Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
LEADERSHIP
CONTENTS
Introduction 1
Trait Theories 2
Leaders and Non–Leaders 2
Effective and Ineffective Leaders 2
The Behavioural Approach to Leadership 3
Leadership Functions 3
Leadership Styles 3
The Ohio State and University of Michigan Studies 5
Employee–Centred Leadership and TQM 6
The Managerial Grid 6
Contingency Approaches to Leadership 8
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model 8
Leadership Style and the Work Situation: the Fiedler Model 11
A Path–Goal Approach to Leadership 13
the Vroom–Yetton and Vroom–Jago Models 14
The Kouzes–Posner Behavioural Approach: Dynamic Engagement Again 18
References and Further Reading 19
INTRODUCTION
Management and leadership are different. Management is concerned with control, whereas
leadership is concerned with change. The word for management comes from maneggore, the
French/Italian word for the ring in the circus outside the big top where horses are trained to do
tricks. A variation of this word is still used at riding schools. The word for leadership comes
from a Greek word meaning journey. It retains this sense of taking people on a journey —
change.
Fundamentally, there are three sets of theories that seek to explain leadership:
n Trait theories, which start with the premise that leaders are born, not made i.e. it is
what they have that counts, their traits.
n Style, or Behavioural theories, which state that it is the way that the leader behaves
that is important in making the distinction between a good leader and a bad leader.
n Contingency theories, which state that the correct style of leadership depends upon
the situation the leader finds him/herself in. Contingency means “depends upon”.
1
LEADERSHIP
TRAIT THEORIES
The first systematic effort by psychologists and other researchers to understand leadership
was the attempt to identify the personal characteristics of leaders. This approach assumed
that leaders share certain inborn personality traits. This view — that leaders are born, not
made — is still popular among laypersons, though not among professional researchers.
In searching for measurable leadership traits, researchers have taken two approaches: (1)
comparing the traits of those who have emerged as leaders with the traits of those who have
not; and (2) comparing the traits of effective leaders with those of ineffective leaders.
Leaders and Non–Leaders
Most studies on leadership traits have fallen into the first category. However, they have
largely failed to uncover any traits that clearly and consistently distinguish leaders from
followers. It is true that leaders as a group have been found to be brighter, physically fitter,
more extroverted, more self–confident and come from a higher social class than non–leaders.
They also tend to be either slightly taller or much shorter than average. But although millions
of people have these traits, most of them will never attain leadership positions. It is also
possible that individuals become more assertive and self–confident once they occupy a
leadership position, so some of the traits identified may be the results of leadership
experience rather than the causes of leadership ability. Although personality measurements
may one day become exact enough to isolate leadership traits, the evidence thus far
suggests that people who emerge as leaders possess no single constellation of traits that
clearly distinguishes them from non–leaders.
The issue is also clouded by the question of cultural bias. For example, tallness has long
been associated with higher social classes. Does this mean that tallness is a leadership trait?
Or does it just reflect our culture’s inclination to seek its leaders from among the ranks of the
higher echelons of society? Our assumptions about leadership traits may well change as
increasing numbers of women, minorities, gays, and disabled people assume leadership
positions.
Effective and Ineffective Leaders
Attempts to compare the characteristics of effective and ineffective leaders — the second
category of leadership trait studies — are more recent and fewer in number, but they, too,
have generally failed to isolate traits strongly associated with successful leadership. One
study did find that intelligence, initiative, and self–assurance were associated with high
managerial levels and performance. However, this study also found that the single most
important factor related to managerial level and performance was the manager’s supervisory
ability — that is, his or her skill in using supervisory methods appropriate to the particular
situation. Most other studies in this area also have found that effective leadership does not
2
LEADERSHIP
depend on a particular set of traits, but rather on how well the leader’s traits match the
requirements of the situation.
Some researchers have also found that although women are still less likely than men to
emerge as leaders, they are just as effective when they do. Even though an increasing
number of people believe in equality of ability and opportunity, persistent, often unconscious,
sexual stereotyping continues to hamper the recognition of women as potential leaders.
Women who do become leaders, however, not only perform as well as male leaders
according to objective measures, but also are generally perceived as equally effective by their
employees. Anita Roddick of The Body Shop is one early example of a woman who is a
successful leader in business, as was Margaret Thatcher in politics. The numbers are
increasing rapidly.
THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
When it became evident that effective leaders did not seem to Transactional leaders: Leaders who
have a particular set of distinguishing traits, researchers tried determine what subordinates need to
do to achieve objectives, classify those
to isolate the behaviours characteristic of effective leaders. In requirements, and help subordinates
other words, rather than try to figure out who effective leaders become confident they can reach their
are, researchers tried to determine what effective leaders do objectives.
Leadership Functions
Researchers exploring leadership functions came to the conclusion that to operate
effectively groups need someone to perform two major functions: task–related or problem–
solving functions and group–maintenance or social functions. Group maintenance functions
include such actions as mediating disputes and ensuring that individuals feel valued by the
group.
An individual who is able to perform both roles successfully would be an especially effective
leader. In practice, however, a leader may have the skill or temperament or time to play only
one role. This does not mean that the group is doomed, though. Studies have found that most
effective groups have some form of shared leadership: one person (usually the manager or
formal leader) performs the task function, while another member performs the social function.
Leadership Styles
The two leadership functions — task–related and group–maintenance — tend to be
expressed in two different leadership styles. Managers who have a task–oriented style closely
3
LEADERSHIP
supervise employees to be sure the task is performed satisfactorily. Getting the job done is
given more emphasis than employees’ growth or personal satisfaction. Managers with an
employee–oriented style put more emphasis on motivating rather than controlling
subordinates. They seek friendly, trusting, and respectful relationships with employees, who
are often allowed to participate in decisions that affect them. Most managers use at least a
little of each style, but put more emphasis on either tasks or employees.
Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt were among the first theorists to describe the
various factors thought to influence a manager’s choice of leadership style. While they
personally favoured the employee–centred style, they suggested that a manager consider
three sets of “forces” before choosing a leadership style: forces in the manager, forces in
employees (whom they call subordinates), and forces in the situation.
BossCentred SubordinateCentred
Leadership Leadership
Use of Authority
by the Manager
Area of Freedom
for Subordinates
Figure 1 — Continuum of Leadership Behaviour
How a manager leads will undoubtedly be primarily influenced by his or her background,
knowledge, values, and experience (forces in the manager). For example, a manager who
believes that the needs of the individual must come second to the needs of the organisation is
likely to take a very directive role in employees’ activities (see Figure 1).
But characteristics of subordinates must also be considered before managers can choose an
appropriate leadership style. According to Tannenbaum and Schmidt, a manager can allow
greater participation and freedom when employees crave independence and freedom of
action, want to have decision–making responsibility, identify with the organisation’s goals, are
knowledgeable and experienced enough to deal with a problem efficiently and have
experiences that lead them to expect participative management. Where these conditions are
absent, managers might need initially to adopt a more authoritarian style. They can, however,
4
LEADERSHIP
modify their leadership behaviour as employees gain in selfconfidence, skill, and
organisational commitment.
Finally, a manager’s choice of leadership style must address such situational forces as the
organisation’s preferred style, the size and cohesiveness of a specific work group, the nature
of the group’s tasks, the pressures of time, and even environmental factors — all of which
may affect organisation members’ attitudes toward authority. Most managers, for example,
lean toward the leadership style favoured by the organisation’s top ranking executives.
The Ohio State and University of Michigan Studies
Tannenbaum and Schmidt, along with other early researchers, thought leadership style was a
“zero–sum” game: The more task–oriented a manager, the less relationship–oriented he or
she could be. Subsequent research was undertaken to determine which of these two
leadership styles produces the most effective group performance.
(High)
Low Structure High Structure
and and
High Consideration High Consideration
CONSIDERATION
Low Structure High Structure
and and
Low Consideration Low Consideration
(Low)
(Low) (High)
INITIATING STRUCTURE
Figure 2 — Leadership styles studied at Ohio State
At Ohio State University, researchers studied the effectiveness of what they called “initiating
structure” (task–oriented) and “consideration” (employee–oriented) leadership behaviours.
They found, as might be expected, that employee turnover rates were lowest and employee
satisfaction highest under leaders who were rated high in consideration. Conversely, leaders
who were rated low in consideration and high in initiating structure had high grievance and
turnover rates among their employees. Figure 2 diagrams the leadership styles studied at
Ohio State. Interestingly, the researchers also found that employees’ ratings of their leaders’
5
LEADERSHIP
effectiveness depended not so much on the particular style of the leader as on the situation in
which the style was used. For example, Air Force commanders who rated high on
consideration were rated as less effective than task–oriented commanders. It is possible that
the more authoritarian environment of the military, coupled with the air crews’ belief that
quick, hard decisions are essential in combat situations, caused people–oriented leaders to
be rated less effective. On the other hand, non–production supervisors and managers in large
companies were rated more effective if they ranked high in consideration.
Leadership expectations differ globally as well, even in the military. In 1956 the Egyptian army
was routed by the much smaller Israeli army, even though the Egyptians were better
equipped and far better positioned geographically. An analysis of the confrontation revealed
that the Israeli army was built on what might be called Theory Y values: Soldiers were treated
and taught to treat others humanely, hierarchy played a greatly reduced role, cross–
communications flourished, co–ordination was high, and intra–organisational rivalries were at
a minimum. Because all were working for the end goals, the job of the high command was
leadership, not direction.
Researchers at the University of Michigan found a different result. They distinguished
between production–centred and employee–centred managers. Production–centred
managers set rigid work standards, organised tasks down to the last detail, prescribed work
methods to be followed, and closely supervised employees’ work. Employee–centred
managers encouraged employee participation in goal setting and other work decisions and
helped ensure high performance by inspiring trust and respect. The Michigan studies found
that the most productive work groups tended to have leaders who were employee–centred
rather than production–centred. They also found that the most effective leaders had
supportive relationships with their employees, tended to depend on group rather than
individual decision making, and encouraged employees to set and achieve high performance
goals.
Employee–Centred Leadership and TQM
Some aspects of the movement toward quality are in concert with the employee–centred
leadership style. For example, under TQM managers’ priorities are reordered: Their decision–
making and control functions contract while their roles as coaches expand. As the distinction
between “those who think” and “those that do” is blurred, the job itself becomes less
specialised both horizontally and vertically. For instance, shop–floor teams become involved
with teams from other departments and units in communication and co–ordination of work.
The Managerial Grid
One conclusion from the Ohio State and Michigan studies is that leadership style might not be
uni–dimensional. Both task orientation and employee orientation are not only possible, but
could be crucial to superior performance. The Managerial Grid, developed by Robert Blake
6
LEADERSHIP
and Jane Mouton to help measure a manager’s relative concern for people and tasks, reflects
this bi–dimensional nature of leadership.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 3 — The Leadership Grid
The Managerial Grid (republished as the Leadership Grid figure in 1991 by Robert R. Blake
and Anne Adams McCanse) identifies a range of management behaviours based on the
various ways that task–oriented and employee–oriented styles (each expressed as a
continuum on a scale of 1 to 9) can interact with each other (see Figure 3). Thus, Style 1,1
management, at the lower left–hand corner of the grid, is impoverished management — low
concern for people and low concern for tasks or production. This style is sometimes called
laissezfaire management because the leader does not take a leadership role. Style 1,9
management is country club management — high concern for employees but low concern for
production. Its opposite, Style 9,1 management, is task or authoritarian management — high
concern for production and efficiency but low concern for employees. Style 5,5 is middle–of–
the–road management — an intermediate amount of concern for both production and
employee satisfaction.
Style 9,9 is called team or democratic management — a high concern for both production and
employee morale and satisfaction. The presence of this category contrasts with the earlier
assumption that leaders had to have one orientation or the other. Blake and Mouton argue
strongly that Style 9,9 is the most effective management style. They believe this leadership
approach will, in almost all situations, result in improved performance, low absenteeism and
turnover, and high employee satisfaction. The Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid is widely
used as a training device for managers.
7
LEADERSHIP
CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
Researchers using the trait and behavioural approaches showed that effective leadership
depended on many variables, such as organisational culture and the nature of tasks. No one
trait was common to all effective leaders. No one style was effective in all situations.
Researchers therefore began trying to identify those factors in each situation that influenced
the effectiveness of a particular leadership style. Taken together, the theories resulting from
this research constitute the contingency approach to leadership. These theories focus on the
following factors:
n Task requirements
n Peers’ expectations and behaviour
n Employees’ characteristics, expectations, and behaviour
n Organisational culture and policies
In the sections that follow, we will review four of the more recent and well–known contingency
models of leadership.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
One of the major contingency approaches to leadership is Paul Hersey and Kenneth H.
Blanchard’s situational leadership model, which holds that the most effective leadership
style varies with the “readiness” of employees. Hersey and Blanchard define readiness as
desire for achievement, willingness to accept responsibility, and task–related ability, skill, and
experience. The goals and knowledge of followers are important variables in determining
effective leadership style.
8
LEADERSHIP
LEADER BEHAVIOUR
(High)
High Relationship High Task
and and
Low Task High Relationship
3 2
Low Relationship High Task
and and
Low Task Low Relationship
4 1
(Low)
(Low) (High)
TASK BEHAVIOUR
(Providing Guidance)
Figure 4 — The Situational Model of Leadership
Hersey and Blanchard believe that the relationship between a manager and follower moves
through four phases as employees develop, and managers need to vary their leadership style
(see Figure 4). In the initial phase of readiness high amounts of task behaviour by the
manager is most appropriate. Employees must be instructed in their tasks and familiarised
with the organisation’s rules and procedures. A non–directive manager would cause anxiety
and confusion in new followers. A participatory, high relationship behaviour approach would
also be inappropriate at this stage because the follower requires structure.
As followers begin to learn their tasks, task–behaviour remains essential because they are
not yet able to function without the structure. However, the leader’s trust in and support of
employees increases as the leader becomes familiar with them and wishes to encourage
further efforts on their part. Thus, the leader needs to increase relationship behaviour.
In the third phase, employees have more ability and achievement motivation begins to
surface and they actively begin to seek greater responsibility. The leader will no longer need
to be as directive (indeed, close direction might be resented).
However, the leader will still have to be supportive and considerate in order to strengthen the
followers’ resolve for greater responsibility.
As followers gradually become more confident, self–directing, and experienced, the leader
can reduce the amount of support and encouragement. In this fourth phase, followers no
longer need or expect direction from their manager. They are increasingly on their own.
You may be more familiar with the model as it is represented in Figure 5 below.
9
LEADERSHIP
LEADER BEHAVIOUR
(High)
SUPPORTING COACHING
Leader Leader
share ideas and facilitate explain ideas and
decisionmaking provide opportunity
for clarification
Follower Follower
able but unwilling or unable and unwilling:
insecure insecure
Leader Leader
turn over responsibility provide specific
for decisions and instructions and closely
implementation supervise perfromance
Follower Follower
able and willing or unable but willing
confident or confident
DELEGATING DIRECTING
(Low)
(Low) (High)
DIRECTIVE BEHAVIOUR
Figure 5 — Blanchard's model of Situational Leadership
The situational leadership model has generated interest because it recommends a leadership
type that is dynamic and flexible rather than static. The motivation, ability, and experience of
followers must constantly be assessed to determine which style combination is most
appropriate under flexible and changing conditions. If the style is appropriate, according to
Hersey and Blanchard, it will not only motivate employees but will also help them develop
professionally. Thus, the leader who wants to develop followers, increase their confidence,
and help them learn their work will have to shift style constantly.
Yet a practical question remains: To what extent are managers actually able to choose
among leadership styles in different situations? This issue is important because it affects
management selection, placement, and promotion. If managers are flexible in leadership
style, or if they can be trained to vary their style, presumably they will be effective in a variety
of leadership situations. If, on the other hand, managers are relatively inflexible in leadership
style, they will operate effectively only in those situations that best match their style or that
can be adjusted to match their style. Such inflexibility would hamper the careers of individual
managers: and complicate the organisation’s task of filling its management positions
effectively This leads us to the next contingency model.
10
LEADERSHIP
Leadership Style and the Work Situation: the Fiedler Model
One of the most thoroughly researched contingency models was developed by Fred E.
Fiedler. Fiedler’s basic assumption is that it is quite difficult for managers to alter the
management styles that made them successful. In fact, Fiedler believes, most managers are
not very flexible, and trying to change a manager’s style to fit unpredictable or fluctuating
situations is inefficient or useless. Since styles are relatively inflexible, and since no one style
is appropriate for every situation, effective group performance can only be achieved by
matching the manager to the situation or by changing the situation to fit the manager. For
example, a comparatively authoritarian manager can be selected to fill a post that requires a
directive leader, or a job can be changed to give an authoritarian manager more formal
authority over employees.
The leadership styles that Fiedler contrasts are similar to the employee–centred and task–
oriented styles we discussed earlier. What differentiates his model from the others is the
measuring instrument he used. Fiedler measured leadership style on a scale that indicated
“the degree to which a man described favorably or unfavorably his least preferred co–
worker (LPC)” — the employee with whom the person could work least well. This measure
locates an individual on the leadership–style continuum. According to Fiedler’s findings, “a
person who describes his least preferred co–worker in a relatively favorable manner tends to
be permissive, human relations–oriented, and considerate of the feelings of his men. But a
person who describes his least preferred co–worker in an unfavorable manner — who has
what we have come to call a low LPC rating — tends to be managing, task–controlling, and
less concerned with the human relations aspects of the job.” According to Fiedler, then, high–
LPC managers want to have warm personal relations: with their co–workers and will regard
close ties with employees as important to their overall effectiveness. Low–LPC managers, on
the other hand, want to get the job done. The reactions of employees to their leadership style
is of far lower priority than the need to maintain production. Low–LPC managers who feel that
a harsh style is necessary to maintain production will not hesitate to use it.
Fiedler has identified three “leadership situations” or variables that help determine which
leadership style will be effective: leader–member relations, the task structure, and the leader’s
position power. (Fiedler’s studies did not include such other situational variables as employee
motivation and the values and experiences of leaders and group members.)
The quality of leader–member relations is the most important influence on the manager’s
power and effectiveness. If the manager gets along well with the rest of the group, if group
members respect the manager for reasons of personality, character, or ability, then the
manager might not have to rely on formal rank or authority. On the other hand, a manager
who is disliked or distrusted may be less able to lead informally and could have to rely on
directives to accomplish group tasks.
11
LEADERSHIP
Task structure is the second most important variable in the leadership situation. A highly
structured task is one for which step–by–step procedures or instructions are available. Group
members therefore have a very clear idea of what they are expected to do. But when tasks
are unstructured, as in committee meetings and many research and development tasks,
group member roles are more ambiguous.
The leader’s position power is the final situational variable identified by Fiedler. Some
positions, such as the presidency of a firm, carry a great deal of power and authority. The
chairperson of a fund–raising drive, on the other hand, has little power over volunteer
workers. Thus, high–position power simplifies the leader’s task of influencing others, while
low–position power makes the leader’s task more difficult.
Fiedler then went on to specify eight possible combinations of these three variables: in the
leadership situation: Leader–member relations can be good or poor, tasks may be structured
or unstructured, and position power may be strong or weak (see Figure 6).
High
Relationship
motivated leaders
perform better
LPC
Taskmotivated
leaders perform
better
Low
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Leader Position
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
Power
Figure 6 — How the style of effective leadership varies with the situation
Using these eight categories of leadership situations and his two types of leaders — high–
LPC and low–LPC — Fiedler reviewed studies of over 800 groups to see which type of leader
was most effective in each situation. Among the groups he studied were basketball teams,
executive training workshops, and Air Force and tank combat crews. A well–liked leader of a
bomber crew, for example, would be in category 1 of Figure 6, while a disliked temporary
committee chairperson would be in category 8. He found that low–LPC leaders — those who
were task–oriented or authoritarian — were most effective in extreme situations: situations in
12
LEADERSHIP
which the leader either had a great deal of power and influence or had very little power and
influence. High–LPC leaders — those who were employee–oriented — were most effective in
situations where the leader had moderate power and influence.
Fiedler’s model, then, suggests that an appropriate match of the leader’s style (as measured
by the LPC score) to the situation (as determined by the interaction of these three variables)
leads to effective managerial performance. His model has been used with some success as
the basis of a training programme in which managers are shown how to alter the situational
variables to match their leadership styles rather than their styles to fit the situation.
A Path–Goal Approach to Leadership
Like other contingency approaches, the path–goal model of leadership tries to help us
understand and predict leadership effectiveness in different situations. The model was
formulated by Martin G. Evans and Robert J. House.
The pathgoal approach is based on the expectancy model of motivation, which states that an
individual’s motivation depends on his or her expectation of reward and the valence, or
attractiveness of the reward. Although managers have a number of ways to influence
employees, Evans notes, the most important is their ability to provide rewards and to specify
what employees must do to earn them. Thus, managers determine the availability of “goals”
(rewards) and the “paths“ that will earn them.
Evans suggests that a manager’s leadership style influences the rewards available to
employees, as well as employees’ perceptions of the path to those rewards. An employee–
centred manager, for example, will offer not only pay and promotion, but also support,
encouragement, security, and respect. That type of manager will also be sensitive to
differences between employees and will tailor rewards to the individual. A task–oriented
manager, on the other hand, will offer a narrower, less individualised set of rewards, but will
usually be much better at linking employee performance to rewards than an employee
centred manager. Employees of a task–oriented manager will know exactly what productivity
or performance level they must attain to get bonuses, salary increases, or promotions. Evans
believes that the leadership style most effective in motivating employees depends on the
types of rewards they most desire.
House and his colleagues have tried to expand the path–goal theory by identifying two
variables that help determine the most effective leadership style: the personal characteristics
of employees and the environmental pressures and demands in the workplace with which
employees must cope.
Personal Characteristics of Employees
The leadership style employees prefer will be, according to House, partially determined by
their personal characteristics. He cites studies suggesting that individuals who believe their
behaviour affects the environment favour a participatory leadership style, while those who
13
LEADERSHIP
believe events occur because of luck or fate tend to find an authoritarian style more
congenial.
Employees’ evaluations of their own ability will also influence their style preference. Those
who feel highly skilled and capable may resent an overly supervisory manager, whose
directives will be seen as counterproductive rather than helpful. On the other hand,
employees who feel less skilled may prefer a more directive manager, who will be seen as
enabling them to carry out their tasks properly and earn organisational rewards.
Environmental Pressures and Workplace Demands
Environmental factors also affect the leadership styles preferred by employees. One such
factor is the nature of the employees’ tasks. For example, an overly directive style may seem
redundant and even insulting for a highly structured task. If a task is unpleasant, however, a
manager’s consideration may add to the employee’s satisfaction and motivation. Another
factor is the organisation’s formal authority system, which clarifies which actions are likely to
be met with approval (coming in under budget, say) and which with disapproval (coming in
over budget). A third environmental factor is the employees’ work group. Groups that are not
very cohesive, for example, usually benefit from a supportive, understanding style. As a
general rule, a leader’s style will motivate employees to the extent that it compensates them
for what they see as deficiencies in the task, authority system, or work group.
At New Hope Communications, a publishing company based in Boulder, Colorado, CEO
Doug Greene faced a problem attracting the types of leaders his company needed. He
observed, “We knew we needed better thinking and leadership, but couldn’t afford it.”" Greene
dealt with the problem by introducing a flexible employment approach he called “part–time”
leadership. Part–time leadership allows smaller, growing companies to attract the kind of
talent often associated with larger, more–established companies. Drawing talent from other
geographic regions, it enables employees to contribute to the company without having to
relocate. For example, Ron Moyer, former circulation director for Institutional Investor is now
responsible for New Hope’s circulation strategy and planning — part–ime. Though he does
not live in Colorado, he and Greene are in constant communication through e–mail. “By being
involved in separate entities, these people can bring more to the table.... They are leaders,”
Greene asserted, “with the kind of involvement that goes with it.”
Deciding when to involve subordinates: the Vroom–Yetton and Vroom–Jago Models
Victor Vroom has been involved for many years in research, teaching and consulting on the
psychological analysis of behaviour in organisations. A Canadian by birth, he has been at
McGill University, a number of US universities and is currently Searle Professor of
Organisation and Management, and Professor of Psychology at Yale University. His interests
in the effects of personality on participation in decision–making began early and his doctoral
dissertation on this topic won him the Ford Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Competition in
14
LEADERSHIP
I959. He has also won the McKinsey Foundation Research Design Competition and the J. M.
Cattel award of the American Psychological Association.
Vroom’s dissertation corroborated previous findings that participation in decision–making has
positive effects on attitudes and motivation. But in addition it showed that the size of these
effects was a function of certain personality characteristics of the participants. Authoritarians
and persons with weak independence needs are unaffected by the opportunity to participate;
whereas equalitarians and those with strong independence needs develop more positive
attitudes and greater motivation for effective performance through participation. The study did
point out that there are a number of different processes related to participation which might be
affected differently.
Much more recently Vroom (in collaboration with P.W. Yetton and A.G. Jago) has explored in
much greater depth the processes of management decision–making and the variations in
subordinate participation which can come about. Possible decision processes which a
manager might use in dealing with an issue affecting a group of subordinates are as follows
(though there are some variations if the issue concerns one subordinate only):
Al You solve the problem or make the decision yourself, using information available to
you at that time.
AII You obtain the necessary information from your subordinate(s), then decide on the
solution to the problem yourself. You may or may not tell your subordinates what the problem
is when getting the information from them. The role played by your subordinates in making
the decision is clearly one of providing necessary information to you, rather than generating or
evaluating alternative solutions.
CI You share the problem with relevant subordinates individually, getting their ideas and
suggestions without bringing them together as a group. Then you make the decisions that
may or may not reflect your subordinates’ influence.
CII You share the problem with your subordinates as a group, collectively obtaining their
ideas and suggestions. Then you make the decision that may or may not reflect your
subordinates’ influence.
GII You share the problem with your subordinates as a group. Together you generate
and evaluate alternatives and attempt to reach agreement (consensus) on a solution. Your
role is much like that of chairman. You do not try to influence the group to adopt ‘your’
solution and you are willing to accept and implement any solution that has the support of the
entire group.
Processes AI and AII are designated autocratic processes, CI and CII consultative processes,
and GII is a group process. (GI applies to single subordinate issues.) Having identified these
processes Vroom and Yetton’s research programme then proceeded to answer two basic
questions:
15
LEADERSHIP
1 What decisionmaking processes should managers use to deal effectively with the
problems they encounter in their jobs? This is a normative or prescriptive question.
To answer it would require setting up a logical ‘model’ with a series of steps or
procedures by which managers could rationally determine which was the most
effective process to inaugurate.
2 What decision–making processes do managers use in dealing with their problems
and what factors affect their choice of processes and degree of subordinate
participation? This is a descriptive question, and the answer is important in
delineating how far away from a rational approach managers are in their decision–
making. We could then ask what activities of training or development could lead
managers to a more effective decision–making style.
It is in their answer to the first question that Vroom and his collaborators have made a most
distinctive contribution. They have developed a detailed normative model of decision–making
processes based on rational principles consistent with existing evidence on the
consequences of participation for organisational effectiveness. They begin by distinguishing
three classes of consequences which influence decision effectiveness:
1 The quality or rationality of the decision — clearly a process which jeopardised this
would be ineffective.
2 The acceptance or commitment on the part of the subordinates to execute the
decision effectively — if this commitment is necessary then processes which do not
generate it even though they give a high quality decision would be ineffective.
3 The amount of time required to make the decision — a decision process which took
less time, if it were equally effective, would normally be preferable to one which took
longer.
These consequences generate a set of rules for the model that may then be applied to the
characteristics of a manager’s problem under consideration. The model will then indicate
which of the decision processes is appropriate to the particular case. The model can be
expressed in the form of a decision tree, as shown in Figure 7. In the Decision Model, the
problem characteristics are presented as questions. The manager starts at the left–hand side
and moves to the right along the path determined by the answer to the question above each
box. At the final point of the line the model shows which of the decision processes should be
used to reach, in the least time, a quality decision which will be found acceptable.
16
LEADERSHIP
A B C D E F G
1AI 2AI
No Yes
Yes
No
3GII
4AI 5AI
No Yes
Yes 6GII
Yes 7CII
No Yes
No
No
Yes No No
Yes Yes 8CI
Yes Yes
No No 9AII
10AII
11CII
No Yes
Yes Yes 12GII
No
No No
14CII 13CII
Figure 7 — Decision Model from Vroom and Yetton
As will be seen from the Decision Model, all decision processes (autocratic, consultative,
group) are applicable in some circumstances and how often each should be used will depend
on the type of decisions that the manager has to take. The normative model requires that all
managers, if they are to be rational and effective, have to be able to operate across the whole
range. In later work Vroom and Jago have elaborated the model to give greater discrimination
among options and thus allow more detailed and more effective targeting of the decision
process to the manager’s problem. They have also made the more elaborate model available
for use via a computer program.
The research undertaken by Vroom and his collaborators to answer their second question —
how do managers actually behave? — is based on two methods. In the first, many managers
were asked to recall decision problems and how they tackled them in terms of the questions
of the Decision Model. The second method involved many managers assessing a set of
standardised problem descriptions and giving their preferred solutions.
The most striking finding of these descriptive studies was that, while there were certainly
average differences between managers in their use of various decision processes, these
were small in comparison with the range of processes used by any individual manager. No
managers indicated that they would use the same process on all decisions and most used all
five of the decision processes above under some circumstances. ‘It makes more sense to talk
about participative and autocratic situations than it does to talk about participative and
autocratic managers.’
17
LEADERSHIP
The descriptive research also enabled a comparison of what managers do (or say they would
do) and what the model would designate as rational behaviour. On average, a ‘typical’
manager was found to use the same decision process as that required by the Decision Model
in 40 per cent of the situations. In a further quarter of the situations they used a process which
is called ‘feasible’ in that it satisfied the constraints of the model on protecting decision quality
and acceptability, but it would not be the least time–consuming. Only in about one third of the
situations did the typical manager initiate a process which would risk quality or acceptability.
In addition it was found that the constraints necessary to achieve acceptability were much
more frequently ignored than those necessary to achieve quality.
Vroom has designed a leadership development programme based on his normative model
which will enable managers to analyse their own decision processes against that of the model
and see where they depart from the rational constraints for effective decision–making. The
model proposes far greater variation for each problem situation than the typical manager
exhibits. Using the model as a basis for making decisions would require such a manager to
become both more autocratic and more participative according to the problem.
The Kouzes–Posner Behavioural Approach: Dynamic Engagement Again
Writing in the spirit that we call “dynamic engagement,” James Kouzes and Barry Posner
have opened up a new line of inquiry in leadership research by going back to basics and
trying to catalogue five fundamental practices and ten behaviours that leaders use to get
“extraordinary things done.” They asked leaders to describe themselves when they were at
their best, and they asked employees to list the characteristics they admired most in leaders.
Figure 2 shows that these five categories of practices and behaviours are similar to others
described in this chapter.
Their research is based on interviews and questionnaires with over 500 middle and senior
managers, and the importance of their findings is that they demystify the research on
leadership by appealing directly to the experiences of leaders. They argue that these five
categories and ten behaviours can be learned by most people. 1
OTHER LEADERSHIP TOPICS
These are outside the scope of this course, but there are many other topics in leadership
which are attracting much attention. If you want to read more, try searching on Wikipedia
using the following search terms:
1
A similar approach, very popular in many management development programs, has been followed by
Steven Covey. He has identified ten key leadership traits and discusses them in detail in two very
popular books: The Ten Habits of Highly Effective People and Principle–Centered Leadership.
18
LEADERSHIP
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Adair, J. (1983). Effective Leadership, Gower.
Barnard, C. I. (1938), The Functions of the Executive, Harvard University Press.
Bennis, W (1989). On Becoming a Leader, Random House: London
Blake, R., and Mouton, J. (1964), The Managerial Grid, Gulf.
Blanchard, K, Zigarmi, P, Zigarmi, D (1986). Leadership and the One Minute Manager,
Fontana: London.
Cummings, L. L., and Scott, W. E. (1969), Readings in Organizational Theory and Human
Performance, Irwin & Dorsey.
Fiedler, F. E. (1965). 'Engineer the job to fit the manager'. Harvard Business Review, vol. 43.
Fiedler, F. E. (1967), A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, McGrawHill.
George, N., and Von der Embse, T. T. (1971),'Six Propositions for Managerial Leadership',
Business Horizons.
Ghiselli, E. E. (1963), 'Managerial Talent', Amer. Psychol.,October.
Guest, R. A. (1962), Organizational Change: The Effect of Successful Leadership, Irwin &
Dorsey.
Hersey, Paul and Blanchard, Kenneth H. Management of Organisational Behaviour: Utilising
Human Resources, 3rd Edition (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Prentice–Hall Inc., 1977).
Hofstede, G. (1984), Culture's Consequences (Abridged Edition). Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (1980), 'Motivation, Leadership and Organization: Do American Theories Apply
Abroad?’ Organizational Dynamics, Summer.
Hollander, E. P. (1964), Leaders, Groups and Influence. Oxford.
Huneryager, S. G., and Heckmann. I. L. (eds.) (1967), Human Relations in Management.
Arnold.
Hunt, J. (1981), Managing People at Work, Pan.
Likert, R. (1961), New Patterns of Management, McGraw–Hill.
MacCoby, M. (1981), The Leader, Simon & Schuster.
McGregor, D. V. (1960), The Human Side of Enterprise, McGraw–Hill.
MacGregor Burns, J. (1978), Leadership. Harper & Row.
Mant, A. (1983), Leaders We Deserve. Martin Robertson.
Mitchell, T. R., et al. (1970),'The contingency model', Academy of Management Journal, 13.
19
LEADERSHIP
Nias, J. (1980), 'Leadership Styles and Job–Satisfaction in Primary Schools', in Bush, T.,
Glatter, R., et al. (eds.), Approaches to School Management, Harper & Row.
Peters, T. J., and Waterman, R. H. (1982), In Search of Excellence, Harper & Row.
Rackham, N., Honey, P., and Colbert, M. (1971), Developing Interactive Skills, Wellens
Publishing.
Schein, E. (1980), Organizational Psychology, 3rd Edition, Prentice–Hall.
Stogdill, R. M., and Shartle, C. L. (1956), Patterns of Administrative Behaviour, Ohio State
University.
Tannenbaum, R., and Schmidt, W. (1958), 'How to Choose a Leadership Pattern', Harvard
Business Review, March–April.
Vroom, V.H., Some Personality Determinants of the Effects of Participation, PrenticeHall,
I960
Vroom, V. H., and Deci, E. L. (eds.) (1970), Management and Motivation, Penguin.
Vroom, V.H., and Yetton, P.W., Leadership and DecisionMaking, University of Pittsburgh
Press, I973
Wald, R. M.. and Doty, R. A. (1954),'The Top Executive — A First Hand Profile', Harvard
Business Review, vol. 32, no. 4.
20