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Chapter III
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Table of Contents
The Quality Function....................................................................................................................2
Elements of Quality System (pg 5)...............................................................................................3
Documentation Systems..............................................................................................................6
Configuration Management......................................................................................................6
Documentation Control.............................................................................................................7
Control of Quality Records...................................................................................................7
Revision Control.......................................................................................................................7
Marking changes......................................................................................................................7
Document formats....................................................................................................................7
Correlation Matrix documents...................................................................................................7
Quality Standards and other Guidelines.......................................................................................8
Specifications .....................................................................................................................8
Industry Standards...............................................................................................................8
International/Industry Standards..........................................................................................8
Industry/National Standards.................................................................................................8
Major industry and international standards..........................................................................8
ISO 9001:2000 Summary............................................................................................................8
Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award (MBNQA)................................................................10
Audit Purpose and Benefits........................................................................................................12
Audit Philosophy.....................................................................................................................13
Types of Audits.......................................................................................................................13
Audit Program Administration.................................................................................................15
Audit Standards......................................................................................................................15
Audit Responsibilities.............................................................................................................15
Audit Scope............................................................................................................................16
Audit Frequency.....................................................................................................................16
Preparing the Audit.................................................................................................................16
Executing the Audit................................................................................................................17
Closing Meeting......................................................................................................................18
Audit report preparation..........................................................................................................18
Corrective action/follow-up.....................................................................................................18
Cost of Quality...........................................................................................................................18
Quality cost categories...........................................................................................................19
Optimum Quality Costs..........................................................................................................20
Quality Cost improvement......................................................................................................21
Quality cost comparison bases...............................................................................................21
Quality Cost Responsibilities..................................................................................................21
Advantages of quality cost system.........................................................................................21
Limitations of Quality cost system..........................................................................................21

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Other Quality Cost Pitfalls......................................................................................................22

Pareto Analysis of Quality Costs............................................................................................22
Taguchi’s Loss Function.........................................................................................................22
Quality Training..........................................................................................................................22
Training to reduce Workmanship Defects...............................................................................23
Training for customer interface...............................................................................................23
Training needs assessment....................................................................................................23
Training Guidelines................................................................................................................24
Training effectiveness............................................................................................................24
Training deterrants.................................................................................................................24

The Quality Function

• Task of quality department is to coordinate the quality effort. The plan, measure, analyze
and reports quality
o Quality Control- function that is intended to control or regulate the process in
order to prevent defective products from being made. Has to do with making
quality what it should be, and quality assurance has to do with making sure
quality is what it should be.

Main element of a quality system for a manufactured product are

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• Any group larger than 25 will require a formal, documented quality system.
• Def from ISO 9000:1987 of quality system is the organizational structure,
responsibilities, procedures, processes, and resources for implementing quality management.
• Ansi/ISo/ASQ/ Q9000-2000 states

• Keys to proper quality system, are:

Elements of Quality System (pg 5)

• Quality system informs people involved of how management wants the customers
satisfied. Starts with quality policy (est. by management) then are implemented through
management and the system to assure customer satisfaction
o Quality policy is inteneded to satisfy customer and is the foundation of total
quality hierarchy.
o Quality management- portion of management that implements the quality policy.
In enlightened org the implementation of quality policy is the function of all
management and employees
o Quality system is total org structure, directed by quality management to fulfill the
quality policy. System consists of employees and other resources directed through
procedures. Function to efficiently statisfy customer needs.
o Quality Assurance- planned and systematic actions that provide confidence that a
product or service will satisfy give req for quality. Begin with establishment of
customer expectiations, and contines through the final testing of the product to
assure conformance to specs. Ex act are:

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o Quality Control- activities that monitor and control quality

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Formal quality system is document and freeze operations of company. ISO 9001:2000 or
ISO/TS 16949 are the most common formal quality systems.
Formal quality system is important when product liability is high.
Documents: 1) standard operation procedures 2) procedures 3) work instructions 4) manual

General characteristics of document: Purpose, Basis of doc, scope of doc, goal

Quality Manual
• Policy documents (quality policy, commitment to quality and system)
• Goal to inform company employees and customers of the management vision and
approach to operating the business.
• And define how management intends to satisfy customers for continued business
success.

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• Key elements are : 1) policy statement 2) General description of policy implementation

3) correlation of policy and implementation to applicable quality standards
• Organized along outline of ISO9001:2000, which states “the org must establish and
maintain a quality manual that includes the scope of the QMS, documented procedures,
and a description of QMS processes”

Quality Procedures (or SOPs)

• “Ways of doing business”
• Defines management or administrative processes in a manner that supports the
company policy
• They should be:

Work Instructions = Technical Documents

Documentation Systems
• Configuration management (for design intensive companies)
• Document control (for design and all other companies)

Configuration Management
• “collection of activities needed to define, identify, manage, record, or approve the
hardware and software characteristics of a product.”
• Described via 2 questions: what constitutes the product at any point in time and what
changes have been made to the product
o Implies that a system must exist to track the entire product life cycle

• Starting point of configuration is baseline. There are three levels

o Functional baseline- general req of the product
o Allocated baseline- defines the general req for the subsystem in the overall
product
o Product baseline – defines the detailed req of the system or item
• These baseline doc are detailed include drawings, specs, tests, procedures, parts,
material, etc

• Once product baseline approved, changes to the design will fall under configuration
control.
• Change go through product engineer and other departments- then to configuration board
(rep from various departments)

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• Is tracking all of the proposed changes and the implementation status of every approved
change.
• Details of every change are recorded and reviewed for existing and future compatibility.
• One department (quality) responsible to make sure changes implemented and
documentation complete

• Audits of documentation system for completeness and accuracy, or audits of product to

verify engineering specification accuracy.

Documentation Control
• Configuration management requires an immense amount of information and requires
documentation to be in written form. SO need a methd to file, store, and retrieve
documents.
• ISO 9001:2000 requries following control of docs and records
o Document: QMS document must be controlled. A document procedure must exist
to approve, review, update, and identify the current revision level of QMS docs.
o Docs must have relevant versions available, be legible, readily identifiable, and
retrievable.
• Control of Quality Records
o Must control and maintain QMS records to provide evidence of conformance oto
requirements and of effective QMS operation
o Create procedure to identify, store, retrieve, protect, retain, and dispose of them.
• Revision Control
o Keep track of revision and make them available.
o Can revise by section (long docs like quality manual also docs that require
frequent updates) or by total document (quality procedures and work instructions)
• Marking changes
o ISO 9001:2000 requires that changes to quality system docs be identified along
with the revision level.
o Allows documentation to be of any form or medium.
 Most use electronic. One danger is of employees printint out a document
and keeping that version handy
• Document formats
o Keep all document format consistent. Makes it easy to use and makes it look
professional
• Correlation Matrix documents
o Where every requirement of the standard should be identified and “broken-out”
Sequence goes as follows”

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o What section of quality manual  what procedures including equip, records, and
responsibilities  any specific work instructions, providing adequate detail to
perform work, record information, etc
o Particularly important requirements are the quality records (used to determine
compliance to quality system).

Quality Standards and other Guidelines

- Are measures of excellence against which comparisions are made. Can be
government or industry endorsed. Can be product specific or genric.
• Requirements – formal statement of need and a mandatory and expected way to attain it
• Specifications
o mandatory requirement; clearly and accurately describes essential
technical requirements and verification procedures for items, materials, and
services.
o Can be a statement of a desired or required quantitative goal, often with
lower tolerance limits
• Industry Standards
o Developed to rationalize and simplify the design, manufacturing, service
and use of that industry’s output. For consistency, industry standards should be
based on internation or national modes
• International/Industry Standards
o Example ISO/TS 16949- was modified and adopeted as an automotive
industry standard
• Industry/National Standards
o Examples ANSI and ASME- who have established and executed a quality assurance standard
for design, construction, and operation of nuclear plants.
• Major industry and international standards
o Each industry decides what standards are applicable to them. Decision run by regulatory and
customer requirements
o Organization determines if it ignores quality system req, comply with some or all req, or comply
with req and obtain 3rd part registration or accreditation.

ISO 9001:2000 Summary

• Scope
o Purpose of this standard is to provide a framework that an organization
uses to 1) demonstrate its ability to supply conforming products and 2) achieve
customer satisfaction.
o Not all requirement in standard applicable to all organizations. Exclusions
allowed if do not prevent the organization from providing products that meet
customer expections, legal, and regulatory requirements.
o ISO 9000 is a normative reference that provides applicable def and concepts
• Terms and definitions

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o Subcontractor = supplier; supplier= the organization; customer= customer

• Quality Management system
o Org must establish, document, implement, maintain and improve a quality management system
covering ISO 9001 requirements.
o Must define and manage processes necessary to achied planned results
and continual improvement
o Prepare procedurs- effective operation and control of processes.
o Extent of QMS depends on size and type of organization, complexity and
interaction of its processes, and competence of personnel.
o Have documented quality policy and quality objectives; develop quality
manual and maintain, document procedures, records.
o QMS documents must be controlled, procedure to approve, review and
update, identify and make revisions. Documents of external origin must be
identified and controlled and prevent unintended use of obsolete docs
• Management Responsibilities
o Top management shows commitment to QMS by establishing quality
policy and objectives (measurable, consistent, and commited to meeting product
req) and conducting management reviews
o Top management must ensure that customer’s needs and expectiation
are determined, converted into requirement and fulfilled with the aim of achieving
customer satisfaction.
o Must identify and plan the resources needed to meet quality objectives
o Top management appoints a member of management to be responsible
for ensuring the QMS processed are established and maintained, report
performance to top management, promoting awareness of customer req.
o Top management must periodically review the QMS to ensure its
continuing suitability, adequacy and effectiveness, and evaluation the need for
changes.
 Review inputs are performance and improvement oppurtunities
related to audit results, customer input, process performance and product
conformance, preventative and corrective actions, follow-ups to previous
management review, and changes that could effect the QMS.
 Outputs include actions related to improving the QMS, its processes, and
product improvement related to customer req, along with necessary
resources
• Resource management
o Organization determine and provide the resources need to implement and
improve the QMS process and the address customer satisfaction.
o Identify competency needs and provide training for people performing
activities affecting quality
o Ensure employees are aware of importance of their activities
o Identify, provide, and maintain facilities needed to achieve product conformity
• Product realization

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o Must Plan the seq of processes to achieve the product, be consistent with
QMS req and documented
o Must determine products quality] objectives, processes, documentation,
verification and validation activities.
o Determine, customer requirements, product, regulatory and legal
requirements
o Must plan and control design and development of the product  stages
• Inputs to requirements- outputs that enable verification of input req- reviews
of design and evelopment held at states to evalution capability of req,
identify problems and propose follow up actions- validation to show can
meet intended use requirements – changes documented, controlled, verified
and validated
o Control its purchasing processes to ensure that the purchased product
conforms to requirements
o Control production and service operations through availability of product
characteristic information. Production by using and maintaining suitable
equipment by use of measuring and monitoring devices.
o Org must preserve product conforminy to customer req during internal
processing and delivery to the intended destination. (handling, storage,
packaging and protection)
o Measuring and monitoring devices must be used and controlled to ensure
that measurement capability is consistent with measurement req.
• Measurement Analysis and Improvement
o Organization must conduct periodic internal audits to determine if the QMS conforms to ISO
9001 and has been effectively implement and maintained
o Audit take into consideration status and importance of activities, areas to be audited, result of
previous audits. Procedure, scope, freq, and methodology must be defined. Peformed by
someone other than who performs activities.

Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award (MBNQA)

- Signed to law in 1987 (Public Law 100-107). This us award was modeled after Deming prize in
Japan and focuses on organization excellence. Based on:

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- MBNQA includes voluntary compliance as well as customer or organizational

mandatory compliance requirements
- Purpose of criteria

-Eligibility categories are :

-It is divided into seven categories with 1,000 possible scoring points. There are 19 items, each
focusing into a major requirement and addressing one or more areas. Pre-screening of
applicants and four-stage review process

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-Categories are 1) Leadership 2) strategic planning 3) customer and market focus 4)

measurement, Analysis, and Knowledge Management 5) Human Resource Focus 6) Process
Management 7) Results.
Criticisms

Requirement comparisons

Audit Purpose and Benefits

o Audits purpose is to examine the effectiveness of management directed control programs.

o Quality assurance philosophy is on prevention rather than detection. If problems occur focus on
early detection, depth of problem, root cause
o Control programs to prevent problems, identify problems, prevent reoccurrences
o Quality problems cause customer dissatisfaction, lost profits, loss of employee morale
o Example of specific auditing purposes:

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• Audit Philosophy
o Quality Audits are formal, systematic, and independent.
o Effectiveness and integrity of audit depends on skills and training of auditor.
 Auditors must be fact finders, not fault-finders
 Audits should not be conducted in a covert manner, avoid secrecy.

• Types of Audits

o System Audits
 Largest and most extensive of audits (2-5days)
 Conducted to verify, through objective evidence, whether or not the quality
management systems and organizational plans are indeed carried out to the
requirements set forth.
 Can be external (supplier or internal (in-house).
o Process Audits
 Large and significant portion of the system audit is devoted to the process
audit. One or more processes audited by systems audit.
 Process audit, conducted by itself yield swift results. Since easier to compy
with specific process modifications than tackle the deep-rooted management
system problems

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o Product Audits
 Assessment of final product or service and its “fitness for use” evaluated
against intent of the product or service
 Customer oriented
 can be done by one auditor or by team of auditors; or internal or external.
o Internal Audits
 Performed within an organization to measure its own performance, strengths,
and weaknesses against its own established procedures and systems.
 Can be performed by in-house personnel or the company may hire outside
auditors.
 Considered to be a first-party audit; an audit conducted by the party of the
first part.
o External Audit
 By company directive and performed on an outside source, such as a
supplier. Or can be performed by company reps or hire auditors from outside
 Considered second-party audit; an audit conducted on behalf of the party of
the first part (client comp) on the party of the second part (supplier).
o Third party audits
 When outside source, or third-party is used to conduct audit; independent
source not associated with the auditee’s company business.
 Used to obtain more independent and objective assessment or achieve
certification to a recognized standard.
o Specific Objective Audits (chpII pg 38)

General Audit matrix (pg 39) – major category(system, process, product) of specific Audits
System Audit Matrix (Pg 40) – types of system Audits

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• Audit Program Administration

o Audit authority should

• Audit Standards
o ISO 19011:2002
 Combines criteria for quality and environmental systems auditing
 Address: standards to use in audit process, auditors criteria, monitoring and
maintenance of auditors performance, and code of ethics
o ISO 9001: 2000
 Provide international requirements as to what elements are to be audited.
Identifies the requirement to perform internal audits and addresses:

• Audit Responsibilities
o Lead auditor responsible for all phases of audit. Responsibilities include:

o Auditors are responsible for:

o The client:

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o Auditee’s responsible for

• Audit Scope
o Client makes final decision on the scope and depth of an audit, which quality system
elements, physical locations, and org activities are to be audited.
• Audit Frequency
o Determined by client, taking into consideration changes in management,
organization, policies, techniques, technologies, as well as changes to the system
itself, and result of recent audits.
• Preparing the Audit
o Plan includes:

o Working documents may include: flowcharts and checklists and reporting forms
o Flowchart usuage
 Starting point of a system or major audit is important decision. If time start at
beginning if not start at most important time.
 Widely used and effective forms of field investigation activities are called
tracing
 Flowcharts helpful for trace forwards or backwards audits
Advantages vs disadvantage of flow chart on page 44
o Checklists
 Distinguishing feature between an audit and other less formal methods of
performing monitoring.
 Guide to each auditor, to ensure full scope of audit is covered. Place to
record data

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 Checklist question are not open ended questions, they are individual facts
necessary to form conclusions
 Advantages:

• Executing the Audit

o Opening meeting

o Evidence collected via interviews, physical evidence, examining docs and

records, and observation of activities and conditions.
 Interviews- questioning auditee personell (most information obtained)
by using open ended questions, probing, silience and paraphrasing.
Info from interview should be substantiated by evidence in
independent physical sources (docs, witnessed, sampling and
measurement). Also can group interview
• In-depth interviews used for

 Physical Evidence- verification of formal control such as methods,

practices, procedurs, policies and documentation done through field
work
 Verifying documents and records- any supporting auditee
documentation should be noted beneath the corresponding checklist
question.
o Auditor can review supporting docs at time it is presented also
if previously obtained during planning phase.
 Observation techniques- give particular attention to details that may
potentially result in either pos or neg audit findings. Observations
should be traceable to time, location and conditions under which they
were made

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o observations should be documented, reviewed, clear, concise,

supported by evidence, identified in terms of specific req,
reviewed by the lead auditor with auditees, acknowledged by
the auditee’s management.
• Closing Meeting
o At end of audit before preparing the audit report, a meeting with auditee’s senior
management should be held, to present audit observations clearly. Lead auditor
presents. Keep records of closing meeting
• Audit report preparation
o Lead auditor responsible for accuracy and completeness of audit report. Should:

o Lead Auditor to distribute to client. Client then sends it to Senior management.

o Audit completed after submission of report to client
• Corrective action/follow-up
o Auditee is responsible for determining and initiating corrective action need to
correct the cause of non-conformity
o Corrective action and follow-up audits should be completed within time period
agreed to by client and auditees.
o Audit records should be retained according to the agreement with the client,
auditing organization, and auditees, and with an regulatory requirements.
• Glossary of Audit terms (pg 49-51)

Cost of Quality
o Difference between actual and budgeted costs is variance. A lot-> management
action

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• Origin of Quality cost measurements

o In 50s and 60s companie evaluated and reported quality costs due to:
 Products became more complex,
 customer expectations of products became more sophisticated,
 supplier and customer costs expanded,
 technical specialists were added to the quality dept to make
improvements and alternatives presented by quality speciatlists need to
be presented to management in monitory terms
o Quality costs reports are vehicles to 1) determine status of cost control efforts
and 2) identify additional opportunities for reducing the cost of quality by
systematic improvements.
o Cost of quality is high (15 to 20% of costs) should catch management attention
o Juran- costs of poor quality avg 15% (vary from 5-35% complexity)for mfg firms;
service organization the avg cost is 30% of operating expences (vary 20-40%)
• Quality cost categories
o Quality costs – all costs associated with company efforts devoted to planingthe
quality system, efforts to verify quality is obtained, and with failures resulting
inadequate systems.
 Prevention costs- cost of activities specifically designed to prevent poor
quality in products or services
 Appraisal costs- costs associated with measuring, evaluating, or auditing
products or services to assure conformance to quality standards and
performance requirement
 Failure costs – resulting from product or service not conforming to req or
customer/user needs. Cost resulting from poor quality; divided into
internal and external
• Internal failure costs- occur prior to delivery or shipment of
product, or the furnishing of service to customer
• External failure costs- occur after deliver or shipment of product,
or during or after furnishing of service to customer

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examples of costs is on page 55-56

• Optimum Quality Costs
o Mimimum level of total quality costs occurs when the quality of conformance is
100%. This model illustrateds that as prevention and appraisals costs inc, the
failure costs will decrease unit an optimum point is reached.

o Earlier Juran depicted that lowest total quality cost point to be at some value less
than 100% good. May be true for some unsophisticated products
o Some say for ever $1 in prevent save $7 in failure costs
o Typical ratios for American companies

o Implementation of preventative measures to control quality often takes time.

Appraisal measures are initially undertaken which cause internal failures to
increase but external failures to decrease. However a small inc in preventions
methods will normally create a large decrease in total quality costs.

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• Quality Cost improvement

o Quality goal and objective: position desired among competitors, long-term quality
reputation desired.
o Translate quality goals into quality requirements- outgoing quality levels required,
specific tyope of controls required, special tests required
o Estimate capability of projects consistent with comp goals.
o And other on pg 59
• Quality cost comparison bases
o Quality costs should be related to as many different volume bases as practical.
Two or three comparisons are normal.
o Quality costs are normally summarized monthly on a report form similar to the
typical quality cost format on table 3.19 (pg 61). Categorize cost by Quality cost
category (prevention, appraisal, internal, external)
• Quality Cost Responsibilities

• Advantages of quality cost system

• Limitations of Quality cost system

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• Other Quality Cost Pitfalls

o Perfectionism in the numbers- precisions in quality cost figures; short time and little
money to get estimates that are 85% accurate (ok sometimes for decision making). If
go to 95% long time and expensive, which may cause company the initiative to move
forward with considerable total savings.
o Other data pitfalls- presentation to managers should be done in a way that
discussion is on the merits of improvement proposals and not on the validity of data
o Inclusion of non-quality costs: management should decide way to define waste. Will
only pure product quality waste be included?
o Implications of reducing quality costs to zero: quality cost presentation should
recognize that at times its not realistic or economically to reduce quality costs to zero
o Reducing quality costs but increasing total company costs: may be necessary to
ensure that a reduction in quality costs will not increase total costs.
o Understatement of quality cost: understate quality by dealing with quality costs only
in excess of some normal standard. In the prevention approach, emphasis should be
to challenge whether the standard level can be improved.
o Inconsistency of measurement: Valid cost comparisons of different time periods
require consistency of categories of reporting and classification of quality costs.
• Pareto Analysis of Quality Costs
o Pareto analysis used to analyze quality costs, particularly failure costs.
o Corrective action taken on major defects first
• Taguchi’s Loss Function
o Theoretically a quadratic relations
• Taguchi contends as product characteristics deviate from the normal aim, losses
increase according to a parabolic function

o Equation emphasizes point that a consistent product minimizes the total

loss. Merely attempting to produce a product within spec doesn’t prevent loss

Quality Training
− Good training is a planned and ordered process where the trainee is guided along a
path of learning
− Quality engineer involved in departmental development training or training for the
entire workforce.

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− ISO 9001:2000 in Element 6.2 (Human Resources) requires that “personnel

performing work affecting quality shall be competent on the basis of appropriate
education, skills, and experience.”
 And organization identifies compentency needs and provide training for
personnel performing activities affecting quality; evaluate training
effectiveness; make employee aware of importance of quality activities; and
maintain appropriate education, exp, training, and qualification records.
• Training to reduce Workmanship Defects
o Proper training reduces errors and costs;
o three areas that lead to workmanship defects: lack of skills or training;
misunderstanding instructions, carelessness.
o Certify can perform required standards by: 1) prehiring qualification including
education and experience, good aptitude and test scores 2)post- hiring training
including a concentrated training program, good grades after completion of
training and special training for specific tasks.
o Carelessness is usually poor attitude about the job.
• Training for customer interface
o Element of good training program:
 Teach skills that are distinctive to the company
 All employees are treated as potential career employees
 Regular training is required
 Time and money are allocated for training
 On the job training: knowledge of products, listening skills, how to handle problems, are of
fixing customer problem “recovery”,
 Teach new skills: learn business basics, pC skills, math
 Use training for strategic changes,
 Training not cut when times are hard,
 Customer interface level is involved in the training effort
 Training is used to teach vision and values
• Training needs assessment
o First determine training needs before planning to train
o Use annual employee evaluation as a method to assess the training needs.
o Not employee deficiencies, training dependent on employees.
o Perform a formal Training Needs Analysis (TNA) to assess gaps in performance
and ideal performance. Collect info on:
 Current activities and performance; future activities & ideal performance
 If gap decide to: provide training, select subject content for training,
allocate resources for training, determine number to be trained, amount of
training to provide, collect info on effectiveness of training.
 Three step process
• Survelliance- use informal contacts to get subjective ideas of
training

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• Investigation- starts if training programs is on horizon. Data

gathering techniques are observation, interviees, questionnaires,
records of act., work samples, work studies, psychological tests.
• Analysis- detailed analysis of the data collected. Purpose to
remove invalid info, group and summarize data, draw conclusions,
and prepare a report.
• Training Guidelines
o Continuously educate all organization levels in the skill, knowledge, and attitudes
needed for quality work
o Emphasize on teaching skills (ability to cooperate, mutual understanding,
working together, and basic social skills)
o Provide continuous learning
o Include all levels of personnel (janitor to president)
• Training Principles
o Used to develop increased capability in the workforce
o Continuing process in efforts to acquire new information, attitudes and skills on
the part of the trainee.
o Enhance effectiveness by: 1) express objectives in performance terms 2) learns
should receive immediate feedback 3) training programs must be audited and
validated 4) training programs must be adapted to the individual 5) express
material in way that is relevant and related to learner
• Training effectiveness
o Costs for training: trainer (workshop, transport, lodging, expenses), employee
(salary), temps (take place of employee), Room (+ food), Preparation time
(salary), TNA costs (performing TNA  workshop)
o Costs of workshop should be counteracted by potential value the org will receive
from training
o Collect post training projects and productivity improvements.
o Also train to meet ISO standard requirements
o Ways to evaluate training: 1) reaction or smile 2) post test exam of workshop 3)
pre-test and post-test
• Training deterrants
o Some people are resistant to learning new things.
o Fear of asking question- don’t want to look dumb; fear and anxiety are present
deterrents to learning and can freeze performance and skills.

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