PPRE – Electric Power Systems 2 5

2 AC Circuit Concept

2.1 Harmonic Wave Relation

AC (alternating current) represents a harmonic wave that may be described mathematically by a sine
(or cosine) function.

u, i

u(t)=û·sin(ωt+φu)
w ith φu=30°

u(t)=û·sin(ωt)

ωt
0,5π π 1,5π 2π

φu

Fig-EPS2.1-1 AC Voltage

We assume that the origin of this wave will not be the origin of the coordinates, i.e. the sine
wave may be shifted by the phase angle .

u(t )  uˆ  sin(t  u ) (2.1-1)

2 
Time of a period: T (2.1-2)

Angular frequency:   2   f (2.1-3)

The MEAN value over one period is zero !

T
1
U   uˆ  sin(t   u )dt  0 (2.1-4)
T 0

The same is valid for the current in AC circuits.

2.2 Root-Mean-Square Value (Effective Value)

The Root-Mean-Square (or RMS or Effective) value of a voltage is the value of the sinusoidal voltage
that, when connected across a resistor, delivers the same amount of electric energy to the resistor in T
seconds that a constant (DC) voltage would.

RMS values will be represented in upper-case letters!

Assume, in an Ohm resistance R flows the current i(t )  iˆ  sin(t ) .

In order to determine the RMS value of the current I we can write:
P  p(t )  I 2  R

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p(t )  u(t )  i(t )  [ R  i(t )]  i(t )  R  [i(t )]2

I 2  R  p(t )  R  [i(t )]2  R  [i(t )]2

I [i(t )]2

 RMS is the root of the mean of the square of the regarded value.

Solution:
1 2
T
I [i(t )]2  i (t )dt

i(t )  iˆ  sin(t )
1 ˆ2
T
I i  sin 2 (t )dt

1
Applying the theorem sin ( )   [1  cos(2 )] it follows:
2

2
iˆ 2 1 iˆ 2  
T T
I
T 2 [1  cos( 2t )]dt  
2T  0
dt  
0
cos(2t )dt 


The mean of 2 periods of a harmonic function = 0

iˆ 2
iˆ 2
I T 
2T 2

iˆ
 I (2.2-1)
2

2.3 Power in a Single Phase AC Circuit

We assume that voltage and current won’t be “in phase”.

From now on we will apply only the cosine function describing the harmonic waves with
i(t )  iˆ  cos(t )
u(t )  uˆ  cos(t  u )
Calculation of the power with respect to time as
p(t )  u(t )  i(t )  uˆ  cos(t   )  iˆ  cos(t )

cos   cos    cos(   )  cos(   )

1
Applying the theorem
2
u i
ˆ ˆ
p(t )   cos( )  cos(2t   )
2
With uˆ  2  U and iˆ  2  I follows
p(t )  U  I  cos( )  U  I  cos(2t   ) (2.3-1)

 Double frequency
 Power factor cos 

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The AC power oscillates with the double line frequency. The magnitude of the real power (RMS
value) depends from the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current which is called
Power Factor.

2.4 Basics of Complex Numbers

Explanation of AC circuit behaviour and calculation may be done very easily by means of complex
numbers. Therefore herewith a very short introduction (repetition):

Imaginary Unit: j  1 j 2  1
A complex number consists of a Real portion (real number) and an Imaginary portion (real number
times imaginary unit):
z  a  jb

A complex number plane of Gauss looks like this:

Im
8

4 r
z=6+j4
2 b

Re
-2 2 4 6 8

-2
a

Fig-EPS2.4-1 Gauß Coordinate System

Euler’s formula states:

e j  cos( )  j sin( ) (2.4-1)
z  a  jb  Component notation (2.4-2)
j
z  r e  r  cos( )  jr  sin( ))  r  Phasor notation (2.4-3)

Conversion Cartesian  Polar Coordinates:

r  a2  b2 (2.4-4)
b Im a0
  arctan( )  arctan( ) (2.4-5)
a Re
b Im a0
  arctan( )    arctan( )   (2.4-6)
a Re
Conversion Polar  Cartesian Coordinates:
a  r  cos( ) b  r  sin( ) (2.4-7)

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Conjugate:

z  (a  jb)   [r  e j ]
Im


z  a  jb  r  e  j (2.4-8)
4 
z z  z  a2  b2  r 2 (2.4-9)
2

Re
-2 2 4 6 8

-2
z*

Fig-EPS2.4-2 Congugate of a Complex Number

Addition:
Im
z 3  z 1  z 2  (a1  jb1 )  (a2  jb2 )
8
z 3  z 1  z 2  (a1  a2 )  (b1  b2 ) j (2.4-10)
6 a3  a1  a2 b3  b1  b2
4 z2
z1

2
z3=z1+z2
Re
-2 2 4 6 8
z2
-2

Fig-EPS2.4-3 Addition of Complex Numbers

Subtraction: (analogous to Addition)

Inversion:
1 1 1 1
z2   j1
  e  j1    1 (2.4-11)
z 1 r1  e r1 r1

1
z 2  r2  2 with r2  and  2  1
r1

Multiplication:
z 1  z 2  r1  e j1  r2  e j2  r1  r2  e j (1 2 )  r1  r2 (1   2 ) (2.4-12)

Division:
z 1 r1  e j1 r r
 j 2
 1  e j (1 2 )  1 (1   2 ) (2.4-13)
z 2 r2  e r2 r2

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