often, the MS's location is well known to the
network, and the data packets can be delivered
without any additional delay. But, quite a lot of
uplink radio capacity and battery power is
consumed for mobility management.
39
Location Management
 A MS can be in one of three states depending on its

current traffic amount; the location update frequency is
dependent on the state of the MS.
40
Location Management
In IDLE state the MS is not reachable. Performing
a GPRS attach, the MS gets into READY state.
With a GPRS detach it may disconnect from the
network and fall back to IDLE state. All PDP
contexts will be deleted.
The STANDBY state will be reached when an MS
does not send any packets for a longer period of
time, and therefore the READY timer, which was
started at GPRS attach, expires.
In IDLE state, no location updating is performed,
the current location of the MS is unknown to the
network.
41
Location Management
An MS in READY state informs its SGSN of every
movement to a new cell(in GSM).
In GPRS, for the location management of an MS in
STANDBY state, a GSM location area (LA) is
divided into several routing areas (RA). In general,
an RA consists of several cells. The SGSN will only
be informed when an MS moves to a new RA; cell
changes will not be disclosed. Whenever an MS
moves to a new RA, it sends a "routing area update
request" to its assigned SGSN. The message
contains the routing area identity (RAI) of its old
RA.
In same SGSN routing area update
In different SGSN routing area update
42
Session Management
To exchange data packets with external PDNs
after a successful GPRS attach, a mobile
station must apply for one or more addresses
used in the PDN, e.g., for an IP address in case
the PDN is an IP network.
This address is called PDP address (Packet
Data Protocol address).
43
Session Management
 The allocation of the PDP address can be static or
dynamic.
 Static : The network operator of the user's home-
PLMN permanently assigns a PDP address to the user.
 Dynamic : PDP address is assigned to the user upon
activation of a PDP context.
The PDP address can be assigned by the operator of
the user's home-PLMN (dynamic home-PLMN PDP
address)
By the operator of the visited network (dynamic
visited-PLMN PDP address).
 In case of dynamic PDP address assignment, the GGSN is
responsible for the allocation and the activation/
deactivation of the PDP addresses
Session Management
 For each session, a PDP context is created, which
describes the characteristics of the session. It contains;
the PDP type (e.g., IPv4),
the PDP address assigned to the mobile station (e.g.,
129.187.222.10),
the requested QoS,
the address of a GGSN that serves as the access point
to the PDN
 This context is stored in the MS, the SGSN, and the
GGSN. With an active PDP context, the mobile station is
"visible" for the external PDN and is able to send and
receive data packets. The mapping between the two
addresses, PDP and IMSI, enables the GGSN to transfer
data packets between PDN and MS.
45
Session Management
PDP context activation procedure
46
Quality of Service
 GPRS allows defining QoS profiles using the parameters service
precedence, reliability, delay, and throughput.
The service precedence is the priority : high, normal, and low.
The reliability indicates the transmission characteristics
required by an application. Three reliability classes are
defined, which guarantee certain maximum values for the
probability of loss, duplication, missequencing, and corruption
(an undetected error) of packets.
The delay parameters define maximum values for the mean
delay. The delay is defined as the end-to-end transfer time
between two communicating mobile stations or between a
mobile station and the Gi interface to an external packet data
network.
The throughput specifies the maximum bit rate and the mean
bit rate.
47
GPRS Services
 Offers end-to-end packet switched data transfer
 Bearer Services
PTP - Point-To-Point service (CLNS mode)
PTM - Point-To-Multipoint service(CONS Mode)
PTM-M Multicast service
 PTM-G Group call service
 Supplementary Services
SMS-Short Message Service
CFU-Call Forwarding Unconditional
48
GPRS Services
CFNRc Call Forwarding on mobile subscriber
not reachable
 CUG Closed User Group
Tele action, access to data bases
Quality of Service
GPRS allows defining QoS profiles
Service precedence, reliability, delay,
throughput
49
Advantages of GPRS
Improves the utilization of the radio resources
Multiple users can share one physical
channel
Volume-based billing
Higher transfer rates
Max 171.2Kbits/sec
Shorter access times
Simplifies the access to packet data networks
50
Applications of GPRS
Textual and Visual Information

Still Images
Web Browsing
Document Sharing
Corporate Email
Internet Email
Vehicle Positioning
File Transfer
51
Universal Mobile Telecommunications

System(UMTS)
 UMTS is a 3G networking standard used throughout much of
the world as an upgrade to existing GSM mobile networks.
 UMTS makes use of WCDMA, a technology that shares
much with CDMA networks used throughout the world,
though it is not compatible with them.
 Base level UMTS networks are generally capable of downlink
speeds as fast as 384kbps. Newer HSDPA variants are capable
of rates as high as 3.6Mbps or more.
 Originally used only on the 2100MHz frequency band in
Europe, UMTS is now supported on the 850MHz and
1900MHz bands in North America.
52
UMTS Architecture
53
UMTS Bearer Services

UMTS
CN Iu CN
TE MT UTRAN EDGE Gateway TE
NODE
End-to-End Service
TE/MT Local External Bearer

UMTS Bearer Service
Bearer Sevice Service
Radio Access Bearer CN Bearer

Service Service
Radio Bearer Iu Bearer Backbone

Service Service Network Service
UTRA
Physical Bearer
FDD/TDD
Service
Service
54
UMTS QoS Classes

Traffic class Conversational Streaming Interactive Background
class class class
Fundamental Preserve time Preserve time Request Destination is
characteristics relation relation response not expecting
between between pattern the data
information information within a
entities of the entities of the certain time
stream stream
Conversational Preserve data

pattern Preserve data
integrity integrity
(stringent and
low delay)
Example of the Voice, Streaming Web browsing, Background
application videotelephony, multimedia network games download of
video games emails
55
Questions ?
56
What is a MANET
 Mobile nodes, wireless links
 Infrastructure-less: by the nodes, …
 Multi-hop routing: …, and for the nodes
 Minimal administration: no hassles

What’s unique about a MANET ?

 Moving nodes  ever changing topology
 Wireless links
  various and volatile link quality
 Pervasive (cheap) devices
 Power constraints
 Security
 Confidentiality, other attacks

Challenges in MANET Routing

 Need dynamic routing
Frequent topological changes possible.
Very different from dynamic routing in the Internet.
Potential of network partitions.
 Routing overhead must be kept minimal
Wireless  low bandwidth
Mobile  low power
Minimize # of routing control messages
Minimize routing state at each node

Other Challenges
 Auto configuration issues
 Address assignment
 Service discovery
 Security issues
 Ease of denial-of-service attack
 Misbehaving nodes difficult to identify
 Nodes can be easily compromised
 New Applications/services
 Location based: Distribute some information to all nodes in a
geographic area (geocast).
 Content based: Query all sensors that sensed something
particular in the past hour.

MANET Protocol Zoo

 Topology based routing
 Proactive approach, e.g., DSDV.
 Reactive approach, e.g., DSR, AODV, TORA.
 Hybrid approach, e.g., Cluster, ZRP.
 Position based routing
 Location Services:
 DREAM, Quorum-based, GLS, Home zone etc.
 Forwarding Strategy:
 Greedy, GPSR, RDF, Hierarchical, etc.

Routing Protocols
 Reactive (On-demand) protocols
Discover routes when needed
Source-initiated route discovery
 Proactive protocols
Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols
Based on periodic updates. High routing overhead
 Tradeoff
State maintenance traffic vs. route discovery traffic
Route via maintained route vs. delay for route
discovery

Reactive Routing
 Key Goal: Reduction in routing overhead

Useful when number of traffic sessions is much
lower than the number of nodes.
 No routing structure created a priori. Let
the structure emerge in response to a
need
 Two key methods for route discovery
source routing
backward learning (similar to intra-AS routing)
 Introduces delay

Reactive (on-demand) routing:

 Routing only when needed
Advantages:
0  eliminate periodic updates
query(0)
reply(0)  adaptive to network dynamics
1 query(0) Disadvantages:
query(0)  high flood-search overhead
3 with
reply(0)
mobility, distributed traffic
query(0)
query(0)
2  high route acquisition latency
4
query(0)
reply(0) query(0)
5

Reactive Routing – Source initiated
 Source floods the network with a route request

packet when a route is required to a destination
 Flood is propagated outwards from the source
 Pure flooding = every node transmits the request only
once
 Destination replies to request
 Reply uses reversed path of route request
 sets up the forward path
 Two key protocols: DSR and AODV

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

 Cooperative nodes
 Relatively small network diameter (5-10 hops)
 Detectable packet error
 Unidirectional or bidirectional link
 Promiscuous mode (optional)

Route Discovery RREQ FORMAT
B Initiator ID
A-B-D-G
A-B-D-G G Initiator seq#
A-B-D-G
A A-B Target ID
D A-B-D
Partial route
A
A-C-E
A E H A-B-C
A-C-E
Route Request (RREQ)
A-C-E
C A-C A-B-C
F Route Reply (RREP)
Route Discovery is issued with exponential back-

back-off intervals.

Route Discovery: at source A

A need to send to G
Lookup Cache for route A to G
Start Route no Route

Discovery Buffer found
packet ?
Protocol
yes
Continue
normal
yes
wait
processing Write route in

packet header
Packet
Route in
Discovery buffer Send
finished ? no
packet to
don
next-hop
e

Route Discovery: At an intermediate node

<src,id> in
Accept route recently Discard
request
yes
seen route
packet requests request
list?
no
Host’s
address yes Discard
already in route
patrial request
route
Append no
myAddr to no
partial route myAdd
r=targ
et
yes
Store <src,id>
in list Send route
reply packet
Broadcast packet
done

DSR - Route Discovery

 Route Reply message containing path information is
sent back to the source either by
the destination, or
intermediate nodes that have a route to the
destination
 Reverse the order of the route record, and include it in
Route Reply.
 Unicast, source routing
 Each node maintains a Route Cache which records
routes it has learned and overheard over time

Route Maintenance
 Route maintenance performed only while route is in
use
 Error detection:
 Monitors the validity of existing routes by passively
listening to data packets transmitted at neighboring nodes
 Lower level acknowledgements
 When problem detected, send Route Error packet to
original sender to perform new route discovery
Host detects the error and the host it was
attempting;
 Route Error is sent back to the sender the packet –
original src

Route Maintenance
B
RERR
RERR G
D
G
Route Cache (A)

G: A, B, D, G H
G: A, C, E, H, G E
F: B, C, F
C
F

A Summary of DSR
Entirely on-demand, potentially zero control message

overhead
Trivially loop-free with source routing
Conceptually supports unidirectional links as well as
bidirectional links
High packet delays/jitters associated with on-demand

routing
Space overhead in packets and route caches
Promiscuous mode operations consume excessive
amount of power

Break…
Then AODV

AODV Routing Protocol
S E
F
A
C
G D
B
 AODV = Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector

 Source floods route request in the network.
 Reverse paths are formed when a node hears a
route request.
 Each node forwards the request only once (pure
flooding).

AODV Route Discovery
S E
F
A
C
G D
B
 Source floods route request in the network.

flooding).

S E
F
A
C
G D
B
 Uses hop-by-hop routing.

flooding).
 Reverse paths are formed when a node hears a route
request.

S E
F
A
C
G D
B
 Route reply forwarded via the reverse path.

S E
F
A
C
G D
B
 Route reply is forwarded via the reverse

path … thus forming the forward path.
 The forward path is used to route data
packets.

Route Expiry
S E
F
A
C
G D
B
Unused paths expire based on a timer.

AODV – Optimization
 Useful optimization: An intermediate node

with a route to D can reply to route request.
Faster operation.
Quenches route request flood.
 Above optimization can cause loops in

presence of link failures

AODV: Routing Loops
A B C D
 Assume, link C-D fails, and node A does not know

about it (route error packet from C is lost).
 C performs a route discovery for D.
 Node A receives the route request (via path C-E-A)
 Node A replies, since A knows a route to D via node
B
 Results in a loop: C-E-A-B-C

AODV: Routing Loops
A B C D
• Assume, the link C-D fails, and node A does not

know about it (route error packet from C is lost).
• C performs a route discovery for D.
• Node A receives the route request (via path C-E-A)
• Node A replies, since A knows a route to D via node
B
• Results in a loop: C-E-A-B-C

AODV: Use Sequence Numbers

 Each node X maintains a sequence number
acts as a time stamp
incremented every time X sends any message)
 Each route to X (at any node Y) also has X’s
sequence number associated with it, which is
Y’s latest knowledge of X’s sequence number.
 Sequence number signifies ‘freshness’ of the
route – higher the number, more up to date is
the route.

Use of Sequence Numbers in AODV
S Y ? D
Dest seq. no. = 10 Has a route to D
with seq. no = 7 Seq. no. = 15
RREQ carries 10 Y does not reply, but

forwards the RREQ
 Loop freedom: Intermediate node replies with

a route (instead of forwarding request) only
if it has a route with a higher associated
sequence number.

Avoidance of Loop
DSN = Destination Sequence Number.
9
A B C D
7 9 10
E
5
All DNS’s are for D
 Link failure increments the DSN at C (now is 10).

 If C needs route to D, RREQ carries the DSN (10).
 A does not reply as its own DSN is less than 10.

Path Maintenance
3’ 3’
1 3 1
Destination Destination
2 2
Source 4 Source 4
 Movement not along active path triggers no action

If source moves, reinitiate route discovery
 When destination or intermediate node moves
 upstream node of break broadcasts Route Error (RERR)
 RERR contains list of all destinations no longer reachable due
to link break
 RERR propagated until node with no precursors for
destination is reached

Summary: AODV
 At most one route per destination maintained
at each node
After link break, all routes using the failed link are
erased.
 Expiration based on timeouts.
 Use of sequence numbers to prevent loops.
 Optimizations
 Routing tables instead of storing full routes.
 Control flooding (incrementally increase ‘region’)

Questions…
Other notes

Acknowledgements
DSR Slides:
Yinzhe Yu (umn.edu)

Additional feature #1: Caching Overheard Routes
Node C Cache
E:
E:C,
C,D,
D,EE
A: C, B, A
Node A Cache Z: C, X, Y, Z
E: A, B, C, D, E V: C, X, W, V
A B C D E
V W X Y Z

Additional feature #2: RREP with Cached Routes
B
RERR
RERR
RREQ
(! D-G) D
G
Route Cache (A)

G: A, B, D, G RREQ
RREQ
H
F: B, C, F (! D-G) E
G:A,C,E,H,G (! D-G)
RREP
C
Route Cache (C)

F
G: C, E, D,
H, G

Additional feature #3: Packet Salvage
B
RERR
RERR G
D
G
Route Cache (D)
A G: D, E, H, G
E H
C
F
Caution: No double salvage allowed !!!

Proposed Routing Approaches

 Conventional wired-type schemes (global
routing, proactive):
Distance Vector; Link State
 Hierarchical (global routing) schemes:
Fisheye, Hierarchical State Routing, Landmark
Routing
 On- Demand, reactive routing:
Source routing; backward learning
 Location Assisted routing (Geo-routing):
DREAM, LAR etc

Conventional wired routing

limitations
 Distance Vector (eg, Bellman-Ford, DSDV):
routing control O/H linearly increasing with net size
convergence problems (count to infinity); potential
loops
 Link State (eg, OSPF):
link update flooding O/H caused by frequent
topology changes
CONVENTIONAL ROUTING DOES NOT SCALE TO SIZE AND

MOBILITY

Distance Vector
0
Routing table at node 5 :

1
Destination Next Hop Distance
0 2 3 3
1 2 2
… … …
2
4
Tables grow linearly with # nodes
Control O/H grows with 5

mobility and size

Link State Routing

 At node 5, based on the
link state packets, topology 0 {1}
table is constructed:
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 {0,2,3} 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0
2 0 1 1 0 1 1 3 {1,4}
3 0 1 0 1 1 0
4 0 0 1 1 1 1
5 0 0 1 0 1 1 {1,4,5} 2
4 {2,3,5}
5
 Dijkstra’s Algorithm can {2,4}
then be used for the
shortest path
Existing On-Demand Protocols

 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
 Associativity-Based Routing (ABR)
 Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)
 Temporarily Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
 Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
 Signal Stability Based Adaptive Routing (SSA)
 On Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP)
 …

Outline
 Introduction
 Medium Access Control
 Routing (unicast)
– Reactive Protocols
– Proactive Protocols
– Hybrid Protocols
 Transport Issues
 Summary and Conclusions

Wireless Networks
 Need: Access computing and communication services, on the move
 Infrastructure-based Networks
– traditional cellular systems (base station infrastructure)
 Wireless LANs
– Infrared (IrDA) or radio links (Wavelan)
– very flexible within the reception area; ad-hoc networks possible
– low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s)
 Ad hoc Networks
– useful when infrastructure not available, impractical, or expensive
– military applications, rescue, home networking

Cellular Wireless
 Single hop wireless connectivity to the wired world

– Space divided into cells
– A base station is responsible to communicate with hosts in its cell
– Mobile hosts can change cells while communicating
– Hand-off occurs when a mobile host starts communicating via a
new base station

Multi-Hop Wireless
 May need to traverse multiple links to reach destination
 Mobility causes route changes

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)
 Host movement frequent

 Topology change frequent
A B
B A
 No cellular infrastructure. Multi-hop wireless links.

 Data must be routed via intermediate nodes.

Why Ad Hoc Networks ?
 Setting up of fixed access points and backbone

infrastructure is not always viable
– Infrastructure may not be present in a disaster area or war zone
– Infrastructure may not be practical for short-range radios;
Bluetooth (range ~ 10m)
 Ad hoc networks:
– Do not need backbone infrastructure support
– Are easy to deploy
– Useful when infrastructure is absent, destroyed or impractical

Many Applications
 Personal area networking

– cell phone, laptop, ear phone, wrist watch
 Military environments
– soldiers, tanks, planes
 Civilian environments
– taxi cab network
– meeting rooms
– sports stadiums
– boats, small aircraft
 Emergency operations
– search-and-rescue
– policing and fire fighting

Challenges in Mobile Environments
 Limitations of the Wireless Network

 packet loss due to transmission errors
 variable capacity links
 frequent disconnections/partitions
 limited communication bandwidth
 Broadcast nature of the communications
 Limitations Imposed by Mobility

 dynamically changing topologies/routes
 lack of mobility awareness by system/applications
 Limitations of the Mobile Computer

 short battery lifetime
 limited capacities

Effect of mobility on the protocol stack
 Application
– new applications and adaptations
 Transport
– congestion and flow control
 Network
– addressing and routing
 Link
– media access and handoff
 Physical
– transmission errors and interference

Medium Access Control in MANET

Motivation
 Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks?
 Example CSMA/CD
– Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
– send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a
collision occurs (original method in IEEE 802.3)
 Medium access problems in wireless networks

– signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
– sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the
receiver
– sender may not “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work
– CS might not work, e.g. if a terminal is “hidden”

Hidden and Exposed Terminals

 Hidden terminals
– A sends to B, C cannot receive A
– C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
– collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
– A is “hidden” for C
A B C
 Exposed terminals
– B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
– C senses carrier, finds medium in use and has to wait
– A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary
– C is “exposed” to B

Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)

[Karn90]
 MACA uses signaling packets for collision avoidance
– RTS (request to send)
• sender request the right to send from a receiver with a short
RTS packet before it sends a data packet
– CTS (clear to send)
• receiver grants the right to send as soon as it is ready to receive
 Signaling packets contain

– sender address
– receiver address
– packet size
 Variants of this method are used in IEEE 802.11

MACA Solutions [Karn90]
 MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals

– A and C want to
send to B
– A sends RTS first RTS
– C waits after receiving A B C
CTS CTS
CTS from B
 MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

– B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
– now C does not have RTS RTS
to wait, as it cannot A B C
CTS
receive CTS from A

MAC: Reliability
 Wireless links are prone to errors. High packet loss rate is detrimental
to transport-layer performance.
 Solution: Use of acknowledgements

– When node B receives a data packet from node A, node B sends an
Acknowledgement (Ack).
– If node A fails to receive an Ack, it will retransmit the packet
– This approach adopted in many protocols [Bharghavan94, IEEE 802.11]
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless MAC

– Distributed and centralized MAC components
• Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
• Point Coordination Function (PCF)
– DCF suitable for multi-hop ad hoc networking

IEEE 802.11 DCF
 Uses RTS-CTS exchange to avoid hidden terminal

problem
– Any node overhearing a CTS cannot transmit for the duration of
the transfer
 Uses ACK to achieve reliability
 Any node receiving the RTS cannot transmit for the

duration of the transfer
– To prevent collision with ACK when it arrives at the sender
– When B is sending data to C, node A will keep quiet
A B C

MAC: Collision Avoidance
 With half-duplex radios, collision detection is not possible

 Collision avoidance: Once channel becomes idle, the node waits for a
randomly chosen duration before attempting to transmit
 IEEE 802.11 DCF

– When transmitting a packet, choose a backoff interval in the range [0,cw];
cw is contention window
– Count down the backoff interval when medium is idle
– Count-down is suspended if medium becomes busy
– When backoff interval reaches 0, transmit RTS
 Time spent counting down backoff intervals is a part of MAC

overhead
 large cw leads to larger backoff intervals
 small cw leads to larger number of collisions

MAC: Congestion Control
 IEEE 802.11 DCF: Congestion control achieved by

dynamically choosing the contention window cw
 Binary Exponential Backoff in DCF:

– When a node fails to receive CTS in response to its RTS, it
increases the contention window
• cw is doubled (up to an upper bound)
– When a node successfully completes a data transfer, it restores cw
to CWmin

MAC: Energy Conservation
 Proposals typically suggest turning the radio off when not

needed
 Power Saving Mode in IEEE 802.11 (Infrastructure Mode)

– An Access Point periodically transmits a beacon indicating which
nodes have packets waiting for them
– Each power saving (PS) node wakes up periodically to receive the
beacon
– If a node has a packet waiting, then it sends a PS-Poll
• After waiting for a backoff interval in [0,CWmin]
– Access Point sends the data in response to PS-poll

MAC Protocols: Summary
 Wireless medium is prone to hidden and exposed terminal

problems
 Protocols are typically based on CSMA/CA

 RTS/CTS based signaling
 Acks for reliability
 Contention window is used for congestion control

 IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN standard
 Fairness issues are still unclear

Routing Protocols

Traditional Routing
 A routing protocol sets up a routing table in routers
 A node makes a local choice depending on global

topology

Distance-vector & Link-state Routing
 Both assume router knows

– address of each neighbor
– cost of reaching each neighbor
 Both allow a router to determine global routing
information by talking to its neighbors
 Distance vector - router knows cost to each destination
 Link state - router knows entire network topology and

computes shortest path

Distance Vector Routing: Example

Link State Routing: Example

Routing and Mobility
 Finding a path from a source to a destination
 Issues
– Frequent route changes
• amount of data transferred between route changes may be
much smaller than traditional networks
– Route changes may be related to host movement
– Low bandwidth links
 Goal of routing protocols

– decrease routing-related overhead
– find short routes
– find “stable” routes (despite mobility)

Mobile IP
MH Router
S
3
Home
agent
Router Router
1 2

Mobile IP
move
Router
S MH
3
Foreign agent
Home agent
Router Router Packets are tunneled

using IP in IP
1 2

Routing in MANET

Unicast Routing Protocols
 Many protocols have been proposed
 Some specifically invented for MANET

 Others adapted from protocols for wired networks
 No single protocol works well in all environments

– some attempts made to develop adaptive/hybrid protocols
 Standardization efforts in IETF

– MANET, MobileIP working groups
– http://www.ietf.org

Routing Protocols
 Proactive protocols
– Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols
– Maintain routes between every host pair at all times
– Based on periodic updates; High routing overhead
– Example: DSDV (destination sequenced distance vector)
 Reactive protocols
– Determine route if and when needed
– Source initiates route discovery
– Example: DSR (dynamic source routing)
 Hybrid protocols
– Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive
– Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)

Protocol Trade-offs
 Proactive protocols
– Always maintain routes
– Little or no delay for route determination
– Consume bandwidth to keep routes up-to-date
– Maintain routes which may never be used
 Reactive protocols
– Lower overhead since routes are determined on demand
– Significant delay in route determination
– Employ flooding (global search)
– Control traffic may be bursty
 Which approach achieves a better trade-off depends on the traffic and

mobility patterns

Reactive Routing Protocols

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) [Johnson96]
 When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does

not know a route to D, node S initiates a route discovery
 Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)
 Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ

Route Discovery in DSR

Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S


Y
Broadcast transmission
[S] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents transmission of RREQ
[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ


Y
Z
S [S,E]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A [S,C] G
H D
K
I N
• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors:

potential for collision


Y
Z
S E
F [S,E,F]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
[S,C,G] K
I N
• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once


Y
Z
S E
F [S,E,F,J]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I [S,C,G,K] N
• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D

• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their
transmissions may collide


Y
Z
S E
[S,E,F,J,M]
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the route discovery

 Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route

Reply (RREP)
 RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route

appended to received RREQ
 RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was

received by node D

Route Reply in DSR

Y
Z
S RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents RREP control message

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
 Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route included in

the RREP
 When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is

included in the packet header
– hence the name source routing
 Intermediate nodes use the source route included in a

packet to determine to whom a packet should be forwarded

Data Delivery in DSR

Y
DATA [S,E,F,J,D] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Packet header size grows with route length

DSR Optimization: Route Caching
 Each node caches a new route it learns by any means

 When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S
also learns route [S,E,F] to node F
 When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for
node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S
 When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D],
node F learns route [F,J,D] to node D
 When node E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route
[E,F,J,D] to node D
 A node may also learn a route when it overhears Data
 Problem: Stale caches may increase overheads

Dynamic Source Routing: Advantages
 Routes maintained only between nodes who need to

communicate
– reduces overhead of route maintenance
 Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead
 A single route discovery may yield many routes to the

destination, due to intermediate nodes replying from local
caches

Dynamic Source Routing: Disadvantages

 Packet header size grows with route length due to source
routing
 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in

the network
 Potential collisions between route requests propagated by

neighboring nodes
– insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ
 Increased contention if too many route replies come back

due to nodes replying using their local cache
– Route Reply Storm problem
 Stale caches will lead to increased overhead

Location-Aided Routing (LAR) [Ko98Mobicom]
 Exploits location information to limit scope of route

request flood
– Location information may be obtained using GPS
 Expected Zone is determined as a region that is expected to

hold the current location of the destination
– Expected region determined based on potentially old location
information, and knowledge of the destination’s speed
 Route requests limited to a Request Zone that contains the

Expected Zone and location of the sender node

Request Zone
 Define a Request Zone
 LAR is same as flooding, except that only nodes in request
zone forward route request
 Smallest rectangle including S and expected zone for D
Request Zone
D
Expected Zone
x
Y
S

Location Aided Routing (LAR)
 Advantages
– reduces the scope of route request flood
– reduces overhead of route discovery
 Disadvantages
– Nodes need to know their physical locations
– Does not take into account possible existence of obstructions for
radio transmissions

Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing

(AODV) [Perkins99Wmcsa]
 DSR includes source routes in packet headers
 Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade
performance
– particularly when data contents of a packet are small
 AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining

routing tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not have
to contain routes
 AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are

maintained only between nodes which need to
communicate

AODV
 Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner similar

to DSR
 When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a

reverse path pointing towards the source
– AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links
 When the intended destination receives a Route Request, it

replies by sending a Route Reply (RREP)
 Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up when

Route Request is forwarded

Route Requests in AODV

Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S


Y
Broadcast transmission
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents transmission of RREQ


Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents links on Reverse Path

Reverse Path Setup in AODV

Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once


Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N


Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the RREQ

Forward Path Setup in AODV

Y
Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Forward links are setup when RREP travels along

the reverse path
Represents a link on the forward path

Route Request and Route Reply
 Route Request (RREQ) includes the last known sequence number for
the destination
 An intermediate node may also send a Route Reply (RREP) provided

that it knows a more recent path than the one previously known to
sender
 Intermediate nodes that forward the RREP, also record the next hop to
destination
 A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged after a

timeout interval
 A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged if not used
for a active_route_timeout interval

Link Failure
 A neighbor of node X is considered active for a routing table entry if

the neighbor sent a packet within active_route_timeout interval which
was forwarded using that entry
 Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello message
 When the next hop link in a routing table entry breaks, all active
neighbors are informed
 Link failures are propagated by means of Route Error (RERR)

messages, which also update destination sequence numbers

Route Error
 When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to node D)

on link (X,Y), it generates a RERR message
 Node X increments the destination sequence number for D cached at

node X
 The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR
 When node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery for
D using destination sequence number at least as large as N
 When node D receives the route request with destination sequence

number N, node D will set its sequence number to N, unless it is
already larger than N

AODV: Summary
 Routes need not be included in packet headers
 Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only for

routes that are in active use
 At most one next-hop per destination maintained at each
node
– DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination
 Sequence numbers are used to avoid old/broken routes

 Sequence numbers prevent formation of routing loops
 Unused routes expire even if topology does not change

Other Protocols
 Many variations of using control packet flooding for route discovery
 Power-Aware Routing [Singh98Mobicom]

– Assign a weight to each link: function of energy consumed when
transmitting a packet on that link, as well as the residual energy level
– Modify DSR to incorporate weights and prefer a route with the smallest
aggregate weight
 Associativity-Based Routing (ABR) [Toh97]

– Only links that have been stable for some minimum duration are utilized
– Nodes increment the associativity ticks of neighbors by using periodic
beacons
 Signal Stability Based Adaptive Routing (SSA) [Dube97]

– A node X re-broadcasts a Route Request received from Y only if the
(X,Y) link has a strong signal stability
– Signal stability is evaluated as a moving average of the signal strength of
packets received on the link in recent past

Signal Stability Routing (SSA)

Signal Stability Routing (SSA)

Link Reversal Algorithm [Gafni81]
A B F
C E G

Link Reversal Algorithm
A B F
Links are bi-directional
But algorithm imposes

logical directions on them
C E G
Maintain a directed acyclic

graph (DAG) for each
D destination, with the destination
being the only sink
This DAG is for destination

node D

A B F
C E G
Link (G,D) broke
Any node, other than the destination, that has no outgoing links
reverses all its incoming links.
Node G has no outgoing links

A B F
C E G Represents a
link that was
reversed recently
Now nodes E and F have no outgoing links

A B F
C E G Represents a
link that was
reversed recently
Now nodes B and G have no outgoing links

A B F
C E G Represents a
link that was
reversed recently
Now nodes A and F have no outgoing links

A B F
C E G Represents a
link that was
reversed recently
Now all nodes (other than destination D) have an outgoing link

A B F
C E G
DAG has been restored with only the destination as a sink

 Attempts to keep link reversals local to where the failure

occurred
– But this is not guaranteed
 When the first packet is sent to a destination, the

destination oriented DAG is constructed
 The initial construction does result in flooding of control

packets

 The previous algorithm is called a full reversal method

since when a node reverses links, it reverses all its
incoming links
 Partial reversal method [Gafni81]: A node reverses

incoming links from only those neighbors who have not
themselves reversed links “previously”
– If all neighbors have reversed links, then the node reverses all its
incoming links
– “Previously” at node X means since the last link reversal done by
node X

Link Reversal Methods
 Advantages
– Link reversal methods attempt to limit updates to routing tables at
nodes in the vicinity of a broken link
• Partial reversal method tends to be better than full reversal
method
– Each node may potentially have multiple routes to a destination
 Disadvantages
– Need a mechanism to detect link failure
• hello messages may be used
– If network is partitioned, link reversals continue indefinitely

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm

(TORA) [Park97Infocom]
 Route optimality is considered of secondary importance; longer routes
may be used
 At each node, a logically separate copy of TORA is run for each

destination, that computes the height of the node with respect to the
destination
 Height captures number of hops and next hop
 Route discovery is by using query and update packets
 TORA modifies the partial link reversal method to be able to detect

partitions
 When a partition is detected, all nodes in the partition are informed,
and link reversals in that partition cease

Asymmetric Algorithms
 Clusterhead Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)

– All nodes within a cluster communicate with a clusterhead
– Routing uses a hierarchical clusterhead-to-gateway approach
 Core-Extraction Distributed Ad Hoc Routing (CEDAR)

[Sivakumar99]
– A subset of nodes in the network is identified as the core
– Each node in the network must be adjacent to at least one node in
the core
– Each core node determines paths to nearby core nodes by means of
a localized broadcast

CGSR

CEDAR
A
G
D
H B C E
S J K
Node E is the dominator

for nodes D, F and K
A core node

Proactive Routing Protocols

Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)

[Perkins94Sigcomm]
 Each node maintains a routing table which stores
– next hop, cost metric towards each destination
– a sequence number that is created by the destination itself
 Each node periodically forwards routing table to neighbors
– Each node increments and appends its sequence number when sending its
local routing table
 Each route is tagged with a sequence number; routes with greater
sequence numbers are preferred
 Each node advertises a monotonically increasing even sequence

number for itself
 When a node decides that a route is broken, it increments the sequence
number of the route and advertises it with infinite metric
 Destination advertises new sequence number

Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)
 When X receives information from Y about a route to Z

– Let destination sequence number for Z at X be S(X), S(Y) is sent
from Y
X Y Z
– If S(X) > S(Y), then X ignores the routing information received

from Y
– If S(X) = S(Y), and cost of going through Y is smaller than the
route known to X, then X sets Y as the next hop to Z
– If S(X) < S(Y), then X sets Y as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is
updated to equal S(Y)

Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)

[Jacquet00ietf]
 Nodes C and E are multipoint relays of node A
– Multipoint relays of A are its neighbors such that each two-hop
neighbor of A is a one-hop neighbor of one multipoint relay of A
– Nodes exchange neighbor lists to know their 2-hop neighbors and
choose the multipoint relays
B F J
A E H
C K
G
D
Node that has broadcast state information from A

Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
 Nodes C and E forward information received from A

 Nodes E and K are multipoint relays for node H
 Node K forwards information received from H
B F J
A E H
C K
G
D
Node that has broadcast state information from A

Hybrid Routing Protocols

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) [Haas98]
 ZRP combines proactive and reactive approaches
 All nodes within hop distance at most d from a node X are

said to be in the routing zone of node X
 All nodes at hop distance exactly d are said to be
peripheral nodes of node X’s routing zone
 Intra-zone routing: Proactively maintain routes to all nodes

within the source node’s own zone.
 Inter-zone routing: Use an on-demand protocol (similar to
DSR or AODV) to determine routes to outside zone.

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
Radius of routing zone = 2

Routing Summary
 Protocols
– Typically divided into proactive, reactive and hybrid
– Plenty of routing protocols. Discussion here is far from exhaustive
 Performance Studies
– Typically studied by simulations using ns, discrete event simulator
– Nodes (10-30) remains stationary for pause time seconds (0-900s) and
then move to a random destination (1500m X300m space) at a uniform
speed (0-20m/s). CBR traffic sources (4-30 packets/sec, 64-1024
bytes/packet)
– Attempt to estimate latency of route discovery, routing overhead …
 Actual trade-off depends a lot on traffic and mobility patterns

– Higher traffic diversity (more source-destination pairs) increases overhead
in on-demand protocols
– Higher mobility will always increase overhead in all protocols

Transport in MANET

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Studies comparing different routing protocols for MANET typically

measure UDP performance
 Several performance metrics are used

– routing overhead per data packet
– packet delivery delay
– throughput/loss
 Many variables affect performance
– Traffic characteristics
– Mobility characteristics
– Node capabilities
 Difficult to identify a single scheme that will perform well in all
environments
 Several relevant studies [Broch98Mobicom, Das9ic3n,

Johansson99Mobicom, Das00Infocom, Jacquet00Inria]

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Reliable ordered delivery

– Reliability achieved by means of retransmissions if necessary
 End-to-end semantics
– Receiver sends cumulative acknowledgements for in-sequence packets
– Receiver sends duplicate acknowledgements for out-of-sequence packets
 Implements congestion avoidance and control using sliding-window

– Window size is minimum of
• receiver’s advertised window - determined by available buffer space
at the receiver
• congestion window - determined by the sender, based on feedback
from the network
– Congestion window size bounds the amount of data that can be sent per
round-trip time

Detection of packet loss in TCP
 Retransmission timeout (RTO)

– sender sets retransmission timer for only one packet
– if Ack not received before timer expiry, the packet is assumed lost
– RTO dynamically calculated, doubles on each timeout
 Duplicate acks
– sender assumes packet loss if it receives three consecutive
duplicate acknowledgements (dupacks)
 On detecting a packet loss, TCP sender assumes that

network congestion has occurred and drastically reduces
the congestion window

TCP in MANET
Several factors affect TCP performance in MANET:
 Wireless transmission errors

– may cause fast retransmit, which results in
• retransmission of lost packet
• reduction in congestion window
– reducing congestion window in response to errors is unnecessary
 Multi-hop routes on shared wireless medium

– Longer connections are at a disadvantage compared to shorter
connections, because they have to contend for wireless access at
each hop
 Route failures due to mobility

Impact of Multi-hop Wireless Paths
TCP throughput degrades with increase in number of hops
 Packet transmission can occur on at most one hop among

three consecutive hops
– Increasing the number of hops from 1 to 2, 3 results in increased
delay, and decreased throughput
 Increasing number of hops beyond 3 allows simultaneous

transmissions on more than one link, however, degradation
continues due to contention between TCP Data and Acks
traveling in opposite directions
 When number of hops is large enough (>6), throughput

stabilizes [Holland99]

Impact of Node Mobility

TCP throughput degrades with increase in mobility but not always
mobility causes
link breakage,
resulting in route Route is TCP sender times out.
failure repaired Starts sending packets again
No throughput
No throughput
despite route repair
Larger route repair

delays are especially
TCP data and acks harmful
en route discarded

Improved Throughput with Increased Mobility
D D D
C C C
B B B A
A A
Low speed: (Route from A to D is broken for ~1.5 seconds)

•When TCP sender times after 1 second, route still broken.
•TCP times out after another 2 seconds, and only then resumes
High speed: (Route from A to D is broken for ~0.75 seconds)

•When TCP sender times out after 1 second, route is repaired
TCP timeout interval somewhat (not entirely) independent of speed

Network state at higher speed may sometimes be more favorable than lower speed

Impact of Route Caching
TCP performance typically degrades when caches are used for route repair
 When a route is broken, route discovery returns a cached route from

local cache or from a nearby node
 After a time-out, TCP sender transmits a packet on the new route.
However, typically the cached route has also broken after it was
cached
timeout due timeout, cached timeout, second cached

to route failure route is broken route also broken
 Another route discovery, and TCP time-out interval

 Process repeats until a good route is found

Caching and TCP performance
 Caching can result in faster route repair

– Faster does not necessarily mean correct
– If incorrect repairs occur often enough, caching performs poorly
 If cache accuracy is not high enough, gains in routing

overhead may be offset by loss of TCP performance due to
multiple time-outs
 Need mechanisms for determining when cached routes are

stale

Impact of Acknowledgements
 TCP Acks (and link layer acks) share the wireless bandwidth with TCP
data packets
 Data and Acks travel in opposite directions

– In addition to bandwidth usage, acks require additional receive-send
turnarounds, which also incur time penalty
 Reduction of contention between data and acks, and frequency of

send-receive turnaround
 Mitigation [Balakrishnan97]
– Piggybacking link layer acks with data
– Sending fewer TCP acks - ack every d-th packet (d may be chosen
dynamically)
– Ack filtering - Gateway may drop an older ack in the queue, if a new ack
arrives

TCP Parameters after Route Repair
 Window Size after route repair

– Same as before route break: may be too optimistic
– Same as startup: may be too conservative
– Better be conservative than overly optimistic
– Reset window to small value; let TCP learn the window size
 Retransmission Timeout (RTO) after route repair

– Same as before route break: may be too small for long routes
– Same as TCP start-up: may be too large and respond slowly to
packet loss
– new RTO could be made a function of old RTO and route lengths

Improving TCP Throughput
 Network feedback
– Network knows best (why packets are lost)
– Need to modify transport & network layer to receive/send feedback
- Need mechanisms for information exchange between layers
 Inform TCP of route failure by explicit message
 Let TCP know when route is repaired

– Probing
– Explicit notification
– Better route caching mechanisms
 Reduces repeated TCP timeouts and backoff

In Conclusion
Issues other than routing have received much less attention
Other interesting problems:
 Applications for MANET

 Address assignment
 QoS issues
 Improving interaction between protocol layers


• What is a VANET?
• Intelligent transportation system
• Vehicle to vehicle communication
• Vehicle to infrastructure communication
• Dedicated Short Range Communication
• challenges
• Applications of VANET
• conclusion
• references

Event data recorder (EDR)

Positioning system (GPS)
Forward radar
Communication
facility
Rear radar
Human-Machine Display
Interface Computing platform
A modern vehicle is a network of sensors/actuators on wheels !

 Vehicles Transformed into “Computers on the Wheels” or

“Networks on the Wheel”
 Vehicular Communication System (VCS):- Two main type of
communications
Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) Communication:-
Vehicle to Infrastructure (V2I) communication:-
 Advantage and Usage of VCS:-
Information sharing
Co-operative driving
Other value added services like Navigation, internet access
etc.
 ad-hoc means to a system of network elements that combine to
form a network requiring little or no planning

 Communication between V2V and V2I are “ad-hoc" in nature.

 This special kind of communication network is known as
“Vehicular Ad-hoc Network (VANET)”
 VANET will become Worlds largest ad-hoc network


• Communication:- Wireless Access in Vehicular Environment

(WAVE): IEEE 1609.2 Standard also Known DSRC 802.11p
• Supports Multi-Hop communication for vehicles out of range
(Max. Range DSRC is 1000m)
• On-Board Unit (OBU):- A device which is inside the vehicle
which
processes the data collected from various sensors fitted
inside the cars and gives conditions of the vehicles
is responsible for communication with outside network i.e with
other vehicles and infrastructure.

• Road Side Unit (RSU): Infrastructure for communication between

the cars for sharing and information from various vehicles.

 It allows safe and free flow traffic.
 It uses GPS and DGPS equipped devices.
 It uses various technology like:-

1. Wireless communications
2. Computational technologies
3. Floating car data/floating cellular data
4. Sensing technologies
5. Inductive loop detection
6. Video vehicle detection
7. Bluetooth Detection 9

 Uses multi-hop/multi cast technique.

 uses two type of broadcasting
1. naive broadcasting
2. intelligent broadcasting
10

 High bandwidth link with vehicle and roadside equipment.

 Roadside units broadcast messages.
11

• Uses multi hop unicast
12

13

14

Each vehicle is a node with unique ID.
 proactive routing
• It tries to maintain routes to all destinations.
 Reactive routing
• It initiates route discovery in demand of data traffic.
 Position based Routing
• Routing based on destination’s position.
15

• Broadcasting algorithms used.

• Data and control packet forwarding are loop free.
• Ad hoc routing algorithms are used.
Mobicasting
• Consider time into account.
• Main goal is delivery of information to all nodes in a point of
time.
16

• Indicates level of performance given to user.

• Provide robust routes among nodes.
Security
• Many threats for Vanet.

• Avoid some threats using digital signatures.
17

 Routing
• Large end-to-end delays and decreased packet delivery ratio.
 Security Frameworks
• Need lightweight, scalable authentication frameworks.
• Need reliable and secureness .
• Need fast and low-cost message exchange facility.
18

 Quality of Service.
• QoS challenges are packet delivery ratio and connection
duration.
 Broadcasting.
• Most messages in Vanet are broadcast messages.
• Collisions affects message delivery.
19

20

Three major classes of applications possible in VANET are

 safety oriented
 convenience oriented
 commercial oriented
21

22

• Consists of vehicle-to-vehicle, vehicle-to-infrastructure

communication.
• It improves the safety of vehicles.
• Supports Intelligent Transportation system.
23

• Raya, M. and Hubaux, J., “The Security of Vehicular Ad Hoc

Networks”, in Proceedings of the 3rdACM Workshop on Security of
Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks (SASN 2005), Alexandria, VA,
• Harsch, C., Festag, A. & Papadimitratos, P., “Secure Position-Based

Routing for VANETs”, in Proceedings of IEEE 66thVehicular
Technology Conference (VTC-2007).
• Gerlach, M., Full Paper: Assessing and Improving Privacy in

VANETs, www.networkon-wheels.de/downloads/escar2006gerlach.pdf
.
24

• Jinyuan, S., Chi, Z. & Yuguang, F., “An ID-based Framework Achieving
Privacy and Non-Repudiation”, in Proceedings of IEEE Vehicular Ad Hoc
Networks, Military Communications Conference (MILCOM 2007).
• Stampoulis, A. & Chai, Z., A Survey of Security in Vehicular Networks.
• Balon, N., Introduction to Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks and the Broadcast

Storm Problem,http://www.csie.ntpu.edu.tw/~yschen/course/96-
2/Wireless/papers/broadcast-5.pdf .
25

26

27

UNIT – V
Dr.A.Kathirvel, Professor and Head, Dept of IT

Anand Institute of Higher Technology, Chennai
1
Unit - V
MOBILE PLATFORMS AND APPLICATIONS
Mobile Device Operating Systems – Special Constrains &

Requirements – Commercial Mobile Operating Systems –
Software Development Kit: iOS, Android, BlackBerry,
Windows Phone – M- Commerce – Structure – Pros & Cons –
Mobile Payment System – Security Issues.
2
Synopsis
Mobile Device Operating Systems
Mobile Operating System Structure
JAVA ME Platform
Special Constrains & Requirements
Commercial Mobile Operating Systems
Windows Mobile
Palm OS
Symbian OS
iOS
Android
Blackberry Operating system
3
Synopsis
Software Development Kit
M- Commerce
Applications of M- Commerce
Structure of M- Commerce
Pros and cons of M- Commerce
Mobile Payment Systems
Security issues
4
Mobile Device Operating Systems

 A mobile operating system, also called a mobile OS, is an
operating system that is specifically designed to run on mobile
devices such as mobile phones, smartphones, PDAs, tablet
computers and other handheld devices.
 The mobile operating system is the software platform on top of
which other programs, called application programs, can run on
mobile devices.
 Managing Resources: The resources that are managed by the
operating system include processor, memory, files, and various
types of attached devices such as camera, speaker, keyboard
and screen.
 Interface: interactive interface between devices and networks.
Control, data and voice communication with BS using
different types of protocols.
Mobile Device Operating Systems

A mobile OS is a software platform on top of which other
programs called application programs, can run on mobile
devices such as PDA, cellular phones, smart phone and etc.
Applications
OS Libraries
Device Operating System Base, Kernel
Low-Level Hardware, Manufacturer Device Drivers
6
Mobile Operating System

 Features
Multitasking
Scheduling
Memory Allocation
File System Interface
Keypad Interface
I/O Interface
Protection and Security
Multimedia features
Java ME Platform
J2ME platform is a set of technologies,
specifications and libraries developed for small
devices like mobile phones, pagers, and
personal organizers.
Java ME was designed by Sun Microsystems. It
is licensed under GNU General Public License
Configuration: it defines a minimum platform
including the java language, virtual machine
features and minimum class libraries for a
grouping of devices. E.g. CLDC
8
Java ME Architecture
 Profile: it supports higher-level services common to a more specific class of
devices. A profile builds on a configuration but adds more specific APIs to
make a complete environment for building applications. E.g. MIDP
 Java ME platforms are composed of the following elements:
Application
Vendor
Optional
Profile specific
Packages
classes - OEM
Configuration
Native Operating System
Device/ Hardware
9
Java ME Platform
 It includes two kinds of platforms:
High-end platform for high-end consumer devices. E.g. TV set-
top boxes, Internet TVs, auto-mobile navigation systems
Low-end platform for low-end consumer devices. E.g. cell
phones, and pagers
Platforms Device Characteristics
High-End  a large range of user interface capabilities
consumer  total memory budgets starting from about two to four MB
devices  persistent, high-bandwidth network connections, often using
TCP/IP
Low-end  simple user interfaces
consumer minimum memory budgets starting from about 128–256 KB
devices  low bandwidth, intermittent network connections that is often
not based on the TCP/IP protocol suite.
 most of these devices are battery-operated
10
Commercial Mobile Operating Systems
Windows Mobile
Palm OS
Symbian OS
iOS
Android
Blackberry Operating system
11
Windows Mobile OS
Windows Mobile is a compact operating system designed
for mobile devices and based on Microsoft Win32.
It provides ultimate interoperability. Users with various
requirements are able to manipulate their data.
Windows CE (Compact Edtion) - designed specifically for
handheld devices, based on Win32 API.
PDA (personal digital assistant), palmtop computer,
PocketPC were original intended platform for the Windows
Mobile OS.
For devices without mobile phone capabilities, and those
that included mobile phone capabilities
12
Family of Windows Mobile OS

 1996 – Windows CE 1.0
 1997 – Windows CE 2.0 (ATM, games consoles, Handheld PC's,
kitchen utensils)
 2000 - Windows CE 3.0 - Pocket PC 2000 - (became the os of
choice on many Pocket PCs, looked and worked like Windows
98, no phone feature)
 2001 - CE 3.0 - Smartphone 2002– used for Pocket PC phones
and Smartphones, UI reflect the new Windows XP
 2003 – Windws Mobile 2003 (Windows CE 4.2) - first release
under the Windows Mobile banner - name changed form
PocketPC to Windows Mobile
 2005 - WM5 (CE5.0) - new standard API created for a simplified
programming of 3D apps and games with Direct3Dmobile. It use
.Net Compact Framework environment
Family of Windows Mobile OS

 2007 – WM6 (CE 5.2) – (also
year of introducing iPhone)
similar in design to the Vista,
works much like WM5, but
with much better stability
 2008 – WM 6.1 – (year of
releasing Android)
 2009 – WM6.5, vertically
scrollable labels, Windows
Marketplace announced
 Feb 2010 – WM6.5.3, was
officially announced as first
Windows Phone 6.5.3
smartphone
14
Palm OS
Palm OS is an embedded operating system
designed for ease of use with a touch
screen-based graphical user interface.
It has been implemented on a wide variety
of mobile devices such as smart phones,
barcode readers, and GPS devices.
It is run on Arm architecture-based
processors. It is designed as a 32-bit
architecture.
15
Palm OS
The key features of Palm OS
A single-tasking OS:
Palm OS Garnet (5.x) uses a kernel developed at
Palm, but it does not expose tasks or threads to
user applications. In fact, it is built with a set of
threads that can not be changed at runtime.
Palm OS Cobalt (6.0 or higher) does support
multiple threads but does not support creating
additional processes by user applications.
16
Palm OS
Palm OS has a preemptive multitasking kernel
that provides basic tasks but it does not
expose this feature to user applications.
Memory Management: The Memory, RAM
and ROM, for each Palm resides on a memory
module known as card. In other words, each
memory card contains RAM, ROM or both.
Palms can have no card, one card or multiple
cards.
Handwriting recognition input called Graffiti 2
17
Palm OS
Expansion support: This capability not only
augments the memory and I/O , but also it
facilitates data interchanges with other Palm
devices and with other non-Palm devices
such as digital cameras, and digital audio
players.
HotSync technology for synchronization
with PC computers
Sound playback and record capabilities
TCP/IP network access
18
Palm OS
Support of serial port, USB,
Infrared, Bluetooth and Wi-
Fi connections
Defined standard data
format for PIM (Personal
Information Management)
applications to store
calendar, address, task and
note entries, accessible by
third-party applications
19
Symbian OS
Symbian OS is 32 bit, little-endian
operating system, running on
different flavors of ARM
architecture
It is a multitasking operating
system and very less dependence
on peripherals.
Kernel runs in the privileged mode and exports its
service to user applications via user libraries.
20
Symbian OS
User libraries include networking,

communication, I/O interfaces and etc.
Access to these services and resources is
coordinated through a client-server framework.
Clients use the service APIs exposed by the
server to communicate with the server.
The client-server communication is conducted
by the kernel.
21
Symbian OS
The following demonstrates the Symbian OS
architecture
Symbian OS Libraries
KVM
Application Engines
Servers
Symbian OS Base- Kernel
Hardware
22
Symbian OS Features
 Real-time: it has a real-time, multithreaded kernel.
 Data Caging
it allows applications to have their own private data
partition. This feature allows for applications to guarantee a
secure data store. It can be used for e-commerce
applications, location aware applications and etc.
 Platform Security
Symbian provides a security mechanism against malware. It
allows sensitive operations can be accessed by applications
which have been certified by a signing authority. In addition,
it supports full encryption and certificate management,
secure protocols (HTTPS, TLS and SSL) and WIM
framework.
23
Symbian OS Features
Multimedia
it supports audio, video recording, playback and streaming,
and Image conversion.
Internationalization support
it supports Unicode standard.
Fully object-oriented and component- based
Optimized memory management
Client-server architecture
it provides simple and high-efficient inter process
communication. This feature also eases porting of code
written for other platforms to Symbian OS.
24
Symbian OS Features
A Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL)
This layer provides a consistent interface to
hardware and supports device-independency
Kernel offers hard real-time guarantees to kernel
and user mode threads.
25
iPhone OS
BSD File Systems

Based on Mach
kernel and Darwin
Core as Mac OS X
Networking
I/O systems
components
26
iOS
About Apple’s Proprietary Mobile OS – iOS
iOS is Apple’s proprietary mobile operating
system initially developed for iPhone and now
extended to iPAD, iPod Touch and Apple TV.
Initially known as “iPhone OS”, in June 2010
renamed “iOS”.
iOS is not enabled for cross licensing, it can
only be used on Apple’s devices.
27
iOS
Apple’s Proprietary Mobile OS
The user interface of iOS is based on the
concept of usage of multi touch gestures.
iOS is a Unix based OS.
 iOS uses four abstraction layers, namely: the
Core OS layer, the Core Services layer, the
Media layer, and the Cocoa Touch layer.
Apple’s App store contains close to 550,000
applications as of March 2012.
28
iOS
Apple’s Proprietary Mobile OS
It is estimated that the APPs are downloaded
25B times till now.
First version of iOS is released in 2007 with the
mane ‘OS X’ and then in 2008 the first beta
version of ‘iPhone OS’ is released.
In 2007 September Apple released first iPod
Touch that also used this OS.
In 2010 iPad is released that has a bigger screen
than the iPod and iPhone.
iOS
Cisco owns the trademark for ‘IOS’;
Apple licenses the usage of ‘iOS’ from
Cisco.
30
Mac OS X Architecture
Each application has

4GB space
Pre-emptive, i.e. act of

taking the control of
Strong memory
Multitasking operating system from Real-time
protection
one task and giving it
to another task.
31
Android
Google owns a trademark for Android – Google’s
permission is necessary to use Android’s
trademark
In 2011, Microsoft announced it has made an
agreement with Android device manufacturers
(including Samsung and HTC) to collect fees
from them.
Android’s source code is available under Apache
License version 2.0. The Linux kernel changes are
available under the GNU General Public
License version 2.
32
Android OS
Android is Linux based mobile OS for mobile
devices such as Tablets and Smartphones.
In 2005 Google acquired the initial developer of
the OS, Android Inc.
Then in 2007 Google formed an Open Handset
Alliance with 86 hardware, software and telecom
companies.
This alliance developed and announced Android
as an open source mobile OS under the Apache
License.
33
Android
Now, this OS is being used by multiple device
manufacturers (Samsung, Motorola, HTC, LG,
Sony etc) in their handsets
Android developer community has large
number of developers preparing APPs in Java
environment and the APP store ‘Google Play’
now has close to 450,000 APPs, among which
few are free and others are paid.
It is estimated that, as of December 2011,
almost 10B APPs were downloaded.
34
Android
It is estimated that as of February 2012 there
are over 300M Android devices and
approximately 850,000 Android devices are
activated every day.
The earliest recognizable Android version is
2.3 Gingerbread, which supports SIP and NFC.
In 2011 Android Honeycomb version (3.1 and
3.2) are released with focus on Tablets. This is
mainly focused on large screen devices.
35
Android
Handset layouts – compatible with different
handset designs such as larger, VGA, 2D
graphics library, 3D graphics library based.
Storage – a lightweight relational database, is
used for data storage
Connectivit: GSM/EDGE, IDEN, CDMA, EV-
DO,UMTS,Bluetooth,WiFi, LTE, NFC &WiMAX
Messaging – SMS, MMS, threaded text
messaging and Android Cloud To Device
Messaging (C2DM)
36
Android
Google faced many patent lawsuits against
Android such as by Oracle in 2006 that included
patents US5966702 and US6910205.
Created by Android
Distributed under
Apache License
Inc., as part of Google Linux Kernel
in 2005
Programmers are
Java-based
Development is Open application
welcome to contribute
Source; source code is
publicly available
via Software framework
Development Kit (SDK)
37
Blackberry OS
The first operating system launched by
Research in Motion(RIM -the company
behind BlackBerry)
Operating system structure mainly
consists of following: -
GUI (Graphic User Interface).
 Command processor.
Kernel.
38
Blackberry OS Architecture
39
Blackberry OS Features
 Gestures
 Multi-tasking
 Blackberry Hub
 Blackberry Balance
 Keyboard
 Voice Control
40
Key Terms in Blackberry OS
Process Management
Memory Management
Types of Kernel – Microkernel
41
Advantages of Blackberry OS
It provides good security for data.
 It avoids collusion of personal and business data.
 Content promotion: Dedicated content channels
and feature banners that provide prime real estate to
help distribute your app to the right users.
App discovery: Universal search, top lists, social
sharing, reviews, and ratings help users find the
right app.
The Games app (in combination with Score loop):
A specialized portal for gaming allowing
multiplayer, social connections.
Disadvantages of Blackberry OS
New operating system was introduced too late
into the ever-growing market.
 Yet to have as many apps available for
purchase or download compared to other phone
in the market.
 Consumers have switched over to other
devices made by Apple or Android.
 Swipe vs. home button. Once an application is
opened, you have to swipe up to return to the
main display.
43
Android Software Development Kit

A software development kit that enables developers
to create applications for the Android platform.
The Android SDK includes sample projects
with source code, development tools, an emulator,
and required libraries to build Android applications.
 Applications are written using
the Java programming language and run on Dalvik,
a custom virtual machine designed for embedded
use which runs on top of a Linux kernel.
44
Android SDK Environment

The Android Development Tools (ADT) plugin for
Eclipse adds powerful extensions to the Eclipse
integrated development environment. It allows you to
create and debug Android applications easier and
faster.
Advantages:
It gives you access to other Android development tools from
inside the Eclipse IDE. For example, ADT lets you access
the many capabilities of the DDMS tool: take screenshots,
manage port‐forwarding, set breakpoints, and view thread
and process information directly from Eclipse.
45
Android SDK Environment Advantages

It provides a New Project Wizard, which helps you
quickly create and set up all of the basic files you'll
need for a new Android application.
It automates and simplifies the process of building
your Android application.
It provides an Android code editor that helps you write
valid XML for your Android manifest and resource
files.
 It will export your project into a signed APK, which
can be distributed to users.
46
Creation of Android SDK Environment
 Download and Install the Android

SDK and test the Emulator
 Install Java
 Install Eclipse
 Install the ADT Plug-in in Eclipse
 Create Hello World Application
47
Android Application Components

Components Description
Activities They dictate the UI and handle the user
interaction to the smart phone screen
Services They handle background processing
associated with an application.
Broadcast They handle communication between
Receivers Android OS and applications.
Content They handle data and database
Providers management issues.
48
Android Application Components

Components Description
Fragments Represents a portion of user interface in an
Activity.
Views UI elements that are drawn on-screen including
buttons, lists forms etc.
Layouts View hierarchies that control screen format and
appearance of the views.
Intents Messages wiring components together.
Resources External elements, such as strings, constants and
drawable pictures.
Manifest Configuration file for the application.
49
Android Software Stack Structure
50
Advantages of Android
 Android is open
 Multitasking
Easy access to the Android App Market
Can install a modified ROM
Phone options are diverse
Ease of notification
Widget
51
M- Commerce
M-commerce (mobile commerce) is the buying and
selling of goods and services through wireless
handheld devices such as cellular telephone and
personal digital assistants (PDAs). Known as next-
generation e-commerce, m-commerce enables users to
access the Internet without needing to find a place to
plug in.
The emerging technology behind m-commerce, which
is based on the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP),
has made far greater strides in Europe, where mobile
devices equipped with Web-ready micro-browsers are
much more common than in the United States.
52
M- Commerce
M-commerce can be seen as means of selling and
purchasing of goods and services using mobile
communication devices such as cellular phones,
PDA s etc, which are able to connect to the Internet
through wireless channels and interact with e-
commerce systems
M-commerce can be referred to as an act of carrying-
out transactions using a wireless device
It is understood as a data connection that results in
the transfer of value in exchange for information,
services or goods
53
M- Commerce
 It can also bye seen as a natural extension of e-commerce that
allows users to interact with other users or businesses in a
wireless mode, anytime/anywhere.
 It can be perceived to be any electronic transaction or
information interaction conducted using a mobile device and
mobile network thereby guaranteeing customers virtual and
physical mobility, which leads to the transfer of real or
perceived value in exchange for personalized, location-based
information, services, or goods.
 M-commerce can also be seen and referred to as wireless
commerce.
 It is any transaction with a monetary value that is conducted
via a mobile telecommunications network.
54
M- Commerce
M-commerce can also be seen and referred to
as wireless commerce.
It is any transaction with a monetary value
that is conducted via a mobile
telecommunications network .
An ability to access an IT-System whilst
moving from one place to the other using a
mobile device and carry out transactions and
transfer information wherever and whenever
needed to.
55
Mobile commerce from the

Customer‘s point of view
The customer wants to access information, goods
and services any time and in any place on his
mobile device.
It can use his mobile device to purchase tickets
for events or public transport, pay for parking,
download content and even order books and CDs.
It should be offered appropriate payment
methods. They can range from secure mobile
micropayment to service subscriptions.
56
Mobile commerce from the

Provider‘s point of view
 The future development of the mobile telecommunication
sector is heading more and more towards value-added
services. Analysts forecast that soon half of mobile operators
revenue will be earned through mobile commerce.
 Consequently operators as well as third party providers will
focus on value-added-services. To enable mobile services,
providers with expertise on different sectors will have to
cooperate.
 Innovative service scenarios will be needed that meet the
customer‘s expectations and business models that satisfy all
partners involved.
57
M-Commerce Terminology
Generations
1G: 1979-1992 wireless technology
2G: current wireless technology; mainly
accommodates text
2.5G: interim technology accommodates graphics
3G: 3rd generation technology (2001-2005)
supports rich media (video clips)
4G: will provide faster multimedia display (2006-
2010)
58
Terminology and Standards

GPS: Satellite-based Global Positioning System
PDA: Personal Digital Assistant—handheld wireless
computer
SMS: Short Message Service
EMS: Enhanced Messaging Service
MMS: Multimedia Messaging Service
WAP: Wireless Application Protocol
Smart phones—Internet-enabled cell phones with
attached applications
59
M- Commerce Structure
60
Pros of M- Commerce
M-commerce is creating entirely new service
opportunities - such as payment, banking, and
ticketing transactions - using a wireless device .
M-commerce allows one-to-one communication
between the business and the client and also
business-to-business communication .
M-commerce is leading to expectations of
revolutionary changes in business and markets.
M-commerce widens the Internet business
because of the wide coverage by mobile networks.
61
Cons of M- Commerce
 Cell phones have small screen displays and that might be
irritating to someone who has the experience of the
desktop environment.
 Another issue that can be seen as a disadvantage to m-
commerce is the limitation in bandwidth. The GSM
technology has the data rate of 9.3 Kbps and the current
3-G technology offers a data rate goes up to 2 Mbps.
 Mobile devices use batteries as their form of power
supply . Normally, power for a cell phone battery lasts
up to 2-3 days depending on how new the battery is. It
then gives the owner the burden of having to remember
to recharge it every now and then.
62
Cons of M- Commerce
Mobile devices do not have enough processing
power and the developer has to be careful about
loading an application that requires too much
processing. Also, mobile devices do not have
enough storage space. The developer has to be
also concerned about the size of his application in
the due process of development.
Mobile appliances are quite vulnerable to theft,
loss and corruptibility. Security solutions for
mobile appliances must, therefore, provide for
security under these challenging scenarios.
63
Mobile Payment System

 Mobile Payment can be offered as a stand-alone
service.
 Mobile Payment could also be an important
enabling service for other m-commerce services (e.g.
mobile ticketing, shopping, gambling…)
It could improve user acceptance by making the
services more secure and user-friendly.
In many cases offering mobile payment methods
is the only chance the service providers have to
gain revenue from an m-commerce service.
64
Mobile Payment System (cont.)
the consumer must be informed of:

what is being bought, and
how much to pay
options to pay
the payment must be made
payments must be traceable.
65
Mobile Payment System (cont.)

Customer requirements:
a larger selection of merchants with whom they can trade
a more consistent payment interface when making the
purchase with multiple payment schemes, like:
Credit Card payment
Bank Account/Debit Card Payment
 Merchant benefits:
brands to offer a wider variety of payment
Easy-to-use payment interface development
 Bank and financial institution benefits
to offer a consistent payment interface to consumer and
merchants
66
Payment via Internet Payment Provider

WAP
GW/Proxy
Browsing (negotiation)
Merchant
MeP
GSM Security SSL tunnel

User
SMS-
C IPP
Mobile Wallet
CC/Bank
67
Payment via integrated Payment Server

WAP
GW/Proxy
Browsing (negotiation)
Mobile Commerce
Server
Merchant
GSM Security
User SSL tunnel
SMS-
C ISO8583 Based
CP
VPP IF
CC/Bank
Mobile Wallet
Voice PrePaid
68
Security in M-Commerce
CA
SAT GW
(SIM)
Mobile IP Content
Mobile Aggregation
Service
Network
Provider Internet
Network
WAP1.1(+SIM where avail.) Merchant
WAP GW
Mobile e-Commerce Bank (FI)

Server
Mobile Bank
WAP1.2(WIM) Security and
Payment
Operator centric model

69
WAP Architecture
Client Web Server

WAP Gateway
WML
with WML-Script
WML Encoder CGI
WML Decks
WML- Scripts
WSP/WTP WMLScript
HTTP etc.
Script
Compiler
WTAI
Protocol Adapters Content
Etc.
70
Comparison between Internet and
WAP technologies
Wireless Application Protocol
HTML Wireless Application Other Services and

JavaScript Environment (WAE) Applications
Session Layer (WSP)

HTTP
Transaction Layer (WTP)
TLS - SSL Security Layer (WTLS)
Transport Layer (WDP)

TCP/IP
UDP/IP Bearers:
SMS USSD CSD IS-136 CDMA CDPD PDC-P Etc..

WAP Risks
WAP Gap
Claim: WTLS protects WAP as SSL
protects HTTP
Problem: In the process of translating one
protocol to another, information is
decrypted and re-encrypted
 Recall the WAP Architecture
Solution: Doing decryption/re-encryption
in the same process on the WAP gateway
Wireless gateways as single point of failure
72
Platform Risks
Without a secure OS, achieving security on
mobile devices is almost impossible
Learned lessons:
Memory protection of processes
Protected kernel rings
File access control
Authentication of principles to resources
Differentiated user and process privileges
Sandboxes for untrusted code
Biometric authentication
Risks of WML Script

 Lack of Security Model
 Does not differentiate trusted local code from untrusted code
downloaded from the Internet. So, there is no access control!!
 WML Script is not type-safe.
 Scripts can be scheduled to be pushed to the client device
without the user’s knowledge
 Does not prevent access to persistent storage
 Possible attacks:
Theft or damage of personal information
Abusing user’s authentication information
Maliciously offloading money saved on smart cards
74
Bluetooth Security
Bluetooth provides security between any two Bluetooth
devices for user protection and secrecy
mutual and unidirectional authentication
encrypts data between two devices
Session key generation
configurable encryption key length
keys can be changed at any time during a connection
Authorization (whether device X is allowed to have
access service Y)
Trusted Device: The device has been previously
authenticated, a link key is stored and the device is
marked as “trusted” in the Device Database.
75
Bluetooth Security (Cont..)

Untrusted Device: The device has been
previously authenticated, link key is stored
but the device is not marked as “trusted” in
the Device Database
Unknown Device: No security
information is available for this device.
This is also an untrusted device.
automatic output power adaptation to reduce
the range exactly to requirement, makes the
system extremely difficult to eavesdrop
76
New Security Risks in M-Commerce

Abuse of cooperative nature of ad-hoc networks:
An adversary that compromises one node can
disseminate false routing information.
Malicious domains: A single malicious domain
can compromise devices by downloading malicious
code
Roaming: Users roam among non-trustworthy
domains
77
New Security Risks (cont.)

Launching attacks from mobile devices
With mobility, it is difficult to identify attackers
Loss or theft of device
More private information than desktop computers
Security keys might have been saved on the device
Access to corporate systems
Bluetooth provides security at the lower layers
only: a stolen device can still be trusted
78
New Security Risks (cont.)

Problems with Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS)
protocol
Security Classes:
 No certificates
 Server only certificate (Most Common)
 Server and client Certificates
Re-establishing connection without re-authentication
Requests can be redirected to malicious sites
79
New Privacy Risks
Monitoring user’s private information

Offline telemarketing
Who is going to read the “legal jargon”
Value added services based on location
awareness (Location-Based Services)
80
Questions ?

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Fatima Michael College of Engineering & Technology

IT6601 MOBILE COMPUTING

Mr. M. Chander Kumar, Assistant Professor,

Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs wireless Networking –

Mobile Computing Applications – Characteristics of Mobile

computing – Structure of Mobile Computing Application. MAC

Protocols – Wireless MAC Issues – Fixed Assignment Schemes –

Random Assignment Schemes – Reservation Based Schemes.

Wireless Networking Standards

What Is Mobile Computing?

Comparison to Wired Net.

• Wired Networks • Mobile Networks

• Enable anywhere/anytime connectivity

Evolution of Wireless LAN

Evolution of Wireless LAN

Evolution of Wireless LAN

Evolution of Wireless LAN

Evolution of Wireless PAN

Evolution of Wireless PAN Cont.

New Forms of Computing

MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.

• Mobile computing system allows a

MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.

MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.

MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.

MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.

Mobile Computing Functions

Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

– User should be able to move from one network to

Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

Types of Wireless Devices

The Nokia 9000 Communicator

The Hand-Held Computer:Sharp Zaurus

The Vadem Clio: Hand-Held?, Tablet?

Laptops, Notebook, Sub Notebooks

The First Wrist PC: Ruputer, 2000

Japan’s PHS Phone, Year 2001

Ear Phone, 2000

Wearable Computers, 2000

More Wearable -- Via PC

The Power Ring

NTT Key Fingers

The Projection Keyboard

Plastic Logic QUE 22Moo Portable projectors

Fatima Michael College of Engineering & Technology 52

Re-Inventing the Tablet:

Fatima Michael College of Engineering & Technology 53

Applications for mobile computing

Mobile Computing - Characteristics

E-Fax-Order Branch office

Application GSM Ethernet

Traffic Telematics Systems

Beam Radio, ISDN GSM

Mobile Communication Networks: Examples

Fatima Michael College of Engineering & Technology

Mobile Communication: Development

Cordless Telephony CT2 DECT

Satellite Networks Iridium/

1990 1995 2000 2005