Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Improved Case
58
(3-1) Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) improvement
The first step before any design process for any air conditioning system; engineers must carefully
determine the amount of heat removal needed in summer season and the amount of heat to be produced
in winter season. Before an air conditioning system can be designed, all these loads must be analyzed
and summed up with great care.
There is more than one type of walls and floor sections exist in the structure of the building. So,
overall heat transfer coefficient depends on many different things; greatly it depends on resistivity of
material (R) to the wall components such that:
We try to get a small value of U, so to reduce the value of this factor we made the following:
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Side wall heat transmission factor(U)
Figure (3-1a):”base case side wall construction” Figure (3-1b):”improved side wall construction
Table (3-1):-”side wall construction materials& thickness of material and thermal resistance”.
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Roof heat transmission factor(U)
URoof=0.65(W/m2.K)
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(3-1-1)Load saving due to improved U
Table (3-3):”heating load for base case and improved case due to improving U”.
62
Percentage saving in heating load
saving
10%
90%
Table (3-4):”cooling load for base case and improved case due to improving U”.
63
Figure (3-5):”cooling load for base and improved case “
92.5%
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cost analysis for improved U
Assumptions
n=20years
Operating hours = 16hour/day
Cooling season=180day/year
Heating season=180day/year
Insulation cost
Table (3-5):”prices of unit area of different thickness of insulation”.
2 2
5 4
m fue; 0.00053
V fuel 6.43 x10 7 m 3 / s
fuel 827
V fuel 6.43 x10 7 ( m 3 / s ) x103 (liter / m 3 ) x60(sec/ min t ) x60(min t / hour ) x16( hour / day ) x180(day / year )
V fuel 6671.6liter / year
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Where:
liter $ $
Annual saving from fuel 8045 x1 6671
year liter year
Qcooling 22kW
Qcooling 22kWx16(hour / day ) x180(day / year )
Qcooling 63360kWh / year
4)month
cos t 5343
Payback period
saving 9500 8045
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(3-2) shading coefficient improvement
Shading coefficient is the measure of solar energy transmittance through glass. it is divided into
two parts primary and secondary solar transmittance ;primary solar transmittance is defined as the
fraction of solar radiation that enters directly through windows compared to the total solar insolation,
and secondary solar transmittance defined as the fraction of solar radiation that absorbed in window or
shading device compared to the total solar insolation.[4]
“In passive solar building design the aim of the designer is normally to maximize solar gain
within the building in the winter (to reduce space heating demand), and to control it in summer (to
minimize cooling requirements)” [4]
SC:-shading coefficient
A:-area of glass
Shading coefficient factor in base case was equal to 0.95(no indoor shading)and it has been improved
to be equal to 0.55 by using a Venetian blinds light type.
roller
venetian blinds
shades
no
Thickness
type of glass indoor medium light dark light
(mm)
shading
single glass
Table(3-6),continued
67
regular sheet 3 1 0.64 0.55 0.59 0.25
Plate 6--12 0.95 0.64 0.55 0.59 0.25
heat
6 0.7 0.57 0.53 0.4 0.3
absorbing
double glass
Reducing the shading coefficient will reduce the cooling load and this is obvious from the following
tables and detailed calculations.
Table (3-7):”solar load for base case and improved case due to shading factor improvement.”
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Figure (3-7):”cooling load for base case and improved case due to shading coefficient improvement.”
saving
6%
94%
Figure (3-8):”Percentage saving in total cooling load due to shading coefficient improvement”
A new chiller will be selected for the two improvements (shading factor coefficient” SC” and overall
transfer coefficient “U”)
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Total cooling load after improving U and SC is changed from 293.5kW to 254kW.then chiller will be
changed from 305kW with input power=108kW (electrical) to282kW (30GX082) from Carrier
company with 98kW (electrical), so it saves about 10kW electrical
70
(3-3) Lighting improvement:
Lighting can make a big difference to the energy bill. Low energy bulbs will save money, last longer
and are more economical long-term. If we use a particular light for an average of four hours or more a
day, then we replace it with an energy-saving equivalent, using around a quarter of the electricity and
lasting up to 12 times longer. So we think about this kind of lamps which saving energy and we decided
to change the Conventional Incandescent Lamp (CIL) with Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) to
make an efficient improvement for our case study (Al-Kuwaiti Hospital).
Fluorescent lights and especially the compact fluorescent lights, also called CFLs, are a more eco-
friendly lighting solution than incandescent lights. Fluorescent light bulbs have had a bad first
impression to brighten. The long-term economical savings and reduced maintenance for changing longer
lasting florescent light bulbs were first taken advantage of in commercial and institutional properties.
Fluorescent light bulbs also debuted with an annoying lighting lag time.
The real advantage is in CFLs, which use 75% less electricity and last ten times longer. One
incandescent bulb replaced can reduce CO2 emissions by 67 pounds over the lifetime of the bulb.
The drawback of course is that CFLs are often at least 4 times the price of our old familiar
incandescent light bulbs. Of course over time the savings of incandescent light bulbs is lost in electricity
and replacement cost. Another drawback of CFL bulbs is that they contain a small amount of mercury
and therefore must be recycled properly in a city or county collection center for CFLs. [5]
Color rendering
The color rendering of a lamp describes how natural surroundings appear in its light.
Efficiency
Efficiency is the amount of light emitted by a lamp for each Watt of power consumed. Different lighting
technologies are available with different levels of efficiency.
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Lifetime
The lifetime of the lamp influences both the relative purchase price and replacement costs. Different
factors influence the lifetime, such as switching cycles, ignition, run-up and starters. [6]
To make a comparison for wherever you live, just substitute your own local currency and costs
for the particular lamps you want to use (lamp purchase prices, cost of labor for lamp replacement and
unit costs for electrical energy) and then you just have to do all the calculations.
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The purchase price of the lamp.
Figure (3-9a)”Compact Fluorescent lamp” [8] Figure (3-9b): ”Conventional Incandescent lamp” [8]
The following table and figure define us how we can compare between the normal lamps and the energy
saving one.
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Figure (3-10): “Electricity usage of different types of light bulbs at different light outputs”. [9]
The chart shows the energy usage for different types of light bulbs operating at different light outputs.
Points lower on the graph correspond to lower energy use.
Where:
Fu = utilization factor (use factor defined as the ratio of wattage in use possibly at design condition to
the installation condition) =0.9 [in Hospitals].
Fb =ballast factor: measurement that compares the ratio of light output of a lamp to the light output of
the same lamp or lamps operated by a standard reference ballast) = 1.2 [for CFL]
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Where:
Table (3-10):”lighting load for base case and improved case due to improving type of lights”.
Improve
Base case
No of d light Load saving
Floor Light load
lamps load (kW)
(kW)
(kW)
Ground
304 14.8 4.4 10.3
floor
75
(cooling load for base case and improved case due to lighting improvement )
350
300
(kW) 250
200
150
100
50
0
1 base 2 improved
Figure (3-12):”Comparison between base case and improved case due to lighting improvement”.
9.7%
saved
90.3%
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Cost analysis for improved lighting case
For this improvement the chiller load is changes from 297kW to 268kW then a new chiller is to
be selected.
The new chiller is 30GX082 from Carrier Company with net nominal cooling capacity =282kW
and nominal input power =98kW (electrical)
b) Electricity consumption for lighting is reduced due to using new type of lights
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• Rating power for base case lights =0.06kW/unit
[ # of units× (Power rating of base type-power rating of improved type) × Number of burning hours
per year]
Purchasing Cost:-
Purchase cost=Purchase cost of base case lights –purchase cost of improved case lights
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(3-4)Medical waste incineration
Medical Waste is defined “according to the executive lists of the administration of medical
wastes for the year 2008” as the liquid or gaseous amount produced form any medical association due to
the equipment use for analysis and medical care inside or outside the association, these include non
dangerous, dangerous and pathology wastes.
“Nowadays estimations shows that the amount produced of medical wastes is 1,29 Kg/bed/day
in the west bank, and 1,3 Kg/bed/day in Gaza; with a whole of about 472,9 tons / month in both Gaza
and west bank from all associations, 374,9 tons in west bank and 98,0 tons in Gaza” [15] .
Medical wastes contains big amounts of dangerous transferable elements of microbes and quick
spread dangerous viruses on humans, this may cause mutations and up normality’s for human beings in
surrounding areas. Hence being effected by viruses e.g. aids virus or liver cirrhosis
are the most dangerous and counted viruses and these may transfer either by not meant traffic accidents
which are caused by direct contacts “itch or injury” with defected medical wastes.
Also liquid medical wastes include dangerous chemical mixtures and heavy elements e.g. mercury; this
will affect the various environmental elements such as soil and water. [15]
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Hospital Waste
Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or
animals or in research activities in these fields or in the production or testing of biological. It may
include wastes like sharps, soiled waste, disposables, anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines,
chemical wastes, etc. These are in the form of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human
excreta, etc. [11]
This waste is highly infectious and can be a serious threat to human health if not managed in a
scientific and discriminate manner. It has been roughly estimated that of the 4 kg of waste generated in a
hospital at least 1 kg would be infected. [11]
Surveys carried out by various agencies show that the health care establishments are don’t care
to their waste management. After the notification of the medical Waste (Handling and Management)
Rules, 1998, these establishments are slowly streamlining the process of waste segregation, collection,
treatment, and disposal. Many of the larger hospitals have either installed the treatment facilities or are
in the process of doing so. [12]
In this project we will use the solid waste from the neighboring hospitals (Al-Sheikh Zayed
Hospital, Ramallah Hospital, Al-Bahraini Hospital and Al Kuwaiti specialized Hospital).
glass
10%
metal paper
10% 30%
food
10%
hazardious plastic
waste 30%
10%
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Classification of hospital waste
(1) General waste: Largely composed of domestic or house hold type waste. It is non-hazardous to
human beings, e.g. kitchen waste, packaging material, paper, and plastics.
(2) Pathological waste: Consists of tissue, organ, body part, human foetuses, blood and body fluid. It is
hazardous waste.
(3) Infectious waste: The wastes which contain pathogens in sufficient concentration or quantity that
could cause diseases. It is hazardous e.g. culture and stocks of infectious agents from
laboratories, waste from surgery, waste originating from infectious patients.
(4) Sharps: Waste materials which could cause the person handling it, a cut or puncture of skin e.g.
needles, broken glass, saws, nail, blades, and scalpels.
(5) Pharmaceutical waste: This includes pharmaceutical products, drugs, and chemicals that have been
returned from wards, have been spilled, are outdated, or contaminated.
(6) Chemical waste: This comprises discarded solid, liquid and gaseous chemicals e.g. cleaning,
housekeeping, and disinfecting product.
(7) Radioactive waste: It includes solid, liquid, and gaseous waste that is contaminated with
radionuclide’s generated from in-vitro analysis of body tissues and fluid, in-vivo body
organ imaging and tumour localization and therapeutic procedures.
1. Segregation of waste
The waste was segregated separately, according to its characteristics, at the point of generation,
mainly from the patient care areas. The hospital used color bags and sharp boxes for easy identification
and segregation of medical solid waste. Non-infectious and domestic type of waste was collected in
black bags, placed in bins while the highly infectious and hazardous wastes was collected in red, yellow
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color-coded bags placed within bags labeled with an infectious waste that can be treated with
incinerator, the sharp wastes collected in the sharp boxes.
Both types of waste were collected twice a day, once in the morning before 8 am and once in
the evening before 6 pm. However, the waste from the Intensive Care Units (ICU) was collected more
often, depending on the number of operations and cases attended in any particular day.
2. Packaging:
“Infectious waste was packaged to: (i) protect waste handlers and the public from possible
injury and disease that could result from exposure to the waste and (ii) avoid attraction to rodents and
vermin. The integrity of packaging was preserved during handling, storage, transportation and treatment.
Objects that are capable of puncturing or cutting including syringes with needles, scalpels, blades,
pipettes and broken glass, were put in puncture-proof containers. The needle tips were first destroyed by
shredding. Later, these materials were disinfected prior to incineration by soaking them for a period of at
least 30 min in a freshly prepared 1% hypochlorite solution before discarding them in the bins”.[15]
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3. Collection and Transportation
The collection of infectious and non-infectious wastes was undertaken by two teams of two
members each, one for pulling the cart and distributing empty bags and the other member for sealing the
bags, putting the bags into the cart and replacing the bins with bags. The staff was aware of the potential
hazards of the material they were handling and were found to take requisite protective measures. They
wore impervious gloves and masks during collection of infectious waste, segregation of various color-
coded containers and transporting waste in the designated cart, taking adequate precaution to prevent
any spillage from the plastic bags. [15]
4. Final disposal
“Non-infectious waste need not be treated. Medical solid waste comprising: (i) human
anatomical waste, (ii) microbial and biotechnology waste, (iii) sharps, (iv) soiled waste, (v) discarded
medicines and cytotoxic drugs were collected in red and yellow color- coded bags and disposed of in an
incinerator. The local municipal authorities transported the segregated non-hazardous general waste
collected in black bags every other day for suitable disposal”. [15]
You have to get rid of these wastes in far places without missing their hazardous effect on
the environment.
Emissions from hospital waste incinerators are of a major concern. The rates of the emissions
depend on the waste feed where the pollutant generating material is removed. The emission rates can
also be reduced by properly operating the incinerator and also by implementing the appropriate APCD.
The common types of emission include particulate matter, toxic metals, toxic organics, carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen chloride (HCl), sulfur dioxide (SO 2), and nitrous oxides (NOx).
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The following flow chart shows the steps of managing the medical waste in general
Medical Waste
Packaging Packaging
84
(3-4-1)Incineration of hospital wastes
Particularly in underdeveloped countries, there is a huge concern about the disposal of infectious
waste generates by hospitals due to the fear of the spread of viruses and exposure to the toxic metals and
organics. Incineration is still the best way to dispose of medical wastes in many countries around the
world. Some of the benefits provided by incinerating medical wastes are the sterilization of pathogenic
wastes and the reduction of volume by 90 percent to reduce handling and transportation of the wastes,
onsite treatment plants are a viable option.
Incineration may sound as a viable option for many of the waste problems, but it isn’t without
some cost. An incinerator has to remain above 800C for a complete combustion of medical waste and to
reducing the risk of exposure of infectious wastes. Hospital incinerators emit various numbers of
pollutants and viruses. So it is not only important but also necessary to include an air pollution control
device for the incinerators.
85
Incinerator Equipment and Operation:
To illustrate the operation of an incinerator we will make a selection for one to put it in the
hospital. It is important to note that whilst every medical waste incinerator differs, the basic components
of each incinerator are similar in concept and operation.
The function of the incinerator loader is to permit the introduction of waste materials directly
into the incinerator primary chamber.
Primary Chamber
The stepped hearth primary chamber consists of 3 stationary hearths on which the waste burns.
Each hearth is equipped with an ash pusher for the purposes of pushing the burning materials
and ash from the hearth; as this waste is pushed through the incinerator it progressively burns to produce
a mixture of volatiles and ash. Each zone of the hearth is equipped with a combustion air supply.
The final stage of the stepped hearth incinerator is the burnout hearth. It is on this hearth, that the
carbonaceous matter generated in the controlled air environment is contacted with excess air to burnout
the carbon to an acceptable level.
Controlled air biomedical waste incinerators are designed to operate under reducing conditions,
conditions that are well suited for combustion of clinical waste due to its volatility and high energy
content. Reducing conditions involve using less than the stoichiometric quantity of combustion air
necessary for complete combustion in the primary chamber. By starving the process of air the volatile
components of the waste are gasified.
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The combustible gases produced can be considered to be a fuel and are mixed with air to be
completely combusted in the secondary chamber after ignition by a gas burner in the ignition zone. This
process reduces the need for high quantities of auxiliary fuel and minimizes the incombustible
particulate carryover from the primary chamber to the secondary chamber and subsequently to
atmosphere or the air pollution control plant.
Ash Pushers
The primary combustion chamber is equipped with three hydraulically operated ash pushers,
designated 1, 2 and 3, which are used to transfer burning waste through the incinerator. The ash pushers
are operated in sequence at the start of every load cycle. The pushers are of a refractory lined steel
construction, with de-mountable cast alloy steel nose support plates, and are normally retracted but
operate by sliding directly on a cast abrasion resistant section of the hearth.
Figure (3-19)” medical waste incinerator Combustion zones-Primary and secondary stages “[16]
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Hazardous Waste
Different types of hazardous wastes are generated at health care facilities. Xylene, methanol, and
acetone are frequently used solvents. Other chemicals include toluene, chloroform, methylene chloride,
trichloroethylene, ethanol, isopropanol, ethylene acetate, and acetonitrile.
Formaldehyde wastes (Formalin solutions) are found in pathology, autopsy, dialysis, nursing
units, emergency room, and surgery, among others. Chemotherapy wastes (e.g., Chlorambucil, Cytoxin,
Daunomycin, etc.) account for a large volume of hazardous waste in some hospitals.
Note that a few states specifically require incineration for chemotherapy waste. Other hazardous
wastes include photographic chemicals used in radiology, disinfecting solutions (e.g., glutaraldehyde),
and maintenance and utility wastes in facility engineering. Mercury is a problem found in many
facilities.
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(3-4-2) Non-incinerating hospital wastes:
10%
glass
10%
hazardious waste 10%
metal
70%
incenerating
waste
Health care workers should be aware of how regulated medical waste is defined in their state and
institution and any specific requirements pertaining to their disposal.
Some countries explicitly include cultures and stocks from research and industrial laboratories or
from the production of biological. Several states may regulate only contaminated sharps, while others
include unused sharps. Others include chemical waste, such as chemotherapy waste or waste
contaminated with pharmaceutical compounds, as part of regulated medical waste. Some regulations
include a provision allowing a state authority to designate additional categories not previously
considered.
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(3-4-3)Heating value measurements and economical analysis for incineration
"The heating value or calorific value of a substance, usually a fuel or food, is the amount of
heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it. The calorific value is a characteristic for
each substance. It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance, usually mass, such as:
kcal/kg, kJ/kg, J/mol, Btu/m³." [4]
Heating value of substances can be measured by calorimeter; the figure below shows the
structure of a typical calorimeter.
After preparing the sample to be tested in the calorimeter, the sample is fixed in the cup inside
the bomb which is merged inside the water, the fire wire will burn because of electrical source, all the
sample inside the cup will fully burned ,the heating value will appear on digital screen .the principal of
the calorimeter depends on the temperature difference between the initial and final states (before and
after the combustion)according the equation below
Where
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E: process heating power (kJ)
As has been discussed before, the incinerated materials of hospital wastes are about 70% of total
hospital waste includes food (10%), paper (30%) and plastic (30%).heating values of these materials are
detailed in the following table
Table (3-13):-“Percentage of incinerated materials of hospital waste and their heating values”
H.V=[% 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑥𝐻. 𝑉𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 + % 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑥𝐻. 𝑉𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑑 + % 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑥𝐻. 𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐]
According to the draft master plan for health care waste management the average quantity of
solid waste generated per bed per day equals 1.26kg/bed/day. Number of beds in Al –Kuwaiti hospital
=100 bed
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 100 𝑏𝑒𝑑
Q=19801 𝑘𝑔 𝑥1.26 𝑏𝑒𝑑 .𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑥 24 𝑟𝑥60 𝑚𝑛𝑡 .𝑥60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 . = 28.87𝑘𝑊
This heat will be used for the purpose of steam generating for sterilization
92
Such hospital needs a steam boiler of 65 kW this will cause us to use the apparent hospitals wastes to be
incinerated to compensate for our base case hospital where Al-Bahraini hospital consists of 100 bed and
Al-Sheikh Zayed about 50 beds. Then the total power that can be generated is equal to
𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒃𝒆𝒅𝒙𝟐𝟖𝟖.𝟕𝟔𝑾
Q medical waste = = 72.19𝑘𝑊
𝒃𝒆𝒅
Economical analysis
100,000 -5,600=94400$
Annual saving =annual fuel cost of steam boiler – annual fuel cost of incinerator
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
Payback period = =6 .5 years
𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
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(3-5)Improved Case Equipment Selection
(3-5-1)Chiller Selection:
We have a 68 kW saving energy in cooling case so we want to select a new chiller consistent
with the new load to achieve the goals of saving, so the new chiller is: AIR-COOLED LIQUID
CHILLER Module and the selection was based on the Carrier Products Catalogue, the following data
was obtained.
1. The chiller used was selected to be an Air-Cooled because it can handle the large load we had.
2. 30 GK series
3. The load required for the cooling coil was found to be 229kW
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(3-5-2)Air Handling Unit selection (AHU):
Because of the reducing of the load due to the improvements that we did, which results in saving
by 68 kW in cooling and 33 kW in heating the capacities of the AHU’s differs, so we should make a
new selection for a new load, so the new AHU’s are :
We selected a 39CD/CX/CH Central Station Air Handling Units Module and the selection
was based on the Carrier Products Catalogue, the following data was obtained.
Heating and cooling coils mounted on slide tracks for easy removal.
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(3-5-3)Boiler selection:
We have a 33 kW saving energy in heating case, so we want to select a new boiler consistent with
the new load to achieve the goals of saving, so the new boiler is:
With a range capacity (210-250) kW, so it covered our load which are 250 kW.
1. Technical data :
Number of sections = 8
Weight = 920 Kg
Efficiency = 93 %
The boiler required to cover the load is selected from the CHAPPEE NXR 3, this type belong to the
new range of cast iron sectional boilers. It has been designed to operate on oil or gas fuel.
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(3-5-4) Pumps Selection
In order to select any pump, two main properties should be taken into consideration:
1. Total Head loss which is the sum of all pressure drops across equipments and the head loss due to
friction, which differs from base case because of reducing the load, so we want to calculate a new
head for the pumps.
2. The flow rate, which also differs because of the same reason above.
Here we assume that: V =2 m/s, Є for steel pipe = 0.000046, ρ water = 1000 kg/ m3
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hm = 3.46+ 0.66+ 0.66+ 0.66 = 5.43m
We added 3m to the head of the pump to compensate any losses in the AHU or any other
losses.
Tsupply = 7 oC
Treturn = 12 oC
Where:
98
Hot Water Pump:
The same procedure followed in chilled water pump we found the following:
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hm = 1.83+ 0.66+ 0.66+ 0.66= 3.81m
Tsupply = 80 oC
Treturn = 60 oC
Where:
100
(3-5-5)Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors
ηO = Conversion Factor=(0.83)
For various ambient and insolation; efficiency will vary depending on these variables as seen from the
listed table:
(kcal/m2
(C°) (kW) (kJ/day) 2
ηcol (kJ/m2 day)
(kJ/m day) day)
η col = 83%
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The useful heat get from the collector given by the following equation:
E col .use = η col × I
Where:
In May:
E col .use = 0.83 ×24840 = 20617.2 (kJ/m2 day).
Collectors area could be found by dividing the total heat by the useful from
the collector;
A = Q tot / E col .use
At May:
A = (54×3600×16)/ 20617.2 = 122.51m2
Number of collectors needed = A/3.228
Number of collectors =38
Collector area must be large enough to cover the load without the aid of
auxiliary system in the sunny days, but the optimum collector's area must meet the
economical requirements.
Knowing the collector area and the unit price, the collector cost could be found.
Where:
𝑖
𝐹𝐶𝑅 = 𝑖 + +𝑡+𝑗 (3-6)
(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1
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Where:
t = annual taxes = 0
This cost is calculated for different values of collector's area as shown below,
The breakeven point could be obtained from the figures and it shows the
optimum collectors area and its cost. Above this point the addition of solar
collectors will not be justified economically. As the collectors solar energy is
more expensive than fuel cost.
103
104