University of Waterloo

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME 322 - Mechanical Design 1

Partial notes – Part 3

(Bolted Connections)
G. Glinka

Fall 2007

1
 Design of Bolts and Bolted Connections
Bolts are very important engineering members and their principal use
is to clamp parts together with enough force to seal pressure within a
vessel (or pipe) or to prevent motion between parts.
Bolts and other threaded connectors have long been standardized
machine components ; therefore the task of the designer is not to
design bolts, but to select them, and to ensure that the bolts and the
parts that they connect have adequate strength.
Thread standards and Definitions
The terminology of screw threads, illustrated below is explained as follows.

Sharp Vee threads are shown for clarity; the crests and roots are
actually flatted or rounded during the forming operation.
2
* The pitch is the distance between adjacent thread forms
measured parallel to the thread axis
* The major diameter d is the largest diameter of a screw thread
* The minor diameter d r or d 1 is the smallest diameter of a screw
thread
* The lead l, not shown, is the distance the nut moves parallel to the
screw axis when the nut is given one turn. For a single thread, the
lead is the same as the pitch
Basic thread profile for metric M and MJ threads. D (d) = basic major
diameter of internal (external) thread; Dr (dr) = basic minor diameter of
internal (external) thread; Dp (dp) = basic pitch diameter of internal
(external) thread;

Internal threads

External threads

ρ = pitch; H = 0.5(3)1/ 2 ρ .
The American National (United) thread standard has been approved in
the U.K. for use on all standard threaded products (shown below).

3
 From: Douglas Wright, The University of Western Australia

A thread can be likened to a piece of string wound in a tight

helix around a cylinder - or around a conical frustum in the case
of pipe thread designed to eliminate leakage.
When a nut on a screw is rotated by one turn, it travels along
the screw a distance known as the lead L. Developing one turn
of the thread at the mean diameter dm ( the average of major
and minor diameters ) gives the lead angle (or helix angle ) λ
as tanλ = L /π·dm.
Power screws may employ multiple threads, or starts, so L = p
∗ number of starts as illustrated. Fasteners on the other hand
are almost invariably single start (L = p). They are also right
handed to avoid confusion in tightening, though LH screws
appear in turnbuckles and in certain bicycle parts where the
prevailing torque would tend to loosen RH fasteners.

4
 a) Round head b) Flat head

c) Fillister head d) Oval head

e) Truss head f) Binding head

g) Hex head (trimmed) h) Hex head (upset)

Two major United thread series are in common use : UN and UNR.UNR The
difference between these is that a root radius must be used in the UNR series.
Because of decreased thread stress-concentration factors, UNR series have
improved fatigue strength. United threads are specified by stating the nominal
major diameter, the number of threads per inch, and the thread series:
5'' 5''
− 18UNRF ; − 11UNRC ; or
8 8
0.625''− 18UNRF F − fine thread
C − coarse thread 5
6
Metric threads are specified by writing the diameter and pitch in
millimeters, in that order

M 12 × 1.75 M - metric
The symbol above means : metric thread having a nominal major
diameter of 12 mm and a pitch of 1.75 mm

Tensile stress area At (or effective area)

A great many tensile tests of threaded rods have shown that an

unthreaded rod having a diameter equal to the mean of the pitch
diameter ‘dp’ and minor diameter will have the same tensile
strength as the threaded rod. The area of this unthreaded rod is
called the tensile-stress area At of the threaded rod. This is the
area used for strength calculations

Root, or minor diameter Pitch, (= reciprocal of number

of threads per inch, also same
as lead for single thread)

Diameter corresponding to
tensile stress area, At
(Area of an unthreaded rod
having the same strength)

Helix angle
Major diameter( about
the same as nominal Run-out, end of thread
diameter)

7
Basic dimensions of bolt heads and nuts
L

L – bolt length

Hexagonal nuts:

a) end view; general b) washer faced

regular nut

e) jam nut
c) regular nut d) jam nut with chamfered on
chamfered on washer face both sides
both sides

8
9
Table A- 31; Dimensions of Hexagonal Nuts

10
11
 Recommended procedure for the determination of
bolted joint dimensions (bolt and nut joint)
lt
ld
t

LT

l = LG

Given:
1. Grip or thickness of connected members, l = LG
2. Bolt diameter d and pitch p or number of threads per inch

Find:
1. Nut height H from Table A-31
2. Washer thickness t from Table A -32 or A -33.
3. Thread length LT from Table 8-7
4. Bolt length L from the relation L > l+H (Table 8-7 for preferred length)
5. Length of the unthreaded portion from the relation ld = L - LT
6. Length of the threaded portion within the grip from the equation LT = L- ld
7. Area of the unthreaded portion from the equation Ad = πd2/4
8. Area of threaded portion At is the same as the tensile-stress area.
9. Bolt stiffness kb from Eq. (8-17)
12
Recommended procedure for the determination of
bolted joint dimensions (cap srew joint)
h
t t1 t2

l
Effective grip

⎧ t2
l’
⎪ h + ; t2 < d
LT ⎪ 2
ld l ' = LG = ⎨
'

L ⎪h + d ; t ≥ d
⎪⎩ 2
2

Find:
1. Washer thickness t from Table A-32 or A-33.
2. Thread length LT; same as for bolts; use Table 8-7
3. Cap screw length from expression: L>h+1.5d
4. Length of unthreaded portion from: ld= L - LT
5. Length of useful threaded portion from: l = l’ - ld
6. Area of unthreaded portion: Ad= πd 2/ 4
7. Area of threaded portion: AT = At (from Table 8 -1, 8 -2)
8. Cap screw (fastener) stiffness kb from: Eq. (8-17) 13
 Bolt Strength

The bolt strength is the key factor in the design or analysis

of bolted connections. In the specification standard for
bolts, the strength is specified by stating the minimum proof
strength, or minimum proof load, and the minimum tensile
strength.
The proof load is the maximum load (force) that a bolt can
withstand without acquiring a permanent set (corresponding
to 0.0001 permanent strain in the fastener)

The proof strength is the quotient of the proof load and

the tensile-stress area.
The prooof load
The proof strength =
Tensile stress area
The proof strength thus correspond roughly to the yield-
point strength and is about 90% of the 0.2 percent offset
yield strength.
The tensile strength is the stress at which failure of the
joint may occur (analogous to the ultimate strength).
The bolts strength parameters are given in various
specification codes.

Note! All specification-grade bolts made in the US bear a

manufacturer’s mark or logo, in addition to the grade
marking, on the bolt head. This is confirmation that the bolt
meets or exceeds specifications. If any mark is missing the
bolt may be imported or home made.
14
15
 Basic bolting arrangements
Our discussion concerns that class of fasteners known as
bolts, which includes the subcategories cap screws and
studs. These names are associated with the three basic
clamping arrangements, shown below.

P P P

P P
a)
P b) c)
Basic bolted arrangements.
a) Bolt and nut.
b) Cap screw or tap bolt.
c) Stud.

In the majority of cases, the bolt passes through the hole in

the part being clamped and mates with a nut (Fig. a).
Occasionally, the bolts mates with threads with one of the
member, rather than with a nut. The unthreaded shank of a
stud or bolt helps to locate the part being assembled.
16
 Joint Analysis

Tension Connections – Preloading Theory

Stiffeness of a fastener

Sections through two typical tension-loaded joints are illustrated in Figures

below.

l l’

a) b)

Notice the clearance space provided by the bolts holes, and notice how the
bolt threads extend into the body of the connection.
Twisting the nut in Fig. A streches the bolts to produce the clamping force.
This clamping force is called the pre-tension or the bolt preload. Since
the members are being clamped together, the clamping force which
produces tension in the bolt induces compression in the members.

17
Stress concentration and load distribution along the
threaded part of the bolt
Nut

P
Bolt

From: Douglas Wright, The University of Western Australia

We have noted that the elastic behaviour of connected members

has a significant effect upon the distribution of load between their
connectors. In an elastic bolt and nut connected by a number of
thread turns, the first 'thread' takes a disproportionate fraction of
the total tensile load (see the sketch above). It is clear that there is
little benefit from an engagement length exceeding half-a-dozen
threads. Special nuts which alleviate non-uniform load distribution
are available. The variation of normal stress σ over a cross-
section adjacent to the nut face ( as sketched ) is dominated by
stress concentration induced by the thread root, so it is hardly
surprising that bolt fractures usually occur in the exposed threads
close to the nut face.

18
The difference between the solution A and B can be illustrated by the
locations of the points of external load application.

P P P

P P
(a) (b) (c)

Extremes of external loading application, (a) and (b). The actual location
is somewhere between the two. (a) Forces applied under the head of the
bolt and the nut. This is the worst case. (b) Opposite extreme is
application of the forces at the joint interface. (c) Force application in a
tap bolt.

It is generally assumed that in the case of a bolt with a nut (Fig. a) that
the forces are applied under the head of the bolt and of the nut.
In the case of a cup screw the threaded part of the joint (Fig. b) is, in
reality, the nut, and the load can be assumed to act where the threads
begin.
19
 Modeling of the bolted region in grip

t
d 3

2 4

5 t2

It is assumed that the two cone (frustum) region in grip is

resisting the gripping force from the bolt!

The resultant stiffness The resultant stiffness

of all members in grip: of all members in grip:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = +
km km ,3 km ,4 km ,5 kb kb ,1 kb ,2 20
 The Bolt Stiffeness
The spring constant or the stiffness constant of an elastic
member such as a bolt, is the ratio between the force applied
to the member and the deflection produced be the force.

Fb

Fb Slope k ( Fb = kδ )

Fb
k=
δ
0

a) Fb
kb,2
kb,1
Fb Fb Fb Fb
kb,1 kb,2

b)

1 1 1
kb,1 =
Fb
; kb,2 =
Fb
; = +
δ1 δ2 kb kb,1 kb,2
Calculating bolt stiffness. (a) Defining stiffness. (b) Bars in series are
springs in series.
21
The stiffness of the portion of a bolt or screw within clamped
zone will generally consists of two parts, that of the unthreaded
portion and that of the threaded portion. Thus the stiffness
constant of the bolt is equivalent to the stiffness of the spring
in series.
σ
Fb 0 FFbb
4 Fb
σ=
πd2

4 Fb
σ=
At

l Fb
Fb
d = nominal diameter, A t = stress area, σ - average stress F/A

Fb ld 1 l
δd = ; = d ;
Ad E kd Ad E
Fb lT 1 lT
δT = ; = ;
At E kT At E
Bolt stiffness kb!

1 1 1 Ad At E
= + ⇒ kb =
kb kd kT Ad lT + At ld 22
 Stiffness of clamped members – the model

Joint stiffness model

(Cone – frustum model)

d = 2ri
di = 2r0
di = 2r0

Compression of a member in the clamp assumed to be confined to

the frustum of a hollow cone!
23
dw – washer
diameter

24
 Analysis of bolted joints under external load
To start the analysis let examine the bolt holding two parts of a joint
together, as shown in the Figure below.

When we tighten a bolt,

( a) we apply torque to the nut,
( b) the nut turns,
( c) the bolt stretches,
( d) creating preload.'

It helps to consider the bolt as a tension spring, with stiffness kb and the
joint members it clamps as compression spring with stiffness km. The
load vs. deflection curves of the bolt and the joint members can be
plotted as shown above. When the joint is assembled, the bolt is put
into an initial tension Fi (preload) and the joint will be under equal but
opposite compression.
25
 The statics of a bolted joint in grip

It is assumed that the gripping force Fb and the load P are

transferred by the material volume represented by the two
cone shaped frusta (shaded).

26
Static equilibrium of pre-looded (pre-torqued) bolted joint
(no external load, i.e. P=0)

Fi
Free body diagrams

Fi

Fi

Fi
Fi

Fi -initial pre-load Fi 27
Static equilibrium of pre-looded (pre-torqued) bolted joint
(with applied external load, P)

P P

δ
Fb
Fi

Fb
Fi

P P

Free body diagrams Fb

P P

Fb

Fm

Fm
Fb

28
Fi -initial pre-load Fb
 Equilibrium of forces
The task of the analyst is to determine the tensile load on the bolt
and the compressive load on the members in grip!

P + Fm − Fb = 0
Fm = Fi − kmδ
Fb = Fi + kbδ
P + Fi − kmδ − Fi − kbδ b = 0
P = kbδ + kmδ
δ= P
kb + km
The force on the bolt:
kb
Fb = Fi + kbδ = Fi + P
kb + km
The force on the members in grip:

Fm = Fi − kmδ = Fi − km P
kb + km
The resultant forces Fb and Fm on the bolt and members in grip
respectively are linear functions of the load but the increase
(change) of the load from 0 to P changes the bolt and members
load by a fraction of the applied load P because:

kb
< km < 1
kb + km kb + km
29
Variation of the force Fb and Fm as a function of the
external load P

kb
Fb Fb = Fi + P
kb + km
Fm
kb·δ
Fi

P
km·δ

km
Fm = Fi − P
kb + km

0 P

Because the stiffness kb is less than the stiffness km therefore

the increase of the bolt load Fb is smaller than the decrease of
the load Fm on members in grip.

30
Separation of the joint and the separation load Po

Fb
Fm

kb·δo
Fi

Po
km·δo

45o
0
Po P
P0
P0 = kbδ 0 + kmδ 0 ⇒ δ0 = ;
kb + km
and at separation : Fi = kmδ 0
P0 Fi
P0 = kb + Fi ⇒ P0 = or
kb + km kb
1−
kb + km
kb + km Fi kb
P0 = Fi = ; where : C =
km 1− C kb + km 31
 Analysis of bolted joints under external load
(pre-torqued, no external load, i.e. P=0)

The same analysis can be carried out in terms of the displacement δ !

Fb Fm
Fi Fi

Compression
Tension

δm
0b 0m
Extension δb Contraction δm

32
Nomenclature:
Fi – preload
P – external tensile load
Pb – portion of P taken by the bolt
Pm – portion of P taken be members
Fb=Pb+Fi – resultant bolt load
Fm=Pm-Fi – resultant load in member
The load P is tension, and it causes the connection to stretch,
through some distance δ which can be related to the load

δ =Pb/kb and δ =Pm/km

P P

Fi - kmδ

Fi +kbδ = Fb

33
 Analysis of bolted joints under external load
(under external load, P)
Fb
Fb=Fi + kbδ
Fm

Compression
Pb
Fi Fi

Pm
Tension

Fm=Fi - kmδ

0b 0m
δ δm

Extension δb Contraction δm

δ – extension of bolt = reduction in contraction of members in grip

P + Fi – kmδ = Fi + kbδ → P = kmδ + kbδ = Pm + Pb

δ = P⁄ (kb +km)
Fb = Fi + P·kb/(kb + km)
Fm = Fi - P·km/(kb + km) 34
The ratios C and (1-C) are the coefficients of load P and they
describe the proportion of the external load taken by the bolt
(Pb=CP) and by the member (Pm=(1-C)P), respectively.

Since C is always less than 1 it means that only fraction of

the load is taken by the bolt!

35
 Fatigue loading of bolted joints

It has been observed that the distribution of typical bolt failures

is about 15% under the head, 20% in the end of the thread, and
65% in the thread at the nut face. This coincides with the
section of the highest stress concentration.

σ
l
0
The stresses used in the calculations are the average stresses
σ and therefore all necessary corrections such as correction for
the surface, size, load, stress concentration etc. should be
accounted for.
But first, loading on the bolt has to be determined!
36
 Cyclic load and cyclic stress in the bolt
Fb,a= (Fb,max-Fi)/2
Fb
Fb= Fi+kbδ Fb,max
Fb,a
Pb Fb,m
Fi Fb,min=Fi

Fm
Fm= Fi-kmδ

δb δm
0b 0m
δ
P Loading history
P=Pmax
Due to cyclic
loading: 0 - Pmax
t

37
0
Relation between stress amplitude σa and the mean stress σm
σa=CP/2At; σm=σa+Fi/At
Because the term (Fi/At) is constant then the relation σa-σm can be
represented by straight line with the slope 1 beginning at σm=Fi/At.

Fi
σm = σa +
At
σa σm
+ =1
Se S uts
38
The σm - σa relation and the Goodman diagram can also be
shown in the form of the diagram below.

Sm

C – failure point,
B - safe

Safety factor against fatigue: n = Sa /σa

After solving for the factor of safety guarding against fatigue

failure, one should also check the possibility of yielding.

Sy Sy Sy
n= = =
σ max σm + σa Fi
+ 2σ a
At
Sy At S y
n= =
Fi Fi + CP
+ CP
At At 39
 Fatigue Strength of Bolts

The fatigue endurance of a bolt can be estimated as in cases

described in the section on Fatigue.
Se = ka ·kb·kc·kd·ke·S’e
However, determination of the fatigue factor Kf for bolts is somewhat
complex. Therefore, emprically determined fatigue notch factors are
recommended to be used in the equation above. In addition, the fatigue
notche factors Kf for bolts, given below, are also corrected for the
surface finish. Therefore the fatigue limit of bolts should be determined
as:
Se = 1 ·kb·kc·kd·1/Kf’·S’e

Table A-31; Fatigue notch factors Kf’ for threaded elements

Note! The fatigue notch factors Kf’ given in Table A-31 are not exactly as
the fatigue notch factors Kf discussed in the section on Fatigue because
the Kf’ factors include both the effect of the stress concentration factor Kt
and the surface finish factor ka.
i.e. Kf’ = ka/Kf

40
In the case of SAE and ISO rolled threads the amount of cold work and
strain hardening is known to the designer; therefore full corrected axial
fatigue limit (endurance limit) Se is reported.
It means that the designer does not need to make any corrections to the
fatigue limits given in the Table below!

41
 Example:
The section of the scaled joint shown in the figure is loaded by a
repeated force P= 6 kip.
The members have modulus of elasticity E= 16 Mpsi:
All bolts have been carefully preloaded to the load level Fi=25 kip each:
a) If hardened-steel washers 0.134 in thick are to be used under the
heal and nut, what length of bolts should be used?
b) Find stiffness kb ,km and C
c) Using the modified Goodman line, find the factor of safety guarding
against fatigue failure
d) Find the load factor guarding against over-proof loading.

42
 Bolted and riveted joints loaded in shear
Riveted and bolted joints loaded in shear are treated exactly alike in
design and analysis.
When the forces on a joint tend to slide the members over each other ,
the joint is loaded in shear. The Figure below shows joints of this type.

Bolted/riveted jojnts in shear. Bolt locations are designated by a circle ‘●’.

a) joint ( butt splice) under axial loading
b) gusset plate – axial and eccentric loading
c) bracket – eccentric loading
43
Modes of failure – for bolted joints in shear

There are five basic modes of failure of a bolted/riveted joint subjected to

shear loading :

1. failure by shearing of the bolt (rivet)

2. failure by crushing of the bolt (bolt in

bearing)
3. failure by crushing of the plate at a
bolt location (member in bearing)

4a. failure of a member in tension

4b. failure of a member in combined

tension and bending

5. failure of a member in shear tear-out

44
 Bolted joints under axial shear load
If the load application is through the centroid of the bolt pattern, the
loading is said to be axial.

1. Bolt in shear (bolt failure due to shear); shear stress in the bolt:

F F 4F
τ= = =
A πd2 /4 πd2
Allowable force based on the distortion strain energy hypothesis
and the bolt material yield strength:

3τ 2 ≤ S ys ⇒ τ 3 ≤ S ys S ysπ d 2
4F
F≤
3 ≤ S ys 4 3
πd 2
45
Bolted and riveted joints under eccentric shear load
A joint is eccentrically loaded when the line of action of the load not pass
through the bolt pattern centroid. Therefore one has to know the coordinates
of the bolt pattern centroid G (x, y)
Coordinates of the bolt pattern centroid G
Let (figure below) A1, A2…..A5 be the respective cross-sectional areas of a
group of five bolts. The location of each bolt is characterized by the coordinates
of each bolt, i.e. A1 (x1,y1) , A2 (x2,y2), A3 (x3,y3), A4 (x4,y4), A5 (x5,y5).
Using rules of statics we can calculate the coordinates of the centroid G.

y A2 A3

G
A4

A1
y
A5

0 x x
n

A1 x 1 + A 2 x 2 + A 3 x 3 + A 4 x 4 + A 5 x 5 ∑
Ai x i
x= = 1n
A1 + A 2 + A 3 + A 4 + A 5
∑1 A i
n

A1 y 1 + A 2 y 2 + A 3 y 3 + A 4 y 4 + A 5 y 5 ∑
Ai y i
y= = 1n
A1 + A 2 + A 3 + A 4 + A 5
∑1 A i
46
 Shear forces acting upon bolts

The location of the centroid of the group of bolts is needed to be known in

order to determine the shear forces which act upon each bolt.
When an eccentric joint is a bearing joint, i.e., motion is prevented by
interference between bolts and plates, the load can be transferred to the
centroid of the bolt group as a force plus moment as illustrated below

47
Loads on Bolts under eccentric loading - Example

48
2A

49
 Example
The figure below shows a welded fitting which has been tentatively
designed to be bolted to the channel so as to transfer the 2500 lb
load into the channel. The channel is made of hot-rolled law-carbon
steel having a minimum yield strength 46ksi; the two fitting plates
are of hot-rolled stock having a minimum Sys of 45.5ksi. The fitting
is to be bolted using six standard SAE grade-2 bolts.

Check the strength of the design by

computing the factor of safety for all
possible modes of failure!

50