What are industrial fuels?

A Combustion File downloaded from the IFRF Online Combustion Handbook

ISSN 1607-9116
Combustion File No: 62
Version No: 1
Date: 22-April-02
Author(s): Peter Roberts
Source(s): Author
Referee(s): Neil Fricker
Status: Pubished
Sponsor: IFRF NET

1. What is a fuel?
For the purposes of industrial combustion (CF32), a fuel is defined as a substance
containing carbon and hydrogen, which may combine within the industrial combustion
process, with the oxygen contained in a comburent, for example, atmospheric air – see
CF61.
This rapid combination releases heat at relatively high temperature, which may then be
used for industrial process heating, including the generation of steam and high-pressure
hot water.
The combustion chemistry is very simplistically represented as:
2C + O2 Æ 2CO + Heat
2CO + O2 Æ2CO2 + Heat
H2 + O2 Æ H2O + Heat
Industrial fuels can contain other fuel elements, the most important of which is sulphur,
which when oxidised, can contribute significantly to the overall heat release in
combustion. However the use of high sulphur containing fuels is strongly restricted at
the time of writing, due to heavy limitations in the emission of sulphur dioxide – see
CF121.

2. How did industrial fuels develop?

Wood
Naturally the development of industrial fuels was dependent on the demands of
developing industrial processes. Almost certainly the earliest industrial fuel was wood,
or derived from wood - charcoal, fired in various open fires, ovens and kilns.
The development of metallurgical industries required charcoal, which also supplied the
carbon for ore reduction. Thus charcoal burning itself became an industry, eventually
consuming large tracts of forest. Later, raw wood became almost displaced as a fuel for
large-scale industry, but it is again becoming important as a component of biomass fuel
or BioFuel, - see Section 3.

Coal and coal-derived fuels

Wood was eventually replaced by coal, both in terms of an industrial fuel and as the
source of a reducing agent in metallurgical processes by the coal based product - coke.
Coal is a solid fossil fuel in the form of dark, compact, stratified rock-like mass of
decayed plant debris interspersed with smaller amounts of inorganic matter and covered
with sedimentary rock, typically brown or black in colour.
Coal is a fossil fuel of widely varying quality, existing in below surface “seams” of
varying thickness, depth and extent. Initially, surface seam “ends” were “outcropped”,
progressing to deep mines with drift and/or vertical shafts, leading eventually to the
modern techniques of opencast mining. These days a large proportion of coal is traded
globally; the remainder is utilised close to the mine.
The origins and quality of coal is the subject of a separate Combustion File CF177, which
is the basis of a developing coal knowledge resource within this Handbook. In modern
times coal is used mainly for:
• Power generation and cement manufacturing, fired typically as a pulverised fuel,
and steam or hot water raising, fired as a pulverised fuel or as a crushed fuel in
fixed or fluidised beds.
• As a raw material for the manufacture of metallurgical coke, a process giving a
by-product– Coke Oven Gas – a rich fuel gas that may be regarded as a
secondary fuel, and which is fired typically in integrated iron and steelworks.
Metallurgical coke is in turn used to fuel iron manufacturing in blast furnaces
which gives rise to a further by-product gas, a low grade secondary fuel known
as Blast Furnace Gas.
Coal can also be gasified, traditionally to Producer Gas and Water Gas, by passing
steam and/or air through hot coke beds. These processes either individually, or in
combination, give a relatively low calorific value fuel gas. At various times and locations,
in the second half of the 20th century, there has been considerable RD&D to develop
commercially successful coal gasification processes. But the advent of plentiful supplies
of relatively cheap natural gas - see below – has tended to prevent widespread
application, and to displace Town Gas as the coal derived gaseous fuel distributed in
urban areas for over a century.

Petroleum Fuels – Liquid Fuels

The next set of fuels to become important in industry was essentially a variety of “liquid
fuels”. Liquid fuels are mainly oils, tars and pitches and are derived primarily from crude
petroleum, but also from oil shale by distillation, and from coal by carbonisation and
hydrogenation.
Crude petroleum (also known as crude oil or simply “crude”) is a liquid, light brown to
black in colour and varying considerably in viscosity depending upon origin. It occurs in
sedimentary rock strata and is a fossil fuel, derived over millions of years from the
decomposition of marine organisms, ocean bed plant life and land based organisms
carried into lakes and to the sea bottom. All industrial fuels derived from crude
petroleum are classed as fossil fuels. Crude petroleum is found regularly with natural
gas - see below – and also gives rise to a commercial gaseous fuel – LPG, also described in
the following section.
Crude Oil was initially recovered seepage from near surface wells. As demand for
petroleum products increased towards the end of the 19th century, deeper and deeper
wells were identified and exploited through advancing exploration and drilling
techniques. In recent decades, land based production has been substantially augmented
by the development and exploitation of under-sea based oil fields.
Crude oil is processed to produce a whole range of domestic, automotive and industrial
fuels. The last group contains, petroleum distillate fuels light fuels, and a range of
petroleum residual fuels broadly described as light, medium and heavy oils. These fuels
were relatively cheap and easier to transport and handle and fire than coal. Eventually at
the end of the 1940s petroleum residual fuels commenced to take over from coal-
derived fuels for the firing of industrial heating processes.
In 1974, the so-called “oil crisis” gave rise to a temporary loss of crude petroleum
supplies and also to a considerable rise in oil prices. This commenced the search for
“alternative fuels”, alternative supplies of crude oil or indeed liquid fuels alternative to
petroleum. In the 1980s research was carried out into the firing of very heavy residuals,
the production of coal-water slurries, the development of bio-oils and so forth. The
application of these alternative fuels was however curtailed by the eventual reduction in
crude oil prices. Nevertheless it is strongly believed that the use of liquid, petroleum
based industrial fuels will remain important in the early decades of the present century
although their market share may decrease.

Natural Gas-Gaseous Fuels

The final range of fuels of industrial importance is “gaseous fuels” which are generally
the easiest fuels to handle and fire. At the time of writing, natural gas, a high calorific
value, gaseous fossil fuel composed mainly of methane – CH4, often found in association
with crude petroleum deposits, is the most abundantly distributed and fired. This gas is
also transported in bulk, in liquefied form – LNG. A further industrial fuel derived from
natural gas or from petroleum refining is LPG, a very high calorific gaseous fuel
composed primarily of propane and/or butane, distributed as a liquid prior to firing in
the gaseous state.
In the iron and steel manufacturing industry, coke oven gas (COG), blast furnace gas
(BFG) and basic oxygen steelmaking gas (BOS) are regularly used for associated
process heating – e.g for the firing of reheating furnaces, Cowper stoves etc., and for
power generation. Similarly in the petro-chemical industries a variety of gaseous by-
product streams are used for the firing of associated processes.
Town Gas, usually derived from coal, is a medium calorific value gas formerly used
extensively for residential applications in the urban areas of mature economies, but now
largely superseded by Natural Gas.

3. Renewable Fuels
Background
The combustion of fossil fuels effectively releases carbon, stemming originally from
decomposed plant and animal organisms, stored for millions of years as hydrocarbon
molecules in coal, petroleum or natural gas. This carbon is released as carbon dioxide. It
is presently believed that the massive increase in the combustion of fossil fuels
commencing at the start of the industrial revolution has significantly increased the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide is a so-called greenhouse gas which is said to contribute to the
phenomenon of “global warming”, exhibited as climate change. The Kyoto protocol,
requires the curtailment of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion which
can be achieved, among other ways, through:
• Increasing the overall thermal efficiency of the use of fossil fuels;
• Substituting fossil fuels by so-called renewable fuels in combustion processes;
• Providing process energy from sources not requiring the conversion of any form
of fuel – e.g. electricity produced form nuclear power stations, wind energy,
solar energy, etc. – see CF78.

Fossil Substitute Fuels

This an important area of development and is introduced in CF23, which considers the
developing role of biomass.
Generally this set of fuels is based on plant forms, including
• Plants from wood to straw, that can be grown and harvested as a fuel (so-called
energy crops);
• Waste residues from plant processing – piths, bagasse etc.,
In addition to biomass, a further developing area includes fuels derived from municipal
(domestic, commercial and industrial) wastes – so-called Refuse Derived Fuels – RDF –
and sewage sludges. With the increasing prohibition of landfill and river and sea dumping
as a means of disposing of these wastes, recycling of waste products including the
development of potential industrial fuels streams is a developing area, and one of
interest to industry as a source of fossil replacement fuels.
There has been considerable research in the last decade into the firing of such fuels,
either in the co-firing mode or in combustion equipment specifically designed for the
firing of these fuels with built-in heat recovery.
Co-firing essentially means the mixing, for example of an RDF with a coal, in combustion
equipment designed for coal preparation and firing. The heating process can be steam
raising for power production of a cement kiln.
The essential point is that the amount of waste for disposal is reduced and that the
calorific value of the RDF or other waste fuel streams is released in a controlled manner
at a point where it can be easily utilised, reducing the need to fire a specific fossil fuel.

4. Conclusions
For the foreseeable future, fossil fuels will continue to provide the bulk of the
industrial fuel supply. Gradually developing fossil substitute fuels, based on biomass and
recycled wastes will contribute a relatively small but nevertheless significant portion of
the industrial fuel supply.
Glossary terms
Basic oxygen steel making gas (BOS gas) – Low to medium calorific value gaseous by-
product from oxygen blown steel-making process
BioFuel – Fuel derived from biomass
Biomass - Biomass comprises all growing organic matter, such as plants, trees, grasses,
peat and algae. Biomass is renewable fuel from organic origin, residues from forestry,
agriculture and energy crops
Bio-oils – Liquid fuels processed from biomass materials, for example wood chips, which
are being developed as an automotive or industrial fuels
Blast Furnace Gas (BFG) – A low calorific value fuel gas produced as a by-product from
the reduction of iron ore using coke in a blast furnace
Carbonisation – This process, referring to the carbonisation of coal, is achieved by
decomposition of the coal through the application of heat, out of contact with air, where
the prime product is a solid residue – coke – with liquid and gaseous distillation by-
products
Carbon Dioxide – CO2 – A principle product of combustion of carbon containing fuels; a
greenhouse gas
Charcoal – The char product of wood pyrolysis, formerly extensively used as a fuel and
reducing agent in metallurgical production processes
Coal - A solid fossil fuel in the form of dark, compact, stratified rock-like mass of
decayed plant debris interspersed with smaller amounts of inorganic matter and covered
with sedimentary rock
Coke – A dark porous solid fuel, mainly carbon, formed as a pyrolysis or carbonisation
product of coal, produced either as by-product of Town Gas production or as the main
product of Coke Ovens – metallurgical or hard coke. Optimum Coke properties depend
upon the end-use which include presently, the main energy supply and ore reducing agent
in blast furnaces, and in former times a domestic and industrial smokeless fuel and a
basic fuel for gas producers
Coke Oven Gas (COG) – A medium calorific value fuel gas produced as a by-product
from the pyrolysis of coal in coke ovens, which have as the main product, metallurgical
coke – similar in quality to traditional town gas
Comburent – The agent, which supports the combustion of a fuel or combustible, usually
air or oxygen. Although this term is not found in English dictionaries, it has been
adopted (probably adapted from the French comburant) by the IFRF and is used
throughout this handbook. There is no convenient English equivalent
Combustion - The act or process of burning; in which principally the carbon and hydrogen
components of the material being burned are oxidised releasing heat
Crude Petroleum – A liquid fossil fuel, also known as crude oil, that occurs naturally in
sedimentary rocks and consists mainly of hydrocarbons
Crude Oil – A liquid fossil fuel, also known as crude petroleum, that occurs naturally in
sedimentary rocks and consists mainly of hydrocarbons
Fuel – A fuel is the generic term describing the material - solid, liquid, gaseous, emulsion
etc. - which contains the carbon and/or hydrogen consumed in the industrial combustion
process
Fossil fuel - Organic fuels obtained from organic matter natural maturation during long
periods of time (coal, oil, natural gas).
Hydrogenation - This process, referring to the hydrogenation of coal, is achieved by
autoclaving the coal with hydrogen at high temperature and pressure, and distilling the
product to produce liquid fuels
LNG – Acronym for Liquefied Natural Gas, a state of natural gas used for bulk
transportation or for motor vehicle fuel. LNG is a cryogenic fluid with a boiling point of
circa minus 165oC at atmospheric pressure. Methane at room temperature does not
liquefy at any pressure.
LPG – Acronym for Liquefied Petroleum Gas, a very high calorific value gaseous fuel
composed primarily of a mixture of butane and propane, sold and transported in liquefied
form and evaporated prior to firing. LPGs liquefy at ambient temperatures and low
pressures (a few bar)
Methane – CH4 – Main component of natural gas; methane is a strong greenhouse gas
Natural Gas – A high calorific value, gaseous fossil fuel composed mainly of methane,
typically found in association with crude petroleum deposits
Oil Shale - A petroleum containing shale; a black or dark brown type of shale from which
petroleum can be extracted by distillation
Petroleum Distillate Fuels – Relatively light liquid fuels obtained from the fractional
distillation of crude petroleum
Petroleum Residual Fuels –Heavy products from distillation and other petroleum
refining processes which may be fired as a liquid fuel
Producer Gas – A relatively low calorific fuel gas produced by blowing a mixture of air
and steam through a bed of coal or coke
RDF - Acronym - Refuse Derived Fuel -recycled municipal solid waste, which has been
processed prior to combustion to increase the calorific value of the waste. It is
produced by mechanically removing the non-combustible materials such as metal and
glass and then processing the remaining waste into coarse (c-RDF) or densified RDF (d-
RDF) pellet or briquette. The removal of organic waste is preferred as it has high
moisture content.
Solar Energy - Energy that comes from the sun, directly and in real time.
Town Gas – A medium calorific value fuel gas produced traditionally through the
pyrolysis of coal in retorts, for distribution in a town or city, as a residential, tertiary
(commercial) or industrial fuel, with coke and tars as by-products – similar in quality to
coke oven gas
Water Gas – A low to medium calorific fuel gas produced by blowing steam and air,
individually through coke – in the air cycle the coke is heated up from 900C to over
1000C and the product discarded – in the steam cycle “blue” water gas is produced
Wind Energy - Energy that comes from the movement of air
Wood - A hard fibrous substance, the chief component of shrubs and trees and found
beneath their bark. Wood was an important fuel, in former times, and a building
material. In recent times, wood is being revived as a fuel within the group BioFuels.
Waste wood from building demolition is also used in this way

Keywords
fuel; gas; gaseous; industrial; coke oven; blast furnace; natural; town; producer; water;
petroleum; crude; oil; liquid; solid; coal; coke; RDF; biofuel; biomass; sewage sludge;
Kyoto; tars; fossil; carbon, hydrogen; methane; greenhouse; calorific value; substitute;
alternative; LNG; LPG; BFG; COG; BOS; wood; straw; bagasse; energy; crops;

Related Combustion Files

CF23 What is biomass?
CF32 What is industrial combustion?
CF61 What are industrial comburents?
CF78 What are Renewable Energy Sources - RES?
CF121 How do I find information on EU air quality regulations, directives and decisions?
CF177 What is coal?

Sources
Author

Acknowledgements
None

File Placing
[Fuels and Comburents]; [Introduction to Fuels]; [Basics]
[Power Generation]; [Fuels]; [Introduction]

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