Fractional Distillation

The various components of crude oil have different sizes, weights and boiling temperatures; so, the first
step is to separate these components. Because they have different boiling temperatures, they can be
separated easily by a process called fractional distillation. The steps of fractional distillation are as
follows:

Process:

 You heat the mixture of two or more substances (liquids) with different boiling points to a high
temperature. Heating is usually done with high pressure steam to temperatures of about 1112
degrees Fahrenheit / 600 degrees Celsius.
 The mixture boils, forming vapor (gases); most substances go into the vapor phase.
 The vapor enters the bottom of a long column (fractional distillation column) that is filled with
trays or plates. The trays have many holes or bubble caps (like a loosened cap on a soda bottle)
in them to allow the vapor to pass through. They increase the contact time between the vapor
and the liquids in the column and help to collect liquids that form at various heights in the
column. There is a temperature difference across the column (hot at the bottom, cool at the
top).
 The vapor rises in the column.
 As the vapor rises through the trays in the column, it cools.
 When a substance in the vapor reaches a height where the temperature of the column is equal
to that substance's boiling point, it will condense to form a liquid. (The substance with the
lowest boiling point will condense at the highest point in the column; substances with higher
boiling points will condense lower in the column.).
 The trays collect the various liquid fractions.
 The collected liquid fractions may pass to condensers, which cool them further, and then go to
storage tanks, or they may go to other areas for further chemical processing

Fractional distillation is useful for separating a mixture of substances with narrow differences in boiling
points, and is the most important step in the refining process.

Biological molecules
 The structure of living organisms is made up of gradual levels. These levels begin with the systems,
then the organs, tissues, cells and organelles. If we follow up this structural sequence of living organisms,
we will find that the cells of any living organism are made up of organic and inorganic molecules, and
each of these molecules is made up of atoms.

Inorganic molecules in living organisms, such as water and salts, often do not contain carbon atoms,
while organic molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are large molecules
containing carbon and hydrogen and are known as biological macromolecules.

Biological macromolecules are large-sized organic compounds made up of smaller molecules. All these
compounds contain the carbon element and they are vital for the life of living organisms. Most biological
macromolecules are called polymers. Polymers are made up of a combination of smaller molecules
called monomers as a result of a process called polymerization.

Biological macromolecules are divided into four groups according to their molecular structures and the
functions they perform:

1. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are biological macromolecules made up of smaller molecules called monomers.

Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and fibers. They are symbolized by the formula (CH2O)n.
According to this formula, carbohydrates are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms
in the ratio 1:2:1.

Carbohydrates are considered the fastest and most basic way for obtaining energy. Carbohydrates are
used for storing energy in living organisms’ bodies until they require it. Plants store carbohydrates in the
form of starches but they are stored in human and animal bodies in the form of glycogen in the liver and
muscles.

Carbohydrates are a basic component for some parts of a cell, such as cellulose in the root of plant cells.
Carbohydrates are also found in cell membranes and in the protoplasm of a cell.

2. Lipids

Lipids are biological macromolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Lipids are also
made up of a large group of heterogeneous compounds such as fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids and
derived lipids such as steroids. All these compounds are insoluble in water, but they dissolve in non-polar
solvents such as benzene and carbon tetrachloride.

Although carbohydrates are a rapid resource of energy, the energy obtained from lipids is greater than
the energy obtained from the same amount of carbohydrates. The body does not automatically get
energy from the fats stored in it, only when there is an absence of carbohydrates.

Lipids represent about 5% of the organic materials involved in the composition of a living cell. Lipids also
have an important role in the structure of cell membranes.
Furthermore, lipids work as a thermal insulator in animals and human, meaning organisms can maintain
their temperatures in cold regions and harsh environments. Lipids also work as a protective cover for the
surfaces of several plants and animals, and some of them can work as hormones.

3. Proteins

Proteins represent the structural composition of all living organisms. All living organisms – from the
biggest animal to the smallest microscopic organisms – are mainly made up of proteins. Proteins
contribute to the biochemical processes that preserve life.

Proteins are involved in the structure and functions of living cells. They are one of the basic components
of cellular membranes. In addition, proteins form the muscles, ligaments, tendons, organs, glands, nails,
hair and a lot of the vital fluids of the body, such as blood and lymph that are necessary for bone growth.
Furthermore, enzymes and hormones which stimulate and regulate all the vital processes in the body
are proteins. Proteins are a basic component of chromosomes.

4. Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are biological macromolecules containing oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus. There are two types of nucleic acids: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). Nucleic acids are made up of basic units called nucleotides which bind together by covalent
bonds to form a polynucleotide or the nucleic acid.

Nucleic acids are carried on the chromosomes inside the cell nucleus. They are responsible for passing
on the genetic traits from one generation to another when cells divide. DNA carries the genetic
information responsible for the distinctive characteristics of a living organism and it organizes all the vital
activities of the cell.

On the other hand, RNA is transcribed from the nucleic acid DNA. It transfers into the cytoplasm to be
used by the cell to synthesize the proteins responsible for genetic traits, and those responsible for
organizing the vital activities

5. Adenosine triphosphate

Adenosine triphosphate, also known as ATP, is a molecule that carries energy within cells. It is the main
energy currency of the cell, and it is an end product of the processes of photophosphorylation (adding a
phosphate group to a molecule using energy from light), cellular respiration, and fermentatio