HMT LAB REPORT

Submitted By: Ahmed Kamal

2014-ME-135

Submitted To: Engr. Rehmat Bashir

Table of Contents
EXPERIMENT NO: 01 ....................................................................................................................... 1
OBJECTIVE: .................................................................................................................................. 1
APPARATUS: ................................................................................................................................ 1
THEORY: ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Fourier's law: ........................................................................................................................... 1
Fourier’s law of heat conduction: ........................................................................................... 1
Assumptions of Fourier equation: .......................................................................................... 2
Features of Fourier equation: ................................................................................................. 2
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................... 2
TABLE: ......................................................................................................................................... 2
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ............................................................................................. 3
GRAPH: ........................................................................................................................................ 4
COMMENTS:................................................................................................................................ 4
EXPERIMENT NO: 02 ....................................................................................................................... 6
OBJECTIVE: .................................................................................................................................. 6
APPARATUS: ................................................................................................................................ 6
THEORY: ...................................................................................................................................... 6
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................... 8
TABLE: ......................................................................................................................................... 8
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ............................................................................................. 8
COMMENTS:................................................................................................................................ 9
EXPERIMENT NO: 03 ..................................................................................................................... 10
OBJECTIVE: ................................................................................................................................ 10
APPARATUS: .............................................................................................................................. 10
................................................................................................................................................... 10
THEORY: .................................................................................................................................... 10
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................. 11
TABLE: ....................................................................................................................................... 11
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ........................................................................................... 12
GRAPH: ...................................................................................................................................... 12
COMMENTS:.............................................................................................................................. 13
EXPERIMENT NO: 04 ..................................................................................................................... 14

i
 OBJECTIVE: ................................................................................................................................ 14
APPARATUS: .............................................................................................................................. 14
................................................................................................................................................... 14
THEORY: .................................................................................................................................... 14
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................. 15
TABLE: ....................................................................................................................................... 16
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ........................................................................................... 16
GRAPH: ...................................................................................................................................... 17
COMMENTS:.............................................................................................................................. 17
EXPERIMENT NO. 05 ..................................................................................................................... 18
OBJECTIVE: ................................................................................................................................ 18
APPARATUS: .............................................................................................................................. 18
................................................................................................................................................... 18
THEORY: .................................................................................................................................... 18
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................. 19
TABLE: ....................................................................................................................................... 19
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ........................................................................................... 19
COMMENTS:.............................................................................................................................. 19
EXPERIMENT NO. 06 ..................................................................................................................... 20
OBJECTIVE: ................................................................................................................................ 20
APPARATUS: .............................................................................................................................. 20
................................................................................................................................................... 20
THEORY: .................................................................................................................................... 20
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................. 21
TABLE: ....................................................................................................................................... 21
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ........................................................................................... 21
GRAPH: ...................................................................................................................................... 22
COMMENTS:.............................................................................................................................. 22
EXPERIMENT NO. 07 ..................................................................................................................... 23
OBJECTIVE: ................................................................................................................................ 23
APPARATUS: .............................................................................................................................. 23
................................................................................................................................................... 23
THEORY: .................................................................................................................................... 23

ii
 ................................................................................................................................................... 24
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................. 25
TABLE: ....................................................................................................................................... 25
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ........................................................................................... 25
GRAPH: ...................................................................................................................................... 27
................................................................................................................................................... 27
COMMENTS:.............................................................................................................................. 27
EXPERIMENT NO. 08 ..................................................................................................................... 29
OBJECTIVE: ................................................................................................................................ 29
APPARATUS: .............................................................................................................................. 29
THEORY: .................................................................................................................................... 29
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................. 30
TABLE: ....................................................................................................................................... 30
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ........................................................................................... 30
GRAPH: ...................................................................................................................................... 32
................................................................................................................................................... 32
COMMENTS:.............................................................................................................................. 32
EXPERIMENT NO. 09 ..................................................................................................................... 33
OBJECTIVE: ................................................................................................................................ 33
APPARATUS: .............................................................................................................................. 33
THEORY: .................................................................................................................................... 33
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................. 34
TABLE: ....................................................................................................................................... 34
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ........................................................................................... 35
GRAPH: ...................................................................................................................................... 36
................................................................................................................................................... 36
................................................................................................................................................... 36
COMMENTS:.............................................................................................................................. 37
EXPERIMENT NO. 10 ..................................................................................................................... 38
OBJECTIVE: ................................................................................................................................ 38
APPARATUS: .............................................................................................................................. 38
THEORY: .................................................................................................................................... 38
PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................. 39

iii
TABLE: ....................................................................................................................................... 39
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: ........................................................................................... 39
GRAPH: ...................................................................................................................................... 40
COMMENTS:.............................................................................................................................. 40

iv
Table of Figures
Figure 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4 ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 5 ......................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 6 ......................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 7 ......................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 8 ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 9 ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 10 ....................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 11 ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 12 ....................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 13 ....................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 14 ....................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 15 ....................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 16 ....................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 17 ....................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 18 ....................................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 19 ....................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 20 ....................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 21 ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 22 ....................................................................................................................................... 40

List of Tables
Table 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Table 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 8
Table 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Table 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 16
Table 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 16
Table 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 19
Table 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Table 8 ........................................................................................................................................... 25
Table 9 ........................................................................................................................................... 25
Table 10 ......................................................................................................................................... 30
Table 11 ......................................................................................................................................... 34
Table 12 ......................................................................................................................................... 34
Table 13 ......................................................................................................................................... 39

v
EXPERIMENT NO: 01
To investigate Fourier law for linear conduction along a circular bar using conduction Heat
Transfer Unit.

OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the Fourier's Law for the linear conduction of heat along a homogeneous bar.

APPARATUS:

Figure 1
THEORY:
Fourier's law:
The Fourier's law is also called the law of heat conduction, states that the time rate of heat
transmission through a material is proportional to the negative slope in the temperature and to
the area, at right angles to that slope, through which the heat flows from one to other surface.
We can describe this law in two alike forms: the differential form, in which we consider the flow
rates or fluxes of energy locally and the integral form, in which we observe the amount of energy
flowing into or out of a body as a complete object.i
Newton's law of cooling is analog of Fourier's law, while Ohm's law is the electrical analogue of
Fourier's law.ii

Fourier’s law of heat conduction:

Q=kA(dT/dx)

Where,
Q=is the heat flow rate
k=is the thermal conductivity
A=Is the cross-sectional area

1
dT/dx=is the temperature gradient
where,
• Negative sign in Fourier’s equation specifies that the heat flow is in the direction of
negative slope temperature and that aids to make heat flow positive
• Thermal conductivity ‘k’ is one of the transport properties. Other are the viscosity related
with the transport of momentum, diffusion coefficient related with the mass transfer
• Thermal conductivity ‘k’ provides an indication of the rate at which heat is transferred
through a body by conduction process

Assumptions of Fourier equation:

• Heat conduction is steady state. Unidirectional heat flow
• Bounding surfaces are isothermal
• Isotropic and thermal conductivity ‘k’ is constant
• Constant temperature slope and linear temperature profile

Features of Fourier equation:

• It is valid for all matter
• It helps to define the transport property ‘k’

PROCEDURE:
• First make sure that the main switch initially off
• Secondly insert a brass conductor (25mm diameter) into the linear module and do
clamp together
• Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position
and connect the sensors leads
• Than on the power supply and main switch the digital readouts will be illuminated
• Turn the heater power on control to 3.1 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady
state condition to be attained before recording the temperature at all six sensor
points and the input power reading on the wattmeter (Q). This procedure can be
repeated. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state
conditions
• Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, x. Calculate the theoretical and actual
thermal conductivity

TABLE:

2
 Table 1

Sr. Heat T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
No. Supplied o
( C) o
( C) o
( C) o
( C) o
( C) o
( C) o
( C) o
( C) o
( C)
(Watts)
1 3.1 44.9 43.9 42.3 37.9 37.4 37 32.4 32 31.9
2 7 48.2 47.2 45.6 41.6 38.9 38.5 32.7 32.6 32.1

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

As we know,
i.e.
𝑄̇ 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘 ( )
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
By re-writing above relation,
𝑑𝑇
𝑄=
𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝐴
Where,
𝑑𝑥
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑘𝐴

𝑑𝑇 44.9 − 31.9
( )=
𝑑𝑥 90 − 10
𝑑𝑇 𝐾
( ) = 0.1625
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑚
As,
𝑄̇
= −𝑘𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑇
( )
𝑑𝑥
Thus,
3.1 𝑊
−𝑘𝐴 = = 19.07
0.1625 𝐾𝑚𝑚−1

𝑑𝑇 48.2 − 32.1
( )=
𝑑𝑥 90 − 10

3
 𝑑𝑇 𝐾
( ) = 0.2012
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑚
As,
𝑄̇
= −𝑘𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑇
( )
𝑑𝑥
Thus,
7 𝑊
−𝑘𝐴 = = 34.78
0.2012 𝐾𝑚𝑚−1

GRAPH:
60

50

40

30 Q=3.1
Q=7
20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 2

COMMENTS:
• There is sudden temperature drop in the graph this is due to the contact resistance
between the two surfaces
• There is gas entrapped between the junction due to which resistance increases and
temperature drop on junction
• Ensure that the temperature measurement points are aligned along the longitudinal axis
of the unit
• It’s necessary to give some time to the apparatus to develop steady state otherwise
temperature values varies improperly and we get some abnormal behavior of the
temperature profile

4
• Be sure to amply coat both surfaces of the sample where contact will be made to reduce
thermal contact resistance
• Be careful not to touch any surfaces (metallic or plastic) on the heating end as they might
cause a burn
• If not indicated on the apparatus, all temperature sensors are number from left to right

5
EXPERIMENT NO: 02
To study conduction of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the overall heat transfer co-
efficient using conduction heat transfer unit.

OBJECTIVE:
To study the conduction of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the overall heat transfer
coefficient.

APPARATUS:

Figure 3
THEORY:
We learned from the Experiment 1 how heat is transferred through a simple bar. Now we must
extend our knowledge to a bar made up of different materials. As stated in Experiment 1, there
is an analogy between the conduction of electricity and the conduction of heat. Since electrical
resistance is associated with the conductance of electricity, there is also a thermal resistance
associated with the conductance of heat. Composite fluids and solids behave much like series
and parallel combination of resistors in an electrical circuit. Using this approach we can add up
the thermal resistances to find the overall resistance and heat transfer coefficient.iii
Heat transfer through any material is given as,
𝑄̇ = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 → (1)
Or,
∆𝑇
𝑄̇ =
1
𝑈𝐴
Where,
1
= Overall thermal Resistance
𝑈𝐴

U= Overall heat transfer coefficient

6
Let a solid bar with three sections of equal lengths made of brass, stainless steel and brass again
respectively.
Let,
TH = Temperature at the hot side (brass)
TS1 = Temperature at the hot side (steel)
TS2 = Temperature at the hot side (steel)
TC = Temperature at the hot side (brass)
Then, heat transfer 𝑄̇ across these sections is,
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆1
𝑄̇ =
𝑅1
Thus,
𝑄̇ 𝑅1 = 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆1 → (𝑖)
Similarly,
𝑄̇ 𝑅2 = 𝑇𝑆1 − 𝑇𝑆2 → (𝑖𝑖)
𝑄̇ 𝑅3 = 𝑇𝑆2 − 𝑇𝐶 → (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Adding (i),(ii),and (iii), we get:
𝑄̇ (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) = 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
𝑄̇ = → (2)
(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
Comparing (1) and (2) for heat, we get:
1
𝑈= → (3)
𝐴(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
From Fourier’s Law,
∆𝑇
𝑄̇ =
∆𝑥
𝑘𝐴
Where,
∆𝑥
𝑅= = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑘𝐴
Thus, (3) gives,

7
 1
𝑈= → (4)
∆𝑥𝐵𝐻 ∆𝑥𝑆𝑆 ∆𝑥𝐵𝐶
𝐾𝐵𝐻 + 𝐾𝑆𝑆 + 𝐾𝐵𝐶

We have two ways to find the overall heat transfer coefficient by finding K tot. The first way is by
summing up all the individual K's by methods from Experiment 1. The second way is to evaluate
Ktot by the overall slope of the plot from the extreme temperatures.

PROCEDURE:
• First make sure that the main switch initially off. Insert the stainless steel section or any
other metals (without sensor) into the linear module and clamp together
• Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the water
pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals
• Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position
• Connect the six sensor leads (T1, 2, 3 & 7, 8, 9) to the plugs on top of the linear conduction
module. Connect the left-hand sensor lead from the module to the place marked T1 on
the control panel. Repeat this procedure for the remaining five sensor leads, connecting
them from left to right on the module and in numeral order on the control panel
• Switch on the power supply and main switch; the digital readouts will be illuminated
• Turn the heater power control to 3.1 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state
condition to be achieved before recording the temperature at all six sensor points and
the input power reading on the wattmeter (Q)

TABLE:
Table 2

Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
42 41.4 40 38.9 33 32.9 32.6 29.7 28.6 28

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

1. Theoretical:
For theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient, we have:
∆𝑥𝐵𝐻 = ∆𝑥𝑆𝑆 = ∆𝑥𝐵𝐶 = ∆𝑥= 30mm
K1 = 76.4, K2 = 38.21 and K3 = 122.2 for room temperature
Thus,

8
 1
𝑈𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜. =
0.03 0.03 0.03
76.4 + 38.21 + 122.2
𝑊
𝑈𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜. = 702.47
𝐾. 𝑚2

2. Experimental:
𝐴 = 2.83 × 10−3 𝑚2
Using table for experimental results,
From Fourier’s Law,
𝑄̇
𝐾=
∆𝑇
𝐴 × ∆𝑥

Uexp. = 701.5 Watt/m2C

COMMENTS:
• During assembling the sample between the heater and the cooler take care to match the
shallow shoulders in the housings

• There is sudden temperature drop in the graph this is due to the contact resistance
between the two surfaces
• There is gas entrapped between the junction due to which resistance increases and
temperature drop on junction
• Ensure that the temperature measurement points are aligned along the longitudinal axis
of the unit
• It’s necessary to give some time to the apparatus to develop steady state otherwise
temperature values varies improperly and we get some abnormal behavior of the
temperature profile
• If not indicated on the apparatus, all temperature sensors are number from left to right. Be
careful not to touch any surfaces (metallic or plastic) on the heating end as they might cause
a burn

9
EXPERIMENT NO: 03
To investigate the effect of change in cross sectional area on temperature profile along a thermal
conductor on conduction Heat transfer unit.

OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the effect of a change in the cross-sectional area on the temperature profile along
a thermal conductor.

APPARATUS:

Figure 4

THEORY:
We learned from the Experiment 1, 2 and 3 that how heat is transferred through a simple and
composite bar and in radial direction. Now we must extend our knowledge to the bar having
different cross sectional area. In this experiment we will equalize the heat flow through the hot
region and the heat flow through specimen. And we will find the ratio of their areas which will be
equal to ratio of their temperature gradient.

Consider a bar of a certain length comprising of a hot region and a cold region made up of brass.
A steel cylinder is attached in between these regions having a different cross-section then the
whole bar. Consider a bar of a certain length comprising of a hot region and a cold region made
up of brass. A steel cylinder is attached in between these regions having a different cross-section
then the whole bar.iv
Let,
Ho Steel Col
QH = Heat transferred in the hot region t Specimen d

Let,

10
QH = Heat transferred in the hot region
QSS = Heat transferred in the steel section
As the heat flow throughout the bar would be same, then according to Fourier’s Law:
𝑄̇𝐻 = 𝑄̇𝑆𝑆
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝐾𝐵 𝐴𝐵 ( ) = 𝐾𝐵 𝐴𝑆𝑆 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐻 𝑑𝑥 𝑆𝑆
𝑑𝑇
𝐴𝐵 ( 𝑑𝑥 )𝑆𝑆 𝑚𝑠
= =
𝐴𝑆𝑆 (𝑑𝑇) 𝑚𝐵
𝑑𝑥 𝐻

PROCEDURE:
• Make sure that the main switch initially off.
• Insert a brass or any other metals conductor (13mm diameter) section into the linear
module and clamp together.
• Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the water
pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
• Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position.
• Connect the six sensor leads (T1, 2, 3 & 7, 8, 9) to the plugs on top of the linear conduction
module. Connect the left-hand sensor lead from the module to the place marked T1 on
the control panel. Repeat this procedure for the remaining five sensor leads, connecting
them from left to right on the module and in numeral order on the control panel.
• Switch on the power supply and main switch; the digital readouts will be illuminated.
• Turn the heater power control to 5 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state
condition to be achieved before recording the temperature at all six sensor points and
the input power reading on the wattmeter (Q). This procedure can be repeated for other
input power. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state
conditions.
• Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, x. Comment on the trend and slope of the
graph.

TABLE:
Table 3

Sr. Heat T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
No. Supplied (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)
(Watts)
1 5 60 57.1 56.5 32.3 32.1 32

11
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
Theoretical:
𝑚𝑠
( ) = 3.69
𝑚𝐵 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜.
Experimental:
𝑑𝑇
𝑚𝑠 = ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑆𝑆
32.3 − 56.5
𝑚𝑠 =
70 − 30
𝑚𝑠 = −0.605 𝐾. 𝑚𝑚−1
And,
𝑑𝑇
𝑚𝐵 = ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐻
56.5 − 60
𝑚𝐵 =
30 − 10
𝑚𝐵 = −0.175 𝐾. 𝑚𝑚−1
Hence,
𝑚𝑠 −0.605
( ) =
𝑚𝐵 𝑒𝑥𝑝. −0.175
𝑚𝑠
( ) = 3.457
𝑚𝐵 𝑒𝑥𝑝.

GRAPH:
Temperature vs Displacement
70
60
57.1 56.5
60

50

40 32.3 32.1 32
30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 5

12
COMMENTS:
• There is sudden temperature drop in the graph this is due to the contact
resistance between the two surfaces.
• There is gas entrapped between the junction due to which resistance
increases and temperature drop on junction.
• In our experiment one sensor is not working so we take estimated value
of that temperature.
• During assembling the sample between the heater and the cooler take care to
match the shallow shoulders in the housings.
• From the graph take the correct hot and cold side temperature.
• It’s necessary to give some time to the apparatus to develop steady state otherwise
temperature values varies improperly and we get some abnormal behavior of the
temperature profile.

13
EXPERIMENT NO: 04
To study temperature profile and calculate heat transfer rate resulting from steady state radial
directions in case of cylindrical wall.

OBJECTIVE:
To examine the temperature profile and determine the rate of heat transfer resulting from radial
conduction through the wall of a cylinder and determine the value of “K”.

APPARATUS:

Figure 6

THEORY:
We expose this cylinder to a temperature differential Ti−To and ask what the heat flow will be.
For a cylinder with length very large compared to diameter, it may be assumed that the heat
flows only in a radial direction, so that the only space coordinate needed to specify the system is
r. Again, Fourier’s law is used by inserting the proper area relation. The area for heat flow in the
cylindrical system,v
The thermal-resistance concept may be used for multiple-layer cylindrical walls just as it was used
for plane walls. The thermal resistance is offered by each section along the direction of flow of
heat. Considering heat is flowing in radial direction and we divide the concerned area into three
sections each section will offer a particular amount of resistance to heat depending on the
thermal conductivity of heat the heat transfer can be computed as
For a radial disc, let’s consider a radial disc having external radius r o and temperature at the
external surface T0. For steady state and one dimensional case, we have (in terms of polar
coordinates for radial disc):
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
= 0, = 0, ≠ 0, 𝑞′ = 0
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟
Thus, rate of heat transfer becomes,

14
 𝑑𝑇
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ( )
𝑑𝑟
Integrating the right side, we get,
𝑇9 𝑟9
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ∫ 𝑑𝑇 ∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑇1 𝑟1

Since surface area of disc,

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿
Where L is the length of the disc and r is the radius of the disc at any point.
Thus, theoretically
2𝜋𝑘𝐿(𝑇1 − 𝑇9 )
𝑄̇ = 𝑟 → (1)
𝑙𝑛 (𝑟9 )
1

From (1),
(𝑇1 − 𝑇9 )
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒 = 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 (𝑟9 )
1

PROCEDURE:
• Make sure that the main switch initially off
• Connect one of the water tubes to the water supply and the other to drain
• Connect the heater supply lead for the radial conduction module into the power supply
socket on the control panel
• Connect the six sensor (T1, 2, 3 & 4, 5, 6) leads to the radial module, with the T1 connected
to the innermost plug on the radial. Connect the remaining five sensor leads to the radial
module correspondingly, ending with T6 sensor lead at the edge of the radial module
• Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position. Switch
on the power supply and main switch; the digital readouts will be illuminated
• Turn the heater power control to 40 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state
condition to be achieved before recording the temperature at all six sensor points and
the input power reading on the wattmeter (Q). This procedure can be repeated for other
input power between 0 to 40 watts. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed
to achieve steady state conditions
• Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, r. Calculate the amount of heat transferred

15
TABLE:
Temperatures in celcius,
Table 4

Q(W/mm2) T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
9 35.8 34.5 34.1 33.1 32.7 32.3

Table 5

Sr. No. Ti – To (K) ln (r0/ri)

1-2 1.3 1.25
2-3 0.4 0.54
3-4 1 0.35
4-5 0.4 0.26
5-6 0.4 0.20

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

As we know,
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 . =-kA 𝑑𝑟

So,
𝑑𝑇
=-K(2*3.14*r)L 𝑑𝑟
𝑇 𝑟 1
=[-K(2π L) ∫𝑇 0 𝑑𝑇 ] / ∫𝑟 𝑖 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑖 0

2𝜋 𝑘 ( 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 )
= 𝑟
ln 0
𝑟𝑖

So, from the graph,

Q=8.6 Watt/mm2

16
GRAPH:

35

34.5

34

33.5
T (oC)

33

32.5

32

31.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
log ( ro/ri )

Figure 7

COMMENTS:
• There is sudden temperature drop in the graph this is due to the contact
resistance between the two surfaces
• There is gas entrapped between the junction due to which resistance
increases and temperature drop on junction
• In our experiment one sensor is not working so we take estimated value
of that temperature
• During assembling the sample between the heater and the cooler take care to
match the shallow shoulders in the housings
• From the graph take the correct hot and cold side temperature
• It’s necessary to give some time to the apparatus to develop steady state otherwise
temperature values vary improperly and we get some abnormal behavior of the
temperature profile

17
EXPERIMENT NO. 05
To demonstrate the effect of surface contact on thermal conduction between adjacent slabs of
materials.

OBJECTIVE:
To see experimentally the effect of resistance(thermal) on thermal conduction and see results on
respective graphs.

APPARATUS:

Figure 8

THEORY:
Consider two solid bars in series as shown in Fig. The sides of the bars are insulated so that heat
flows only in the axial direction. The materials may have different thermal conductivities;
however, the heat flux is same under steady-state conditions. The left face of material A is at
temperature T1, while the right face of the material B is at T3.

Figure 9vi

18
PROCEDURE:
• First make sure that the main switch initially off
• Secondly insert a brass conductor (25mm diameter) into the linear module and do
clamp together and insert paper(single or double folded) to create surface contact
resistance
• Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position
and connect the sensors leads
• Than on the power supply and main switch the digital readouts will be illuminated
• Turn the heater power on control to 3.1 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady
state condition to be attained before recording the temperature at all six sensor
points and the input power reading on the wattmeter (Q). This procedure can be
repeated. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state
conditions
• Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, x. Calculate the theoretical and actual
thermal conductivity

TABLE:
Table 6

Q(W) T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
14 80.3 74.6 73.0 35.6 34.4 33.0

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

𝑑𝑇
𝑄 . =-kA𝑑𝑥

COMMENTS:
• To reduce SCR, we can replace air by thermal gas etc
• If Drop in temperature is large, surface contact resistance is large and if small surface
contact resistance is small
• Here, stability time for apparatus is 10-15 minutes
• Paper will be used to create contact resistance

19
EXPERIMENT NO. 06
To investigate the influence of thermal insulation upon conduction of heat between adjacent
metals.

OBJECTIVE:
To see experimentally the effect of resistance(thermal) on thermal conduction and see results on
respective graphs.

APPARATUS:

Figure 10

THEORY:
Consider two solid bars in series as shown in Fig. The sides of the bars are insulated so that heat
flows only in the axial direction. The materials may have different thermal conductivities;
however, the heat flux is same under steady-state conditions. The left face of material A is at
temperature T1, while the right face of the material B is at T3.

Figure 10

20
PROCEDURE:
• First make sure that the main switch initially off
• Secondly insert a brass conductor (25mm diameter) into the linear module and do
clamp together and insert paper(single or double folded) to create surface contact
resistance
• Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position
and connect the sensors leads
• Than on the power supply and main switch the digital readouts will be illuminated
• Turn the heater power on control to 3.1 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady
state condition to be attained before recording the temperature at all six sensor
points and the input power reading on the wattmeter (Q). This procedure can be
repeated. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state
conditions
• Plot of the temperature, T versus distance, x. Calculate the theoretical and actual
thermal conductivity

TABLE:
Table 7

Q(W) T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
14 80.3 74.6 73.0 35.6 34.4 33.0

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

As we know,
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 . =-kA𝑑𝑥

Here, Q is constant and we ae substituting values to get K of paper,

3.14
( )×(0.025)×(0,025)×(73−35.6)
4
14= ×𝐾
0.010

K=7.625 W𝑊⁄𝑚2 ͦ𝐶ͦ

21
GRAPH:
T vs X
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5 15 25 35 45 55

T vs X

Figure 11

COMMENTS:
• To reduce SCR, we can replace air by thermal gas etc
• If Drop in temperature is large, surface contact resistance is large and if small surface
contact resistance is small
• Here, stability time for apparatus is 10-15 minutes
• Paper will be used to create contact resistance
• The solid-to-solid conduction at the spots of contact
• The conduction through entrapped gases in the void spaces created by the contact
• Paper can be single or double folded

22
EXPERIMENT NO. 07
To Determine the Working Principal of Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger Operating under the
Condition of Parallel Flow and Counter Flow.

OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the working of parallel flow heat exchanger and to find the overall heat transfer
coefficient by log mean temperature difference method. Also draw temperature profile.

APPARATUS:

Figure 12

THEORY:
Heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer heat between two fluids. The heat exchanger
has main application in thermal power plant and engines. A shell and tube heat exchanger has
two concentric tubes the inner tube contains the hot fluid whereas the outer tube has cold fluid
flowing in it. The heat exchange takes place from hot fluid to cold fluid and this heat exchange is
governed mainly by conduction.vii
A shell and tube heat exchanger can be operated in approximately parallel flow by having both
fluids enter at one end and exit at the other end. With parallel flow the temperature
difference between the two fluids is large at the entrance end, but it becomes small at the exit
end as the two fluid temperatures approach each other. The overall measure of heat transfers
driving force, the log mean temperature difference is greater for counter flow, so the heat
exchanger surface area requirement will be larger than for a counter flow heat exchanger with
the same inlet and outlet temperatures for the hot and the cold fluid.

23
A shell and tube heat exchanger can be operated in approximately counter flow by having both
fluids enter at opposite end and exit at the opposite end. With counter flow the temperature
difference between the two fluids remains almost same. The overall measure of heat transfers
driving force, the log mean temperature difference is greater for counter flow, so the heat
exchanger surface area requirement for parallel will be larger than for a counter flow heat
exchanger with the same inlet and outlet temperatures for the hot and the cold fluid.

Figure 13

Warm exchanger is a gadget that is utilized to exchange warm between two liquids. The warmth
exchanger has fundamental application in warm power plant and motors. A shell and tube warm
exchanger has two concentric tubes the inward tube contains the hot liquid though the external
tube has cool liquid streaming in it. The warmth trade happens from hot liquid to cool liquid and
this warmth trade is represented for the most part by conduction.
Cross-flow exchangers are usually utilized as a part of air or gas warming and cooling applications.
A case of such an exchanger is appeared in Figure 10-4, where a gas might be constrained over a
tube package, while another fluid is utilized inside the tubes for warming or cooling purposes. In
this exchanger the gas flowing over the tubes is said to be a blended stream, while the fluid in
the tubes is said to be unmixed.viii
The gas is blended on the grounds that it can move about unreservedly in the exchanger as it
trades heat. The other fluid is confined in partitioned tubular directs while in the exchanger so it
can't blend with itself amid the warmth exchange handle. An alternate kind of cross-flow
exchanger. For this situation the gas flows crosswise over finned-tube packs and accordingly is
unmixed since it is confined in particular channels between the fins as it goes through the
exchanger.ix
This exchanger is run of the mill of the sorts utilized as a part of aerating and cooling applications.
On the off chance that a fluid is unmixed, there can be a temperature slope both parallel and
ordinary to the flow course, though when the fluid is blended, there will be a propensity for the
fluid temperature to even out in the heading typical to the flow as an aftereffect of the blending.
There are various different configurations called conservative warmth exchangers that are

24
essentially utilized as a part of gas-flow frameworks where the general warmth exchange
coefficients are low and it is alluring to accomplish a vast surface territory in a little volume. These
exchangers by and large have surface zones of more noteworthy than 650 m2 for every cubic
meter of volume.

PROCEDURE:
• First of all switch on the apparatus
• After that set the temperature of reservoir at 60 C
• Now set the flow rate of hot water at 2 liter per minute
• Set the temperature of cold water at one liter per minute
• Wait for some time so that temperature of reservoir reaches to 60 C
• After that note the temperature reading of hot and cold water at entering and leaving
the heat exchanger
• Find the log mean temperature difference and heat flow
• Draw graph between temperature and length of heat exchanger

TABLE:
For parallel flow:
Table 8

Vc Vh Tc(in) Tc(mean) Tc(out) Th(in) Th(mean) Th(out)

L/min L/min °C °C °C °C °C °C
1.0 2.0 32 37 43 58 53 52

For counter flow:

Table 9

Vc Vh Tc(in) Tc(mean) Tc(out) Th(in) Th(mean) Th(out)

L/min L/min °C °C °C °C °C °C
1.0 2.0 43 36 32 59 55 53

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 ∆𝑇
For the parallel flow heat exchanger shown the heat transfer is given by,
𝑑𝑞 = −𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑇ℎ = 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑐
The heat transfer is also given as,
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑑𝐴

25
 −𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇ℎ =
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇𝑐 =
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
1 1
𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 = 𝑑(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) = −𝑑𝑞( − )
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
Putting the value of dq from previous equation,
𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 1 1
= −𝑈 ( − ) 𝑑𝐴
𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 1 1
𝑙𝑛 = −𝑈𝐴 ( − )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑞
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ =
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2
𝑞
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 =
𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1
Putting these values in the above equation,
(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
Comparing this equation with the general equation of heat transfer that is written above,
(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
∆𝑇 =
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
𝛥𝑇1 −𝛥𝑇2
LMTD = 𝛥𝑇2
ln
𝛥𝑇1

𝑚. 𝐶𝐶 𝛥𝑇𝐶 = 𝑚. 𝑐 𝐶ℎ 𝛥𝑇ℎ
𝑄.
U=𝐴∗𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
𝜌𝑐 𝑉 . 𝐶𝑐 𝛥𝑇𝑐
% efficiency =𝜌 * 100
𝑐 𝑉ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝛥 𝑇ℎ

26
GRAPH:

Temperature Profile of Parallel Flow H.X

Hot Water Cold Water

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure 14

Temperature Profile of Counter Flow H.X

Hot Water Cold Water

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure 15

COMMENTS:
• Thermal stresses are less in parallel heat exchangers. Because average temperature
remains constant
• From the graph it is clear that hot water losing its heat and slope is decreasing, and
cold water getting heat and slope is increasing

27
• Wait for some time so that supply water temperature reaches to set temperature. Take
the reading of temperature carefully
• If the direction of flow is not confirm then touch the pipe to confirm that either hot water
is flowing or cold water
• Thermal stresses is more in counter flow because average temperature varies with time
• Wait for some time so that supply water temperature reaches to set temperature
• From the graph it is clear that hot water losing its heat and slope is decreasing, and
cold water getting heat and slope is increasing but cold water enters from right to left

28
EXPERIMENT NO. 08
To study the effect of hot temperature variation on the performance characteristics of concentric
tube heat exchanger operating on parallel and counter flow heat condition.

OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to analyze the effect of different parameters on the value of
overall heat transfer coefficient and to find the overall heat transfer coefficient by log mean
temperature difference method. Also draw temperature profile for different parameters.

APPARATUS:

Figure 16

THEORY:
Heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer heat between two fluids. The heat exchanger
has main application in thermal power plant and engines. A shell and tube heat exchanger has
two concentric tubes the inner tube contains the hot fluid whereas the outer tube has cold fluid
flowing in it. The heat exchange takes place from hot fluid to cold fluid and this heat exchange is
governed mainly by conduction. x
Warm exchanger is a gadget that is utilized to exchange warm between two liquids. The warmth
exchanger has fundamental application in warm power plant and motors. A shell and tube warm
exchanger has two concentric tubes the inward tube contains the hot liquid though the external
tube has cool liquid streaming in it. The warmth trade happens from hot liquid to cool liquid and
this warmth trade is represented for the most part by conduction. xi

29
PROCEDURE:
• First of all switch on the apparatus
• Now set the flow rate of hot water at 2 liters per minute. Set the temperature of cold
water at one liter per minute
• After that set the temperature of reservoir at 60, 65, 70, 75 degrees Celsius. Wait for some
time so that temperature of reservoir reaches to steady state
• After that note the temperature reading of hot and cold water at entering and leaving
the heat exchanger
• Find the log mean temperature difference and heat flow at different temperatures. Draw
the graph of temperature with respect to length of heat exchanger
• Now change the other parameter such as flow rate of cold water by keeping the
other constant. Now draw the graph as draw before with overall heat transfer coefficient

TABLE:
For temperature variation:
Area =A= .067 m2
Hot water flow rate =Qh = 2 litr/min
Cold water flow rate =Qc = 1litr/min

Table 10

TSET TH1 TC1 TH2 TC2 TH3 TC3 U

0c 0c 0c 0c 0c 0c 0c KW/m2.
60 62 44 57 36 54 30 K0.80150
65 61 43 56 36 54 30 2
0.70131
70 59 42 54 35 53 30 5
0.63163
75 58 41 53 34 53 30 20.5263
6

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 ∆𝑇
For the parallel flow heat exchanger shown the heat transfer is given by,
𝑑𝑞 = −𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑇ℎ = 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑐
The heat transfer is also given as,
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑑𝐴

30
 −𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇ℎ =
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇𝑐 =
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
1 1
𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 = 𝑑(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) = −𝑑𝑞( − )
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
Putting the value of dq from previous equation,
𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 1 1
= −𝑈 ( − ) 𝑑𝐴
𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 1 1
𝑙𝑛 = −𝑈𝐴 ( − )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑞
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ =
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2
𝑞
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 =
𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1
Putting these values in the above equation,
(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
Comparing this equation with the general equation of heat transfer that is written above,

(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

∆𝑇 =
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
Where,

𝛥𝑇1 −𝛥𝑇2
LMTD = 𝛥𝑇2
ln
𝛥𝑇1

𝑚. 𝐶𝐶 𝛥𝑇𝐶 = 𝑚. 𝑐 𝐶ℎ 𝛥𝑇ℎ
𝑄.
U=𝐴∗𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
𝜌𝑐 𝑉 . 𝐶𝑐 𝛥𝑇𝑐
% efficiency =𝜌 * 100
𝑐 𝑉ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝛥 𝑇ℎ

31
GRAPH:
Set Temperature Vs Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76

Tset

Figure 17

COMMENTS:
• As overall heat transfer coefficient is combined effect of conduction heat transfer
coefficient and convection heat transfer coefficient. And conduction heat transfer
coefficient is material property and does not change with any parameter but convection
heat transfer coefficient depends on type of fluid, fluid temperature and fluid velocity. So
overall heat transfer coefficient is also the function of these fluid parameters
• From the graph we can say that overall heat transfer coefficient decreases with increase
in temperature
• Wait for some time so that supply water temperature reaches to set temperature
• If the direction of flow is not confirming then touch the pipe to conform that either hot
water is flowing or cold water
• That heat exchanger will be efficient whose log mean temperature difference is more and
overall heat transfer coefficient is less. So heat exchanger operating at set temperature
75 has less value of U.

32
EXPERIMENT NO. 09
To study the flow rate variations on the performance characteristics of concentric tube heat
exchanger operating on parallel and counter flow heat condition.

OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to analyze the effect of different parameters on the value of
overall heat transfer coefficient and to find the overall heat transfer coefficient by log mean
temperature difference method. Also draw temperature profile for different parameters.

APPARATUS:

Figure 18

THEORY:
Heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer heat between two fluids. The heat exchanger
has main application in thermal power plant and engines. A shell and tube heat exchanger has
two concentric tubes the inner tube contains the hot fluid whereas the outer tube has cold fluid
flowing in it. The heat exchange takes place from hot fluid to cold fluid and this heat exchange is
governed mainly by conduction. ( Air Pollution Control Orientation Course from website of the
Air Pollution Training Institute).xii
Warm exchanger is a gadget that is utilized to exchange warm between two liquids. The warmth
exchanger has fundamental application in warm power plant and motors. A shell and tube warm
exchanger has two concentric tubes the inward tube contains the hot liquid though the external
tube has cool liquid streaming in it. The warmth trade happens from hot liquid to cool liquid and
this warmth trade is represented for the most part by conduction.

33
PROCEDURE:
• First of all switch on the apparatus
• Now set the flow rate of hot water at 2 liters per minute. Set the temperature of cold
water at one liter per minute
• After that set the temperature of reservoir at 60, 65, 70, 75 degrees Celsius. Wait for some
time so that temperature of reservoir reaches to steady state
• After that note the temperature reading of hot and cold water at entering and leaving
the heat exchanger
• Find the log mean temperature difference and heat flow at different temperatures. Draw
the graph of temperature with respect to length of heat exchanger
• Now change the other parameter such as flow rate of cold water by keeping the
other constant. Now draw the graph as draw before with overall heat transfer coefficient

TABLE:
When flow rate of cold water is variable:
Area =A= .067 m2
Set temperature =Ts= 60 C

Hot water flow rate =Qh= 2 litr/min

Table 11

QC TH1 TC1 TH2 TC2 TH3 TC3 U

0c 0c 0c 0c 0c 0c 0c KW/m2.
1 60 43 55 35 54 30 K0.61762
1.5 61 41 55 34 54 30 5
0.66669
2 60 39 54 33 52 30 8
0.77764
2.5 59 37 53 32 51 30 8
0.77764
8

When flow rate of hot water is variable:

Area =A= .067 m2
Set temperature =Ts= 60 C

Cold water flow rate =Qc= 1litr/min

Table 12

QH TH1 TC1 TH2 TC2 TH3 TC3 U

0c 0c 0c 0c 0c 0c 0c KW/m2.
2 60 43 55 35 54 30 K0.66909
2.5 59 41 54 35 54 30 3
0.55103
3 59 42 55 35 54 30 3
0.61762
3.5 59 43 55 36 55 30 5
0.67350
1
34
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 ∆𝑇
For the parallel flow heat exchanger shown the heat transfer is given by,
𝑑𝑞 = −𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑇ℎ = 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑐
The heat transfer is also given as,
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑑𝐴
−𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇ℎ =
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇𝑐 =
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
1 1
𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 = 𝑑(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) = −𝑑𝑞( − )
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
Putting the value of dq from previous equation,
𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 1 1
= −𝑈 ( − ) 𝑑𝐴
𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 1 1
𝑙𝑛 = −𝑈𝐴 ( − )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑞
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ =
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2
𝑞
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 =
𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1
Putting these values in the above equation,
(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
Comparing this equation with the general equation of heat transfer that is written above,

(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

∆𝑇 =
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )
Where,

35
 𝛥𝑇1 −𝛥𝑇2
LMTD = 𝛥𝑇2
ln
𝛥𝑇1

𝑚. 𝐶𝐶 𝛥𝑇𝐶 = 𝑚. 𝑐 𝐶ℎ 𝛥𝑇ℎ
𝑄.
U=𝐴∗𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
𝜌𝑐 𝑉 . 𝐶𝑐 𝛥𝑇𝑐
% efficiency =𝜌 * 100
𝑐 𝑉ℎ 𝐶ℎ 𝛥 𝑇ℎ

GRAPH:

Mass Flow Rate of Cold Water Vs Overall Heat Transfer

Coefficient

1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6

Qc
Figure 19

Mass Flow Rate of Hot Water Vs Overall Heat Transfer

Coefficient

2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6

Qh
Figure 20
36
COMMENTS:
• As overall heat transfer coefficient is combined effect of conduction heat transfer
coefficient and convection heat transfer coefficient. And conduction heat transfer
coefficient is material property and does not change with any parameter but convection
heat transfer coefficient depends on type of fluid, fluid temperature and fluid velocity. So
overall heat transfer coefficient is also the function of these fluid parameters
• Wait for some time so that supply water temperature reaches to set temperature
• If the direction of flow is not confirming then touch the pipe to conform that either hot
water is flowing or cold water
• That heat exchanger will be efficient whose log mean temperature difference is more and
overall heat transfer coefficient is less. So heat exchanger operating at set temperature
75 has less value of U
• From the 1nd graph we can say that overall heat transfer coefficient increases with flow
rate of cold water
• From 2rd graph we can say that overall heat transfer coefficient first decrees then
increases with the increase in temperature

37
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Determination of Heat Transfer Rate, LMTD and Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient.

OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to analyze the effect of different parameters on the value of
overall heat transfer coefficient and to find the overall heat transfer coefficient, LMTD and the Heat
Transfer Rate. Also draw temperature profile for different parameters.

APPARATUS:
Following is the schematic diagram of the apparatus used;

Figure 21

THEORY:
Heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer heat between two fluids. The heat exchanger
has main application in thermal power plant and engines. A shell and tube heat exchanger has
two concentric tubes the inner tube contains the hot fluid whereas the outer tube has cold fluid

38
flowing in it. The heat exchange takes place from hot fluid to cold fluid and this heat exchange is
governed mainly by conduction.
Warm exchanger is a gadget that is utilized to exchange warm between two liquids. The warmth
exchanger has fundamental application in warm power plant and motors. A shell and tube warm
exchanger has two concentric tubes the inward tube contains the hot liquid though the external
tube has cool liquid streaming in it. The warmth trade happens from hot liquid to cool liquid and
this warmth trade is represented for the most part by conduction.

PROCEDURE:
• Set the cooling water flow control valves for con-current flow
• Check that the heater tank contains water to the correct level
• Close the “low flow” control valve and fully open the “high flow” control valve
• Switch on the mains and heater and set the heater control to a high value
• Increase the hot water temperature (t5) to about 70°C. then adjust the hot water flow
rate to a convenient value; (say 5 l/min)
• Adjust the cold water flow until stable operating conditions are reached with t 5 at about
70°C

TABLE:
When flow rate of cold water is variable:
Hot water flow rate = V.h = 5 l/min
Area = Am = 0.0288 m2
Set temperature = T5 = 70°C
Table 13

V.h m.O T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10

l/min kg/s °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C
5 0.0175 69.4 57.4 77.7 73.1 70 67.7 29.6 45 54.5 59.2

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Mean hot water temperature;
𝑇3 + 𝑇6
𝑇𝑚 =
2
Hot water mass flow (kg/s);
ρ × 𝑉ℎ
𝑚ℎ =
1000 × 60
Heat transfer from hot water;
𝑄ℎ = 𝑚ℎ × 𝐶𝑝 × (𝑇3 − 𝑇6 )

39
Heat transfer to cold water;
𝑄𝑐 = 𝑚𝑜 × 𝐶𝑝 × (𝑇7 − 𝑇10 )
Log mean temperature difference;
∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 − ∆𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
∆𝑇
𝑙𝑛 ∆𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡

i.e.
(𝑇3 − 𝑇7 ) − (𝑇6 − 𝑇10 )
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
(𝑇 − 𝑇7 )
ln 3
(𝑇6 − 𝑇10 )
Overall heat transfer co-efficient;
𝑄ℎ = 𝐴𝑚 × 𝑈 × 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
i.e.
𝑄ℎ
𝑈=
𝐴𝑚 × 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

GRAPH:
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION CON-CURRENT FLOW

75
TEMPERATURE T(C)

65

55

45

35

25
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
INCREASING DISTANCE FROM HOT INLET

Hot Stream Cold Stream Metal Wall

Figure 22

COMMENTS:
• This unit must not be used unless it contains water to the correct level. When cold, the
water level should be half way up the slight glass in the water heating tank.

40
 • As overall heat transfer coefficient is combined effect of conduction heat transfer
coefficient and convection heat transfer coefficient. And conduction heat transfer
coefficient is material property and does not change with any parameter but convection
heat transfer coefficient depends on type of fluid, fluid temperature and fluid velocity. So
overall heat transfer coefficient is also the function of these fluid parameters
• Wait for some time so that supply water temperature reaches to set temperature
• If the direction of flow is not confirming then touch the pipe to conform that either hot
water is flowing or cold water
• That heat exchanger will be efficient whose log mean temperature difference is more and
overall heat transfer coefficient is less. So heat exchanger operating at set temperature
75 has less value of U
• To avoid scaling, de-mineralized or distilled water is preferred

References

i
( Whewell, William (1866). History of the Inductive Sciences from the Earliest to the Present Times.)
ii
(Churchill, Stuart W.; Chu, Humbert H.S. (November 1975). "Correlating equations for laminar and turbulent free
convection from a vertical plate". International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. )
iii
( Frank Incropera; Theodore L. Bergman; David DeWitt; Adrienne S. Lavine (2007). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 260–261. ISBN 978-0-471-45728-2.)
iv
("Heat transfer between the bulk of the fluid inside the pipe and the pipe external surface")
v
(ouis C. Burmeister, (1993) “Convective Heat Transfer”, 2nd ed. Publisher Wiley-Interscience, p 107 ISBN 0-471-
57709-X, 9780471577096)
vi
(Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer 7th Edition - Incropera)
vii
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_exchanger)
viii
( "Parametric Analysis of Tube in Tube Helical Coil Heat Exchanger at Constant Wall Temperature" (PDF).)
ix
(J. & et al. (2011). "The design)
x
( Plate Heat Exchanger Cleaning Services AKS Heat Transfer. Retrieved 18 August 2017.)
xi
(Kakaç & Hongtan Liu (2002). Heat Exchangers: Selection)
xii
( Air Pollution Control Orientation Course from website of the Air Pollution Training Institute)

41