PHYS620 Fall 2018 Homework 4 Solutions

1. Two masses m1 and m2 move in a plane and interact by a potential U ( r ) = kr 2 2.

Write down their Lagrangian in terms of the CM and relative positions R and r, and find
the equations of motion for the coordinates X, Y, x and y. Describe the motion and find
the frequency of the relative motion.

Solution: Let the particles have position vectors r1, and r2. The CM and relative positions
are
m r + m2r2
R= 11 ,
m1 + m2
r= r2 − r1.
Solving for the particle coordinates, we get
m2 m1
r1 = R− r, r2 = R+ r.
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
The kinetic energy is
1 1
=T m1r1 ⋅ r1 + m2r2 ⋅ r2
2 2
1  m2   m2  1  m1   m1 
= m1  R − r  ⋅  R − r  + m2  R + r  ⋅  R + r 
2  m1 + m2   m1 + m2  2  m1 + m2   m1 + m2 
1 1 m1m2
= ( m1 + m2 ) R ⋅ R + r ⋅ r.
2 2 m1 + m2
Hence the Lagrangian is
M ( X 2 + Y 2 ) + µ ( x 2 + y 2 ) − k ( x 2 + y 2 ) .
1 1 1
= L
2 2 2
where M= m1 + m= 2 , and µ m1m2 ( m1 + m2 ) .
Since the Lagrangian is independent of X and Y, the total momentum of the
system is conserved:
= MX P= X , MY
 P
Y
where PX and PY are constants.
For the relative motion
µ 
x = −kx,
µ y = −ky.
We can choose the orientation of the axes so that y(0) = 0. The solutions to the equations
of motion are
= x A cos ωt + B sin ωt ,
y = C sin ωt ,
where ω = k µ , is the frequency of the relative motion. Eliminating sin ωt from these
equations, we get
 1 B 
ωt
cos=  x − y .
A C 
Since cos ωt + sin ωt =
2 2
1, we find that the trajectory of the relative motion is
2
1  B  y2
 x − y  + = 1.
A2  C  C2
This is an equation for a conic section. If A = 0, the trajectory is a straight line.
Otherwise, it is an ellipse. If B = 0 and A = C it is a circle of radius A.

2. (a) By examining the effective potential energy find the radius at which a planet with
angular momentum l can orbit the Sun in a circular orbit with fixed radius.

(b) Show that this circular orbit is stable. Show that the period of oscillations is equal to
planet’s orbital period.

Solution: (a) The effective potential is

l2 1 1
=
U eff (r ) − Gm1m2 .
2µ r 2
r
This has a minimum when
l2 2 1
′ (r ) =
U eff − + Gm1m2 2 =
0.
2µ r 3
r
The equilibrium position is
l2
r0 = .
Gm1m2 µ

(b) The second derivative of the potential at the equilibrium position is

l2 3 2 Gm m
′′ ( r0 ) = 4 − Gm1m2 3 =13 2 .
U eff
µ r0 r0 r0
Since this is positive, the equilibrium is stable
Consider a small perturbation about the equilibrium so that r= r0 + ε . The
equation of motion is
µ  ′ (r ),
r = −U eff
and on expanding about the equilibrium gives
Gm m
µε = ′′ ( r0 ) ε =
−U eff − 1 2
3
ε.
r0
The oscillation frequency is
Gm1m2 G ( m1 + m2 )
=ω = .
µ r03 r03
The orbital frequency is
 l r0Gm1m2 µ Gm1m2 G ( m1 + m2 )
=
Ω = = = .
µ r0 2 µ r0 2 µ r03 r03

Hence, the period of oscillations is equal to the orbital period.

3. Consider a particle of reduced mass µ orbiting in a central force with U =krn where kn
> 0.

(a) Explain what the condition kn > 0 tells us about the force. Sketch the effective
potential energy for the cases that n = 2, -1, and -3.

(b) Find the radius at which the particle (with given angular momentum l) can orbit at
fixed radius. For what values of n is this circular orbit stable? Do your sketches confirm
this conclusion?

(c) For the stable case, show that the period of small oscillations about the circular orbit
is τ osc τ orb n + 2 . Argue that if n + 2 is a rational number, these orbits are closed.
=
Sketch them for the cases that n =2, -1 and 7.

Solution: (a) The force has radial component F =-knrn-1. Hence the condition kn > 0
means that the force is attractive, which is necessary for circular orbits to exist. The
effective potential is
l2 1
=
U eff ( )
r + kr n .
2µ r 2

This has a minimum when

l2 1
U eff ( r ) =
′ − + nkr n −1 =0.
µr 3

The equilibrium position is

1
 l 
2 n+2
r0 =   .
 nk µ 
Using this as the length scale, the effective potential is
 n
 l 2  n+2  1 1 1 n  2
=U eff ( r ) nk    2 + s .
 nk µ   2 s n  U n=2
n = -1
n = -3
1

These effective potentials, suitably

scaled, are shown at right. We see that r
we expect the circular orbits to be 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
stable for n = 2, and -1, but unstable for
n = -3.
-1

-2

(b) The equilibrium positions have been found in the answer to part (a). They are
1
 l 2  n+2
r0 =   .
 nk µ 
The equation of motion is
l2 1
µ 
r= ′ (r ) =
−U eff − knr n −1.
µ r3
For a small perturbation from equilibrium,
l2 1 ε n −1 ε l2 1
µε =−3 − kn ( )0
n − 1 r =− ( n + 2 ) 4 ε.
µ r03 r0 r0 µ r0
We see that the equilibrium is stable if n + 2 > 0, and unstable if n + 2 < 0. This is
consistent with the conclusions drawn from the potential curves.

(c) For the stable case, the oscillation frequency is

l 1
ωosc = ( n + 2) 2 = ( n + 2 )ωorb .
µ r0
Hence, the periods, which are inversely proportional to the frequencies, are related by
τ orb
τ osc = .
( n + 2)
The perturbed orbits will be closed if an integer number of oscillations occurs in an
integer number of orbits so that the phase difference is an integer times 2π . Thus n + 2
must be a rational number. Representative orbits are shown below. Note the perturbation
has been exaggerated to show the deviation from the circular orbit.
 1.5

n=2
n = -1
n=7

0.5

-1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5

-0.5

-1.5

4. We have proved that any Kepler orbit can be written in the form r (=
φ ) c (1 + ε cos φ ) ,
where c > 0 and ε ≥ 0. For the case 0 ≤ ε < 1, rewrite this equation in rectangular
coordinates (x, y) and prove that the equation can be cast in the form of the equation for
an ellipse. Find expressions for the length of the semi-major axis, the length of the semi-
minor axis, and the distance of a focus from the center in terms of c and ε .

Solution: The equation for the ellipse, r (=

φ ) c (1 + ε cos φ ) , can be written as
r= c − ε r cos φ .
Squaring both sides and writing the result in terms of rectangular coordinates, we get
x 2 + y 2 =( c − ε x ) .
2

Hence
2ε c 1 c2
x +2
x+ y =
2
.
1− ε 2 1− ε 2 1− ε 2
By completing the square and rearranging, this becomes
(1 − ε )2 2

+
ε c  1− ε 2 2
2

 x  + 2 y =1.
c2  1− ε 2  c
This is the equation for an ellipse of semi-major axis
c
a= ,
1− ε 2
semi-minor axis
c
b= ,
1− ε 2
and distance between focus and center
 εc
=d = ε a.
1− ε 2

5. The height of a satellite at

perigee is 300 km above the
y
Earth’s surface and it is 3000 km
at apogee. Find the orbit’s
eccentricity. If we take the orbit to
Perigee Apogee
define the xy plane and the major x
axis in the x direction with the
Earth at the origin, what is the
satellite’s height when it crosses
the y-axis?

Solution: The radius of the Earth is 6371 km. Hence the perigee and apogee distances are
rmin = 6671 and rmax = 9371 km respectively. The eccentricity of the orbit is
rmax − rmin
= ε = 0.1683.
rmax + rmin

The semi-major axis of the orbit is the average of the perigee and apogee distances.
Hence a = 8021 km. Using the equation for the orbit
a (1 − ε 2 )
= 1 + ε cos θ ,
r
we find that when θ = 90 , r = a (1 − ε 2 ) = 7793 km. Hence the satellite is 1423 km above
the Earth’ surface.

6. A particle of mass m moves with angular momentum l in the field of a fixed force
center with
k λ
F (r ) =
− 2+ 3
r r
where k and λ are positive.

(a) Write down the transformed radial equation and prove that the orbit has the form
c
r (φ ) = ,
1 + ε cos ( βφ )
where c, β and ε are positive constants.

(b) Find c and β in terms of the given parameters, and describe the orbit for the case that
0 < ε < 1.
(c) For what values of β is the orbit closed? What happens to your results as λ → 0?

Solution: (a) The equation for the orbit is

d 2u µ µ k µλ
+ u =− 2 2 F = 2 − 2 u.
dφ 2
lu l l
Hence
d 2u µ k  µλ 
= − 1 + 2  u.
dφ 2 l 2  l 
This has solution
= u A cos ( βφ ) + B
where A and B are constants. Note that φ = 0 has been chosen to be an apside. The
constants β and B are given by
µλ µk
β2 = 1+ 2 , B = .
l l + µλ
2

The solution gives

1B c
= r = ,
( A B ) cos ( βφ ) + 1 1 + ε cos ( βφ )
where
1 l 2 + µλ
=
c = .
B µk
For 0 < ε < 1, the orbit is bound with turning points at r= min c (1 + ε ) , and
r=
max c (1 − ε ) . It will be closed if β is a rational number. Representative orbits are
shown below.

1.5

β = 1.5
β = π1/2

0.5

-1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5

-0.5

-1.5

(c) When λ → 0, the orbits will become elliptical.