Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555

On-site investigation on the remains of the Cathedral of Noto

L. Binda*, C. Tiraboschi, G. Baronio
D.I.S., Politecnico of Milan, Milan, Italy

Received 3 December 2001; accepted 15 August 2003

Abstract

The Cathedral of Noto was damaged after the earthquake that hit Sicily in 1990. Soon after the event, cracks appeared on the
domes of the lateral naves, and also on the pillars. In 1992 some provisional work had been carried out in view of confining the
pillars of the central nave that were damaged. Some pictures made after the earthquake also show clearly the presence of moisture
rise on the pillars and walls. A sudden collapse due to the damages was probably not expected, so that no other measures were
taken to better strengthen and repair the structures. Only after the collapse of the Civic Tower in Pavia (1989) and the following
research (Masonry Int J 6 (1992) 11, Second International Conference RILEM on Rehabilitation of Structures, Highett, Australia
(1998) 542), it was clearly shown that in case of high stresses on low-strength masonry an existing damage can slowly lead to
partial or total collapse of the structure over a long time. It seems a confirmation of this long-term behaviour of the structures
that the Cathedral collapse took place in 1996, 6 years after the earthquake, which had certainly caused high damages to the
structure.
䊚 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: On-site investigations; Masonry; Flat jack; Sonic tests

1. Damage description and of the structural elements and the possibility of

After the removal of the huge amount of ruins (3610
m3) and the execution of the necessary provisional
structures w3x, the actual damage consequences of the
collapse could be checked and described (Figs. 1 and
2). Fig. 3 shows only a partial view of the destruction.
Figs. 4 and 5 clearly show the missing parts: the right
pillars, the vault and roof of the central nave, a large
part of the central dome, the domes of the right nave
and other local destruction. The feeling of a person
watching the ruins for the first time is really a sense of
frustration.
2. Aims of the investigation
The investigation carried out as requested by the
designers De Benedictis and Tringali in 1998 in the
Laboratory of Material Testing of DIS, Politecnico of
Milan, under the responsibility of Binda and Baronio
concerned w4,5x: (i) a study based on-site survey and
laboratory tests concerning the damage of the materials
*Corresponding author. Tel.: q39-2-2399-4318; fax: q39-2-2399-
4220.
E-mail address: binda@rachele.stru.polimi.it (L. Binda).
preserving and strengthening them as the Cathedral
reconstruction would start w1,2x, (ii) the choice of the
materials for repair, strengthening and reconstructing
collapsed parts of the structure, (iii) the control of the
chemical, physical and mechanical compatibility of the
new material with the existing ones.
The aims of the investigation were the following: (i)
to assist the designers in understanding the safety level
of the remaining parts after the collapse, (ii) to investi-
gate on the possibility that the structural and non-
structural elements apparently undamaged or with low
damage could still be efficient (e.g. the remaining pillars
of the central nave), (iii) to suggest on the basis of the
laboratory tests on original materials and structures the
more adequate techniques for the intervention, (iv) to
define the characteristics of the new materials for recon-
struction and repair.
The time given to the Laboratory for the whole
investigation was 60 days.
3. On-site investigation
Since the collapse of the structure seemed to have
been caused by the collapse of the right pillars of the

0950-0618/03/$ - see front matter 䊚 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0950-0618(03)00057-6
544 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555

Fig. 3. The interior of the Cathedral after removing the ruins.

Fig. 1. Cracks on a pillar before the collapse (photo G. Attardi).

central nave (perhaps a central one or one near the

entrance), it was very important to investigate the state
of the left side pillars that are still standing but badly
damaged.
The on-site investigation consisted in the following
operations: (i) excavation in strategic sites near the

Fig. 4. Longitudinal section of the Cathedral with the left order of the
pillars of the central nave.

pillars and the walls in order to identify the type and

the depth of the foundations, (ii) demolition, layer by
layer, of the base of one of the collapsed pillars in order
to study the technique of construction and the materials
used, (iii) removal of the external stone leaf in order to
detect the mechanical characteristics of the internal core
of pillars and walls, (iv) sampling of mortars and stones
in the most representative areas of the structure in order
to characterise the materials in laboratory, (v) survey of

Fig. 2. The right pillars of the central nave before the collapse: there
is clear evidence of moisture presence at the base of the pillars (photo
Coll. Arch. P. Giannone). Fig. 5. Longitudinal section with the remaining of the left pillars.
 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555
Fig. 6. Inspection sites of the foundations.
the remaining pillars in order to know their state of
damage and the possible type of repair, (vi) single and
double flat-jack tests to define the state of stress in
Fig. 7. (a) Foundation of pillar E (sample no. 6). Survey of the foundation. (b) View from the top of the foundation of pillar E (sample no. 6).
545
Fig. 8. Sample no. 2: view from the top of the foundation soil with
the foundation masonry of the transept.
compressed areas and the stress-strain behaviour of the
masonry, (vii) grout injection of the remains of the
collapsed pillars and of a small part of the lateral wall
with different types of grout, (viii) ND evaluation of
the state of damage of the remaining pillars and detec-
tion of the effectiveness of the grout injection by the
use of radar and sonic tests.
3.1. Survey on the foundations
The local excavation near the foundations and the
soil coring (in Fig. 6 the areas of excavation are signed)
has shown that the foundation of the pillars and walls
were sufficiently well constructed in rubble masonry but
with enough load-carrying capacity for the weight of
the above structures (Fig. 7a and b). The soil was a sort
of a thick layer of natural compact silt and clay (Fig.
8).
546 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555

Fig. 9. Survey of the prospect of pillar C: (a) graphical restitution; (b) photo.

Fig. 10. Horizontal section of pillar C: (a) graphical restitution; (b) photo.

3.2. Survey of the masonry sections and of the wall
connections
The layer-by-layer removal of the components of the
collapsed pillars allowed to understand the poor tech-
nique of construction used (Fig. 9a and b). Layers of
large rounded river stones were found in the core of the
elements, with thick mortar joints, where the mortar
Fig. 11. Prospect of the external wall of the left nave.
appeared very weak and dusty surrounded by an external
leaf made with regular blocks of calcarenite for the base
of the pillar (up to 1.50 m) and of a sort of ‘travertine’
in the upper part. The connections between the external
and the internal leaves were missing (Fig. 10a and b)
and the ‘travertine’ leaf was highly porous with large
voids. The poor technique of construction and the wrong
choice of the materials were probably the cause of early
damages to the pillars of the Cathedral even if the
evidence of damage appeared only after the 1990 earth-
quake. The walls were built in a similar way; neverthe-
less the internal part was made with smaller sharp stones
alternated with a slightly stronger mortar. In some way
this seems to be a better masonry (Fig. 11).
Also the buttresses of the highest part of the nave,
built successively to the Cathedral construction, were
made with a better technique, similar to the one of the
walls (Figs. 12 and 13).
Furthermore, characteristic of the structure of the
Cathedral, common to other constructions in Noto, is
the presence of numerous scaffolding holes that some-
times occupy the entire cross section (Fig. 14).
Some stones were sampled from pillars and walls and
mortar samples were taken from the horizontal and
vertical internal and external joints (Fig. 9b and Fig.
 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555 547

Fig. 12. Buttresses built at the top of the lateral naves.

10b). The samples were sent to the DIS Laboratory and

characterised.
Small demolitions were carried out also at other
different positions: (i) at the spring of the arches (Fig. Fig. 14. Scaffolding holes are distributed along the walls and pillars.
15), where better mortars were found together with the
presence of other scaffolding holes, (ii) at the spring of similar to the lateral walls that is to say rather with
the buttresses between the lateral domes (Fig. 12) in good texture, materials and connections.
order to study the connections between buttresses and
walls, (iii) at the connection between the lateral pillars 3.3. Survey of the crack patterns of remaining pillars of
and the walls, (iv) at the connection between the lateral the central nave
walls and the facade, (v) at the walls of the apse. The pillars of the left side of the central nave (A9,
In the lateral built-in pillar MB (Fig. 16a) coring and B9, C9, D9, E9) showed diffused cracks that could have
boroscopy were carried out together with small demoli-
tion of the external connections (Fig. 16b) in order to
confirm the good connection between external walls and
built-in pillars (Fig. 16b). Coring was also carried out
in the apse walls and in the buttresses. These walls were

Fig. 15. Spring of the arch on pillar B9 and sampling location of the
Fig. 13. Detail of the buttress masonry. mortar.
548 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555

Fig. 16. (a) Check point for removal to study the connection pillar-wall. (b) Photographic survey of the connection.

been caused by the collapse of the right side. In fact if

the flat roof beams in reinforced concrete had contrib-
uted in keeping the central nave structure connected
together during the collapse, they certainly caused dam-
age to the left pillars. In order to study better that
damage and to see the depth of the cracks, it was
decided to remove samples of the plaster that had been
made in the fifties. The cracks that could be seen on
the outside of the plaster went deep inside the pillars
and the fissuration appeared diffused starting from the
top of the base until approximately the mid and also

Fig. 18. Large crack found in a pillar.

beyond the mid of the pillars (Fig. 17). Some cracks

were wide and deep beyond the external stone leaf (Fig.
18). Other cracks had been filled with the gypsum
mortar of the plaster (Fig. 19), showing that they already
existed at the moment when the rendering was done,
that is in the 1950s. The survey shown in Fig. 17 was
carried out on all the faces of the left pillars and the

Fig. 17. Crack pattern survey of the face of pillar B9 toward the nave. Fig. 19. Example of a crack filled with gypsum mortar in the sixties.
 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555
Fig. 20. Location of the flat-jack tests.
situation was the same everywhere, even on pillar E9,
one of the four sustaining the dome.
3.4. On-site flat-jack tests
The flat-jack tests were carried out on pillars A9 and
E9. The aim of the tests were to define (i) the state of
stress in compression on the external leaf at the bottom
of a pillar, (ii) the masonry mechanical characteristics
of the external and of the internal leaves of the pillars
Fig. 21. (a) Photographic survey of the test CSJ3S. (b) Plot of the CSJ3S results.
549
and of the external walls w6,7x. The test points are
reported in Fig. 20.
The single flat-jack test CNJ3S was performed on
pillar E9 with a great difficulty, since the external leaf
without rendering was badly cracked and the vertical
joints were practically void due to lack of mortar. It was
impossible to set the jack in a position without a vertical
joint; this choice in fact would have made the test more
reliable w6x. It is well known that the test is based on
the stress release when a cut is carried out in a
compressed masonry and on the measurement of the
displacements recovery when a jack inserted in the cut
is exerting a pressure on the cut surfaces. According to
Ref. w6x, the test is not valid when the displacements
calculated after the cut are not all recovered during the
test (Fig. 21a and b). Since these conditions were not
respected owing to the above-mentioned causes, the test
has to be considered only as indicative. Nevertheless,
the stress value found can be considered greater than
0.85 Nymm2. Taking into account that the only acting
force on the pillar after the collapse is its dead load,
since the loads of the drum and of the dome are missed,
the measured stress is rather high.
The double flat-jack tests were carried out on the
external leaf of pillar E9 (CNJ1D) at a height of
approximately 3 m, and on the internal leaf of pillar A9
(Fig. 22a) at a height of 3 m (CNJ2D). The test CNJ1D
was stopped at the onset of cracking in two stones,
respectively, above and below the top jack. The meas-
ured stress at that level was 1.9 Nymm2 and just beyond
the elastic range. From the experience it is possible to
suppose that the value of the local strength of the
masonry is 40% higher than the measured stress and
hence approximately 2.85 Nymm2 w8x.
The test carried out in the interior of pillar A9 after
the elimination of the external leaf reached an onset of
cracking at 0.76 Nymm2 with vertical strains of 40 mmy
mm; the strength can be assumed to be 20% higher, that
550 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555

Fig. 22. (a) The internal core of pillar A9 after removal of the external leaf. (b) Plot of the results of single and double flat-jack tests on the
pillars.

is, approximately 1.1 Nymm2. The lateral displacements
were higher, reaching 5.0 mmymm. Since this area of
the pillar was probably already cracked since a long
time and certainly damaged by the collapse, it is possible
to think that the initial strength of the internal rubble
material, when the mortar was completely hardened,
could have been approximately 1.5–2.0 Nymm2. Fig.
22b reports the results of the three tests carried out on
pillars A9 and E9. It is possible to observe the different
behaviour of the internal and external parts of the pillars
and that the stress due to the dead load of the pillar is
already greater than the strength of the interior. There-
fore, the internal part had probably settled down some-
time after construction, leaving the external leaf as the
only load-bearing last of the pillar.
Three double flat-jack tests were performed on the
external walls of the Cathedral (Fig. 23b). The interest
deserved by these walls, which are not load-bearing
walls, is due to the fact that they seem to be made with
a technique similar to the one used for the internal part
of the built-in pillars. Therefore, their behaviour can
give some information on the one of the internal
conglomerate. Furthermore, these walls have to be pre-
served, and then they have to be known. In Fig. 23a the
results of the three tests are reported. Two of them
CNJ4D and CNJ5D gave similar results and were
stopped at 1.2 Nymm2; the test CNJ6D was stopped at
only 0.8 Nymm2 showing a result similar to the test
CNJ2D of the inside of pillar A9. So it was confirmed
that the wall masonry is similar to the rubble masonry
inside the pillars, even if its stiffness is higher and this
material is much weaker than the regular stone masonry
of the outer leaf.
The detailed results of the flat-jack tests are reported
in Table 1.
3.5. Grout injectability tests in pillars and walls
Small areas (500=500 mm2) of the external surface
of the remaining of pillars A and C and of the built-in

Fig. 23. Double flat-jack tests on external walls: (a) plot of the test results; (b) prospect of the masonry.
 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555 551

pillar of the external wall of the Cathedral were chosen

for injectability tests (Fig. 24). The aim of the tests was
to study the possibility of applying the technique of
repair by grout injection to the walls and to the damaged
pillars of the left side of the central nave. The reason
for using grout injection were (i) to repair cracks and
to fill voids caused by the collapse, (ii) to strengthen
the internal part of the pillars where the mortars were
very weak w9x. Four different grouts were tested and the
injections were carried out as described in the following
text. Holes were drilled in the pillars up to a depth of
approximately 600 mm; this depth was chosen in order
to be sure that the grout could enter beyond the external
stone (the depth of the stones is in fact varying from
200 to 400 mm). The driller had a hard point and was
working at low speed in order to avoid damage to the
masonry. The holes were performed slightly downward
at a distance of 250 mm from one another and at a
height variable from 300 to 800 mm. After drilling,
water was injected in order to wash away the powder
and to wet the stones and mortars. Soon after this
operation, sonic tests were performed in order to meas-
ure the sonic velocity before injection.
Four grouts were injected, named N, M, P, C. The
injectability was controlled during the injection by meas-
uring the injected grout quantity and 28 days after the Fig. 24. Location of the grout injection sites.
injection by repeating the sonic tests and removal of the
external leaf in order to check the injection diffusion.
inside the masonry. The ratio WyB was 0.4. The
injection was carried out as described above.
3.5.1. Description of the grouts (3) Grout P is defined as hydraulic microfine binder
(1) Grout N was a natural hydraulic lime with high also non-reactive with salts (sulfates, chlorides, nitrates,
silica content and additives as fluidiser and bonding etc.). The grout is characterised by high fineness (only
agents. The ratio waterybinder (WyB) was 0.85. The a small percentage of grains has a diameter equal to 25
mixing of the grout was carried out at speed 1500– mm) and a mechanical strength that can be programmed
2000 turnymin; this speed was kept constant for 3 min, within a large range of values. The WyB ratio was 1 in
then reduced for the whole time of injection. With N, weight.
injections were carried out into pillar C and into the (4) Grout C was prepared on site while all the others
built-in pillar MB. The grout was injected starting from were ready to mix. The composition was the following:
the bottom toward the top in order to avoid trapping air 3:1 pozzolana to hydrated lime. The ratio WyB was
inside the pillars. This grout was penetrating very well 0.77 with a rather good fluidity. Nevertheless, the
in pillar C, less in pillar MB, pillar C being badly pozzolana grain size was too large and therefore the
cracked during the collapse. grout penetration was very low. Pozzolanicity tests were
(2) Grout M is a special hydraulic binder with no carried out on the pozzolana used for the grout with the
reaction with chlorides and sulfates eventually present same fineness and a lower one (150 mm). The analyses

Table 1
Results of double flat-jack tests

smax (Nymm2) Ds (Nymm2) Es (Nymm2) D´h yD´v

CNJ1d—pillar E9 1.88 0.1–0.5 1760 0.06
0.1–1 1525 0.09
CNJ2d—pillar A9 0.76 0.1–0.5 190 (E345) (0.89)
CNJ4d—3a span 1.2 0.1–0.5 1215 0.09
CNJ5d—1a span 1.18 0.1–0.5 1205 0.22
CNJ6d—5a span 0.88 0.1–0.5 370 0.15
552 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555
Fig. 25. Penetration of grout N.
gave a very low reactivity for the larger grains and a
much quicker reactivity with the 150-mm grains.
After 28 days, on all the injected masonries the sonic
tests were repeated and the sonic velocity variation was
measured w10x.
After the sonic tests the injected parts of pillar C
were dismounted and the following comments can be
made:
– The grout N has well reached all the cracked parts
but has not completely filled them, as it is possible
to see from Fig. 25. This defect is also common to
the other grouts. Other defects of the grout N were a
diffused shrinkage, the presence of air bubbles inside
the injected material and apparently a low strength.
– The grout M had a very good penetration but its
fluidity was too low. Not all the cracks were reached
and filled.
– The grout P showed good stability and fluidity and
could reach all the cracks connected with the injection
hole (Fig. 26).
– The grout C could not injected successfully in pillar
C due to its very low injectability.
Some parts of very well injected material were sam-
pled and taken to the laboratory. Cubes and prisms were
cut out and submitted to compression and splitting tests.
Due to the low number of specimens and to the high
scattering, the results can only be considered as indica-
tive. The splitting tests gave tensile strengths varying
from 0.2 to 0.4 Nymm2 on 40=40=80 mm3 prisms,
while the compression tests gave values from 0.89 to
6.1 Nymm2. Some cylinders prepared in laboratory,
injected with the same grouts and tested after injection,
gave similar variability, indicating once again the great
inhomogeneity of the masonry and the impossibility for
the grout to penetrate and distribute uniformly.
3.6. Sonic tests
The tests were carried out at different heights of the
left pillars (A9, B9, C9, D9, E9) where the steel confine-
ments allowed the access w10x. The sonic velocity values
at the base of the pillars where the calcarenite was used
had an average value of 1500 mys; above the base
where a sort of ‘travertine’ was used went down to an
average of 500 mys. In fact, the ‘travertine’ having a
lower density due to the big voids in its structure has a
lower density but also a lower strength. Among all the
pillars tested, D9 and E9 seem to have the highest velocity
at 3.00 m of height. Pillar E9 on the contrary shows a
very low velocity at 5.00 m of height. It is only possible
to suppose that pillar E9 presents the highest damage at
5.00 m and above due to the damage caused by the
collapse of the dome.
The sonic tests carried out after injection gave evi-
dence of some improvement in the masonry character-
istics, but not so much exciting w10x.
Presence of voids andyor cracks are also confirmed
by the radar tests carried out on pillar E9; these tests
could be performed with great difficulty due to the
presence of high humidity inside the pillar up to a level
of 3.00 m w11x.
4. Discussion of the results
The survey and the investigation carried out on site
and in the laboratory allowed the designers to take
concrete decisions on the reconstruction of the Cathe-
dral. In detail the investigation gave an answer to the
following questions: (i) which damage suffered the non-
collapsed bearing elements, (ii) in case of high damage
could these elements be preserved or had to be demol-
ished and reconstructed, (iii) is it possible to give
reliable experimental values of the mechanical parame-
ters required as input values by the structural analysis.
These answers can be found in the following discussion
of the results.
4.1. Foundations
The foundation depth was observed by excavation of
the Cathedral floor around the pillars and walls. The
depth was variable as a contradiction of a hypothesis
made soon after the collapse that the depth was follow-
Fig. 26. Penetration of grout P.
 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555
ing the soil slope. Concerning the pillars of the central
nave, the maximum depth of the foundations reaches
3.00 m for the pillar B. In the cases when the depth
was greater, a pyramidal foundation was made, and in
the cases when the depth was smaller, the foundation
was enlarged (Fig. 6). The constructive technology of
the foundations seemed to be good even if they were
built with regular courses of round river stones. It was
not possible to excavate near A9, B9, C9, D9, E9 for safety
reasons.
Also, the mortar analyses shows that they are better
than the ones used for the pillars. The foundation soil
from the chemical analysis results to be calcium carbon-
ate for the 95%. The aggregate size detection gave an
8% of clay, a 72% of silt and a 20% of sand.
4.2. Morphology of pillars and walls
The removal by layers of the remains of pillar C
allowed to understand how the internal and external
courses of the masonry were built and their connection.
The technique of construction used had created a weak
internal part made with a sort of low strength and high
deformability conglomerate. Along the time under the
dead load and the effects of earthquakes, the external
and the internal leaves of the masonry were certainly
subjected to differential movements also due to the lack
of connection between the two parts and in the four
corners of the pillars. These movements caused a differ-
ential stress distribution with concentration of stresses
in the external leaf w8x. The dilatancy of the conglom-
erate as also detected by the double flat-jack test in the
core of pillar A9 also could have caused a distribution
of stresses normal to the external leaf. The situation was
evolving for a long time (it should be remembered that
it was already present in the 1950s) also due to a
possible creep behaviour of the calcarenite; the syner-
getic effect of the earthquake damages caused a quick
evolution toward the collapse, which certainly took place
in the pillars.
The use of ‘travertine’ above the pillar base has
certainly contributed in the reduction of the load-carry-
ing capacity of the element.
Another negative aspect of the structure was the
presence of niches in each pillar at a certain height and
the presence of a pulpit excavated in pillar D, which
probably was bearing the highest damage.
It was possible to state that the built-in pillars and
the external walls of the Church were built at the same
time and connected with continuity. Furthermore, long
transversal stones were found connecting the two exter-
nal leaves of the pillars, while the internal conglomerate
was made with sharp pieces of calcarenite and ‘traver-
tine’ with thick mortar joints apparently stronger than
those of the central pillars. Therefore, these external
553
pillars seem to be more reliable than the ones of the
central nave.
Nevertheless, a common problem of pillars and walls
is represented by the frequent presence of scaffolding
holes crossing the whole section of the masonry. This
peculiarity should be taken into consideration in the
design for reconstruction.
4.2.1. Materials
The material characterisation has been described in
detail by Binda w4,5,8,12x. Nevertheless, a general infor-
mation and comment is given here. The calcarenite used
for the external leaf of the pillars is characterised by a
fairly good strength when tested dry up to constant mass
(18.0 Nymm2 in compression, 2.2 Nymm2 in tension of
cylinders of 50-mm diameter and 100-mm height) and
a lower strength when tested saturated up to constant
mass (11.6 Nymm2 in compression and 1.3 Nymm2 in
tension). This means a reduction of the 35.5% of the
compressive strength and of the 39% of the tensile
strength. The ‘travertine’ used in the core of the pillars
and in the external leaf above the base has a much
lower strength than the calcarenite (5.2 Nymm2 in
compression as an average value measured on dry prisms
of 100=100=200 mm3 dimension). The different
mechanical characteristics of the two stones were also
detected by sonic tests in laboratory and on site w13x.
Another type of stone called giuggiolena (a sort of
compact ‘travertine’) was used for the construction of
the dome. This stone also shows a different behaviour
when tested dry or saturated: 5.3 Nymm2 in compression
and 1.0 Nymm2 in tension when dry, and 5.05 Nymm2
in compression and 0.8 Nymm2 in tension when
saturated.
The mortars based on putty lime were obtained by
using probably a local calcareous aggregate with an
excessive fineness; this property was the cause of the
low physical and mechanical characteristics of the mate-
rial. The mortars used for the walls, the arches and the
dome were of better composition.
4.3. Crack pattern survey of the remaining pillars of the
central nave
From the survey the following remarks can be made:
– all the cracks surveyed on the rendering penetrate
into the external leaf of the pillars and in some cases
they reach the core showing that the damage either
caused by the collapse or already present before it
was deep and serious;
– the removal of the rendering has shown that many
large and long vertical cracks had been filled with
gypsum mortar in the fifties.
Among the surveyed pillars only E9 seems to have
less damage, even if it is also showing vertical cracks.
554 L. Binda et al. / Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 543–555
The high state of damage found in pillar A9 already
present before the earthquake suggests that by symmetry
also pillar A was badly damaged before the collapse,
even if no provisional confinement has been carried out
for this pillar as it was done for B, C, D. Therefore, the
collapse could have started from A instead of from D.
4.4. On-site mechanical tests
The double flat-jack tests have shown the low strength
and high deformability of the internal core of the pillars
and the limited strength of the ‘travertine’ leaf. Taking
into account the different behaviours investigated
between the internal and external parts of the pillars,
the hypothesis can be formulated that soon after the
construction of the structure the stress distribution was
rather uniform. As differential movements took place
between the internal and the external leaves caused by
the higher deformability of the first one and by the lack
of good connection between the two, the highest stress
was supported by the second one, which was also built
with two different materials. In fact, from 1.50 m up to
the top the travertine was used. So the damage probably
started above the base with thin vertical cracks that
slowly propagated during the centuries after the con-
struction. On the other side, the bad connections in the
corners did not help the external leaf to act as a
confinement.
4.5. Grout injection tests
The investigation by sonic tests carried out after
injection and furthermore by demolition showed that
apart from grout C, all the others were effective. Nev-
ertheless, the grouts are successful in filling voids and
even thin cracks, but they do not improve the behaviour
of a weak mortar because the mortar cannot be injected.
Therefore, the grout injection can be successful for the
external walls and pillars, but not to strengthen the
central nave pillars.
5. Conclusions
The following answers could be given by the authors
to the designers De Benedictis and Tringali after the
investigation carried out in laboratory and on site:
– The partial collapse of the Cathedral was not only
caused by the damages due to the 1990 earthquake
but was also due to the already unsafe condition of
the central pillars.
– The lateral walls, the arches and the remaining lateral
domes that were built with a better technique can be
repaired and preserved by grout injection and local
reinforcements.
– The left central pillars cannot be preserved or repaired
due to the high state of damage, the poor technique
of construction and the poor materials that cannot be
strengthened in any way. Therefore, they should be
demolished and rebuilt as the collapsed ones. In fact,
in the case that a decision would be taken to preserve
them, the structure will be affected by a high lack of
symmetry and this characteristic would be unsafe
against future earthquakes. The demolition and recon-
struction of the pillars even if apparently non-respect-
ful of the conservation theories will lead to a better
safe structure taking into account the seismicity of
the place.
– The materials to be used for the reconstruction of the
pillars must be more reliable than the original ones:
hydraulic mortars, use of the calcarenite in the exter-
nal leaf and in the core filling, transversal stones to
connect the external and the internal parts.
– The soil and the foundations are reliable, except for
the foundations of the reconstructed pillars that will
support higher stresses than the original ones; there-
fore they have to be rebuilt or strengthened.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank L. Cattaneo, C. Colla,
M.Garau, G. Paccapelo for the collaboration at the on-
site survey, and M. Antico, M. Cucchi, M. Iscandry, P.
Perolari for their collaboration to the on-site and labor-
atory tests. The investigation was supported by the
Prefettura of Siracusa.
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