Sine

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For other uses, see Sine (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with sign or sign (mathematics).
Sine
Sine one period.svg
Basic features
Parity odd
Domain (-8, +8)?a
Codomain [-1, 1]?a
Period 2p

Specific values
At zero 0
Maxima (2kp +
p
/
2
, 1)b
Minima (2kp -
p
/
2
, -1)

Specific features
Root kp
Critical point kp +
p
/
2
Inflection point kp
Fixed point 0

a For real numbers.

b Variable k is an integer.
Trigonometry
Sinus und Kosinus am Einheitskreis 1.svg
OutlineHistoryUsage
Functions (inverse)Generalized trigonometry
Reference
IdentitiesExact constantsTablesUnit circle
Laws and theorems
SinesCosinesTangentsCotangents
Pythagorean theorem
Calculus
Trigonometric substitutionIntegrals (inverse functions)Derivatives
vte
In mathematics, the sine is a trigonometric function of an angle. The sine of an
acute angle is defined in the context of a right triangle: for the specified angle,
it is the ratio of the length of the side that is opposite that angle to the length
of the longest side of the triangle (the hypotenuse).

More generally, the definition of sine (and other trigonometric functions) can be
extended to any real value in terms of the length of a certain line segment in a
unit circle. More modern definitions express the sine as an infinite series or as
the solution of certain differential equations, allowing their extension to
arbitrary positive and negative values and even to complex numbers.

The sine function is commonly used to model periodic phenomena such as sound and
light waves, the position and velocity of harmonic oscillators, sunlight intensity
and day length, and average temperature variations throughout the year.

The function sine can be traced to the jya and ko?i-jya functions used in Gupta
period Indian astronomy (Aryabhatiya, Surya Siddhanta), via translation from
Sanskrit to Arabic and then from Arabic to Latin.[1] The word "sine" (Latin
"sinus") comes from a Latin mistranslation by Robert of Chester of the Arabic jiba,
which is a transliteration of the Sanskrit word for half the chord, jya-ardha.[2]

Contents
1 Right-angled triangle definition
2 Unit circle definition
3 Identities
3.1 Reciprocal
3.2 Inverse
3.3 Calculus
3.4 Other trigonometric functions
3.5 Sine squared function
4 Properties relating to the quadrants
5 Series definition
5.1 Continued fraction
6 Fixed point
7 Arc length
8 Law of sines
9 Special values
10 Relationship to complex numbers
10.1 Sine with a complex argument
10.1.1 Partial fraction and product expansions of complex sine
10.1.2 Usage of complex sine
10.2 Complex graphs
11 History
11.1 Etymology
12 Software implementations
12.1 Turns based implementations
13 See also
14 Citations
15 References
16 External links
Right-angled triangle definition

For the angle a, the sine function gives the ratio of the length of the opposite
side to the length of the hypotenuse.
To define the sine function of an acute angle a, start with a right triangle that
contains an angle of measure a; in the accompanying figure, angle A in triangle ABC
is the angle of interest. The three sides of the triangle are named as follows:

The opposite side is the side opposite to the angle of interest, in this case side
a.
The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle, in this case side h. The
hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right-angled triangle.
The adjacent side is the remaining side, in this case side b. It forms a side of
(is adjacent to) both the angle of interest (angle A) and the right angle.
Once such a triangle is chosen, the sine of the angle is equal to the length of the
opposite side divided by the length of the hypotenuse, or:
{\displaystyle \sin(\alpha )={\frac {\textrm {opposite}}{\textrm {hypotenuse}}}}
{\displaystyle \sin(\alpha )={\frac {\textrm {opposite}}{\textrm {hypotenuse}}}}
The other trigonometric functions of the angle can be defined similarly; for
example, the cosine of the angle is the ratio between the adjacent side and the
hypotenuse, while the tangent gives the ratio between the opposite and adjacent
sides.

As stated, the value {\displaystyle \sin(\alpha )}\sin(\alpha ) appears to depend

on the choice of right triangle containing an angle of measure a. However, this is
not the case: all such triangles are similar, and so the ratio is the same for each
of them.

Unit circle definition

Unit circle: the radius has length 1. The variable t measures the angle referred to
as ? in the text.
In trigonometry, a unit circle is the circle of radius one centered at the origin
(0, 0) in the Cartesian coordinate system.

Let a line through the origin, making an angle of ? with the positive half of the
x-axis, intersect the unit circle. The x- and y-coordinates of this point of
intersection are equal to cos(?) and sin(?), respectively. The point's distance
from the origin is always 1.

Unlike the definitions with the right triangle or slope, the angle can be extended
to the full set of real arguments by using the unit circle. This can also be
achieved by requiring certain symmetries and that sine be a periodic function.

Animation showing how the sine function (in red) {\displaystyle

y=\sin(\theta )}y=\sin(\theta ) is graphed from the y-coordinate (red dot) of a
point on the unit circle (in green) at an angle of ?.

Identities
Main article: List of trigonometric identities
Exact identities (using radians):

These apply for all values of {\displaystyle \theta }\theta .

{\displaystyle \sin(\theta )=\cos \left({\frac {\pi }{2}}-\theta \right)={\frac {1}

{\csc(\theta )}}}{\displaystyle \sin(\theta )=\cos \left({\frac {\pi }
{2}}-\theta \right)={\frac {1}{\csc(\theta )}}}
Reciprocal
The reciprocal of sine is cosecant, i.e., the reciprocal of sin(A) is csc(A), or
cosec(A). Cosecant gives the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of
the opposite side:

{\displaystyle \csc(A)={\frac {1}{\sin(A)}}={\frac {\textrm {hypotenuse}}{\textrm

{opposite}}}={\frac {h}{a}}.}\csc(A)={\frac {1}{\sin(A)}}={\frac {\textrm
{hypotenuse}}{\textrm {opposite}}}={\frac {h}{a}}.
Inverse

The usual principal values of the arcsin(x) function graphed on the cartesian
plane. Arcsin is the inverse of sin.
The inverse function of sine is arcsine (arcsin or asin) or inverse sine (sin-1).
As sine is non-injective, it is not an exact inverse function but a partial inverse
function. For example, sin(0) = 0, but also sin(p) = 0, sin(2p) = 0 etc. It follows
that the arcsine function is multivalued: arcsin(0) = 0, but also arcsin(0) = p,
arcsin(0) = 2p, etc. When only one value is desired, the function may be restricted
to its principal branch. With this restriction, for each x in the domain the
expression arcsin(x) will evaluate only to a single value, called its principal
value.

{\displaystyle \theta =\arcsin \left({\frac {\text{opposite}}

{\text{hypotenuse}}}\right)=\sin ^{-1}\left({\frac {a}{h}}\right).}\theta
=\arcsin \left({\frac {\text{opposite}}{\text{hypotenuse}}}\right)=\sin ^{-
1}\left({\frac {a}{h}}\right).
k is some integer:

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin(y)=x\iff &y=\arcsin(x)+2\pi k,

{\text{ or }}\\&y=\pi -\arcsin(x)+2\pi k\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle
{\begin{aligned}\sin(y)=x\iff &y=\arcsin(x)+2\pi k,{\text{ or }}\\&y=\pi
-\arcsin(x)+2\pi k\end{aligned}}}
Or in one equation:

{\displaystyle \sin(y)=x\iff y=(-1)^{k}\arcsin(x)+\pi k}{\displaystyle

\sin(y)=x\iff y=(-1)^{k}\arcsin(x)+\pi k}
Arcsin satisfies:

{\displaystyle \sin(\arcsin(x))=x\!}\sin(\arcsin(x))=x\!
and

{\displaystyle \arcsin(\sin(\theta ))=\theta \quad {\text{for }}-{\frac {\pi }

{2}}\leq \theta \leq {\frac {\pi }{2}}.}\arcsin(\sin(\theta ))=\theta \quad
{\text{for }}-{\frac {\pi }{2}}\leq \theta \leq {\frac {\pi }{2}}.
Calculus
See also: List of integrals of trigonometric functions and Differentiation of
trigonometric functions
For the sine function:

{\displaystyle f(x)=\sin(x)}{\displaystyle f(x)=\sin(x)}

The derivative is:

{\displaystyle f'(x)=\cos(x)}{\displaystyle f'(x)=\cos(x)}

The antiderivative is:

{\displaystyle \int f(x)\,dx=-\cos(x)+C}{\displaystyle \int f(x)\,dx=-\cos(x)+C}

C denotes the constant of integration.

Other trigonometric functions

The sine and cosine functions are related in multiple ways. The two functions are
out of phase by 90�: {\displaystyle \sin(\pi /2-x)}\sin(\pi /2-x) =
{\displaystyle \cos(x)}\cos(x) for all angles x. Also, the derivative of the
function sin(x) is cos(x).
It is possible to express any trigonometric function in terms of any other (up to a
plus or minus sign, or using the sign function).

Sine in terms of the other common trigonometric functions:

f ? Using plus/minus (�) Using sign function (sgn)

f ? = � per Quadrant f ? =
I II III IV
cos {\displaystyle \sin(\theta )}\sin(\theta ) {\displaystyle =\pm {\sqrt
{1-\cos ^{2}(\theta )}}}=\pm {\sqrt {1-\cos ^{2}(\theta )}}+ + - -
{\displaystyle =\operatorname {sgn} \left(\cos \left(\theta -{\frac {\pi }
{2}}\right)\right){\sqrt {1-\cos ^{2}(\theta )}}}=\operatorname {sgn} \left(\cos
\left(\theta -{\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)\right){\sqrt {1-\cos ^{2}(\theta )}}
{\displaystyle \cos(\theta )}\cos(\theta ) {\displaystyle =\pm {\sqrt {1-\sin
^{2}(\theta )}}}=\pm {\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}} + - - +
{\displaystyle =\operatorname {sgn} \left(\sin \left(\theta +{\frac {\pi }
{2}}\right)\right){\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}}=\operatorname {sgn} \left(\sin
\left(\theta +{\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)\right){\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}
cot {\displaystyle \sin(\theta )}\sin(\theta ) {\displaystyle =\pm {\frac
{1}{\sqrt {1+\cot ^{2}(\theta )}}}}=\pm {\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+\cot ^{2}(\theta )}}}
+ + - - {\displaystyle =\operatorname {sgn} \left(\cot
\left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)\right){\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+\cot ^{2}
(\theta )}}}}=\operatorname {sgn} \left(\cot \left({\frac {\theta }
{2}}\right)\right){\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+\cot ^{2}(\theta )}}}
{\displaystyle \cot(\theta )}\cot(\theta ) {\displaystyle =\pm {\frac {\sqrt
{1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}{\sin(\theta )}}}=\pm {\frac {\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}
{\sin(\theta )}} + - - + {\displaystyle =\operatorname {sgn}
\left(\sin \left(\theta +{\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)\right){\frac {\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}
(\theta )}}{\sin(\theta )}}}=\operatorname {sgn} \left(\sin \left(\theta +{\frac
{\pi }{2}}\right)\right){\frac {\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}{\sin(\theta )}}
tan {\displaystyle \sin(\theta )}\sin(\theta ) {\displaystyle =\pm {\frac
{\tan(\theta )}{\sqrt {1+\tan ^{2}(\theta )}}}}=\pm {\frac {\tan(\theta )}{\sqrt
{1+\tan ^{2}(\theta )}}} + - - + {\displaystyle =\operatorname
{sgn} \left(\tan \left({\frac {2\theta +\pi }{4}}\right)\right){\frac
{\tan(\theta )}{\sqrt {1+\tan ^{2}(\theta )}}}}=\operatorname {sgn} \left(\tan
\left({\frac {2\theta +\pi }{4}}\right)\right){\frac {\tan(\theta )}{\sqrt {1+\tan
^{2}(\theta )}}}
{\displaystyle \tan(\theta )}\tan(\theta ) {\displaystyle =\pm {\frac
{\sin(\theta )}{\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}}}=\pm {\frac {\sin(\theta )}{\sqrt
{1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}} + - - + {\displaystyle =\operatorname
{sgn} \left(\sin \left(\theta +{\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)\right){\frac
{\sin(\theta )}{\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}}}=\operatorname {sgn} \left(\sin
\left(\theta +{\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)\right){\frac {\sin(\theta )}{\sqrt {1-\sin
^{2}(\theta )}}}
sec {\displaystyle \sin(\theta )}\sin(\theta ) {\displaystyle =\pm {\frac
{\sqrt {\sec ^{2}(\theta )-1}}{\sec(\theta )}}}=\pm {\frac {\sqrt {\sec ^{2}(\theta
)-1}}{\sec(\theta )}} + - + - {\displaystyle =\operatorname {sgn}
\left(\sec \left({\frac {4\theta -\pi }{2}}\right)\right){\frac {\sqrt {\sec ^{2}
(\theta )-1}}{\sec(\theta )}}}=\operatorname {sgn} \left(\sec \left({\frac {4\theta
-\pi }{2}}\right)\right){\frac {\sqrt {\sec ^{2}(\theta )-1}}{\sec(\theta )}}
{\displaystyle \sec(\theta )}\sec(\theta ) {\displaystyle =\pm {\frac {1}
{\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}}}=\pm {\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}}
+ - - + {\displaystyle =\operatorname {sgn} \left(\sin
\left(\theta +{\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)\right){\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}
(\theta )}}}}=\operatorname {sgn} \left(\sin \left(\theta +{\frac {\pi }
{2}}\right)\right){\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta )}}}
For all equations which use plus/minus (�), the result is positive for angles in
the first quadrant.

The basic relationship between the sine and the cosine can also be expressed as the
Pythagorean trigonometric identity:

{\displaystyle \cos ^{2}(\theta )+\sin ^{2}(\theta )=1\!}\cos ^{2}(\theta )+\sin

^{2}(\theta )=1\!
where sin2(x) means (sin(x))2.

Sine squared function

Sine function in blue and sine squared function in red. The Y axis is in radians.
The graph shows both the sine function and the sine squared function, with the sine
in blue and sine squared in red. Both graphs have the same shape, but with
different ranges of values, and different periods. Sine squared has only positive
values, but twice the number of periods.

The sine squared function can be expressed as a modified sine wave from the
Pythagorean identity and power reduction by the cosine double-angle formula:[3]

{\displaystyle \sin ^{2}(\theta )\ ={\frac {1-\sin(2\theta +{\tfrac {\pi }{2}})}

{2}}\ }{\displaystyle \sin ^{2}(\theta )\ ={\frac {1-\sin(2\theta +{\tfrac {\pi }
{2}})}{2}}\ }
Properties relating to the quadrants

The four quadrants of a Cartesian coordinate system.

The table below displays many of the key properties of the sine function (sign,
monotonicity, convexity), arranged by the quadrant of the argument. For arguments
outside those in the table, one may compute the corresponding information by using
the periodicity {\displaystyle \sin(\alpha +360^{\circ })=\sin(\alpha )}\sin(\alpha
+360^{\circ })=\sin(\alpha ) of the sine function.

Quadrant Degrees Radians Value Sign Monotony Convexity

1st Quadrant {\displaystyle 0^{\circ }<x<90^{\circ }}0^{\circ }<x<90^{\circ }
{\displaystyle 0<x<{\frac {\pi }{2}}}0<x<{\frac {\pi }{2}} {\displaystyle
0<\sin(x)<1}0<\sin(x)<1 {\displaystyle +}+ increasing concave
2nd Quadrant {\displaystyle 90^{\circ }<x<180^{\circ }}90^{\circ }
<x<180^{\circ } {\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{2}}<x<\pi }{\frac {\pi }{2}}<x<\pi
{\displaystyle 0<\sin(x)<1}0<\sin(x)<1 {\displaystyle +}+ decreasing
concave
3rd Quadrant {\displaystyle 180^{\circ }<x<270^{\circ }}180^{\circ }
<x<270^{\circ } {\displaystyle \pi <x<{\frac {3\pi }{2}}}\pi <x<{\frac {3\pi }
{2}} {\displaystyle -1<\sin(x)<0}-1<\sin(x)<0 {\displaystyle -}- decreasing
convex
4th Quadrant {\displaystyle 270^{\circ }<x<360^{\circ }}270^{\circ }
<x<360^{\circ } {\displaystyle {\frac {3\pi }{2}}<x<2\pi }{\frac {3\pi }
{2}}<x<2\pi {\displaystyle -1<\sin(x)<0}-1<\sin(x)<0 {\displaystyle -}-
increasing convex

The quadrants of the unit circle and of sin(x), using the Cartesian coordinate
system.
The following table gives basic information at the boundary of the quadrants.

Degrees Radians {\displaystyle \sin(x)}\sin(x) Point type

{\displaystyle 0^{\circ }}0^{\circ } {\displaystyle 0}{\displaystyle 0}
{\displaystyle 0}{\displaystyle 0} Root, Inflection
{\displaystyle 90^{\circ }}90^{\circ } {\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{2}}}{\frac
{\pi }{2}} {\displaystyle 1}1 Maximum
{\displaystyle 180^{\circ }}180^{\circ } {\displaystyle \pi }\pi
{\displaystyle 0}{\displaystyle 0} Root, Inflection
{\displaystyle 270^{\circ }}270^{\circ } {\displaystyle {\frac {3\pi }{2}}}{\frac
{3\pi }{2}} {\displaystyle -1}-1 Minimum
Series definition

The sine function (blue) is closely approximated by its Taylor polynomial of degree
7 (pink) for a full cycle centered on the origin.

This animation shows how including more and more terms in the partial sum of its
Taylor series approaches a sine curve.
Using only geometry and properties of limits, it can be shown that the derivative
of sine is cosine, and that the derivative of cosine is the negative of sine.

Using the reflection from the calculated geometric derivation of the sine is with
the (4n+k)-th derivative at the point 0:
{\displaystyle \sin ^{(4n+k)}
(0)={\begin{cases}0&{\text{when }}k=0\\1&{\text{when }}k=1\\0&{\text{when }}k=2\\-
1&{\text{when }}k=3\end{cases}}}{\displaystyle \sin ^{(4n+k)}
(0)={\begin{cases}0&{\text{when }}k=0\\1&{\text{when }}k=1\\0&{\text{when }}k=2\\-
1&{\text{when }}k=3\end{cases}}}
This gives the following Taylor series expansion at x = 0. One can then use the
theory of Taylor series to show that the following identities hold for all real
numbers x (where x is the angle in radians) :[4]

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin(x)&=x-{\frac {x^{3}}{3!}}+{\frac {x^{5}}{5!}}-

{\frac {x^{7}}{7!}}+\cdots \\[8pt]&=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}
{(2n+1)!}}x^{2n+1}\\[8pt]\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin(x)&=x-
{\frac {x^{3}}{3!}}+{\frac {x^{5}}{5!}}-{\frac {x^{7}}{7!}}+\cdots \\[8pt]&=\sum
_{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{(2n+1)!}}x^{2n+1}\\[8pt]\end{aligned}}}
If x were expressed in degrees then the series would contain factors involving
powers of p/180: if x is the number of degrees, the number of radians is y = px /
180, so

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin(x_{\mathrm {deg} })&=\sin(y_{\mathrm

{rad} })\\&={\frac {\pi }{180}}x-\left({\frac {\pi }{180}}\right)^{3}{\frac {x^{3}}
{3!}}+\left({\frac {\pi }{180}}\right)^{5}{\frac {x^{5}}{5!}}-\left({\frac {\pi }
{180}}\right)^{7}{\frac {x^{7}}{7!}}+\cdots .\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle
{\begin{aligned}\sin(x_{\mathrm {deg} })&=\sin(y_{\mathrm {rad} })\\&={\frac {\pi }
{180}}x-\left({\frac {\pi }{180}}\right)^{3}{\frac {x^{3}}{3!}}+\left({\frac {\pi }
{180}}\right)^{5}{\frac {x^{5}}{5!}}-\left({\frac {\pi }{180}}\right)^{7}{\frac
{x^{7}}{7!}}+\cdots .\end{aligned}}}
The series formulas for the sine and cosine are uniquely determined, up to the
choice of unit for angles, by the requirements that

{\displaystyle
{\begin{aligned}\sin(0)=0&{\text{ and }}\sin(2x)=2\sin(x)\cos(x)\\\cos ^{2}(x)+\sin
^{2}(x)=1&{\text{ and }}\cos(2x)=\cos ^{2}(x)-\sin ^{2}(x)\\\end{aligned}}}
{\displaystyle
{\begin{aligned}\sin(0)=0&{\text{ and }}\sin(2x)=2\sin(x)\cos(x)\\\cos ^{2}(x)+\sin
^{2}(x)=1&{\text{ and }}\cos(2x)=\cos ^{2}(x)-\sin ^{2}(x)\\\end{aligned}}}
The radian is the unit that leads to the expansion with leading coefficient 1 for
the sine and is determined by the additional requirement that

{\displaystyle \sin(x)\approx x{\text{ when }}x\approx 0.}{\displaystyle

\sin(x)\approx x{\text{ when }}x\approx 0.}
The coefficients for both the sine and cosine series may therefore be derived by
substituting their expansions into the pythagorean and double angle identities,
taking the leading coefficient for the sine to be 1, and matching the remaining
coefficients.

In general, mathematically important relationships between the sine and cosine

functions and the exponential function (see, for example, Euler's formula) are
substantially simplified when angles are expressed in radians, rather than in
degrees, grads or other units. Therefore, in most branches of mathematics beyond
practical geometry, angles are generally assumed to be expressed in radians.

A similar series is Gregory's series for arctan, which is obtained by omitting the
factorials in the denominator.

Continued fraction
The sine function can also be represented as a generalized continued fraction:

{\displaystyle \sin(x)={\cfrac {x}{1+{\cfrac {x^{2}}{2\cdot 3-x^{2}+{\cfrac {2\cdot

3x^{2}}{4\cdot 5-x^{2}+{\cfrac {4\cdot 5x^{2}}{6\cdot 7-x^{2}+\ddots }}}}}}}}.}
{\displaystyle \sin(x)={\cfrac {x}{1+{\cfrac {x^{2}}{2\cdot 3-x^{2}+{\cfrac {2\cdot
3x^{2}}{4\cdot 5-x^{2}+{\cfrac {4\cdot 5x^{2}}{6\cdot 7-x^{2}+\ddots }}}}}}}}.}
The continued fraction representation can be derived from Euler's continued
fraction formula and expresses the real number values, both rational and
irrational, of the sine function.

Fixed point

The fixed point iteration xn+1 = sin(xn) with initial value x0 = 2 converges to 0.
Zero is the only real fixed point of the sine function; in other words the only
intersection of the sine function and the identity function is sin(0) = 0.

Arc length
The arc length of the sine curve between {\displaystyle a}a and {\displaystyle b}b
is {\textstyle \int _{a}^{b}\!{\sqrt {1+\cos ^{2}(x)}}\,dx}{\textstyle \int
_{a}^{b}\!{\sqrt {1+\cos ^{2}(x)}}\,dx}. This integral is an elliptic integral of
the second kind.

The arc length for a full period is {\textstyle {\frac {4{\sqrt {2\pi ^{3}}}}
{\Gamma (1/4)^{2}}}+{\frac {\Gamma (1/4)^{2}}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}=7.640395578\ldots }
{\textstyle {\frac {4{\sqrt {2\pi ^{3}}}}{\Gamma (1/4)^{2}}}+{\frac {\Gamma
(1/4)^{2}}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}=7.640395578\ldots } where {\displaystyle \Gamma }\Gamma
is the Gamma function.

The arc length of the sine curve from 0 to x is the above number divided by
{\displaystyle 2\pi }2\pi times x, plus a correction that varies periodically in x
with period {\displaystyle \pi }\pi . The Fourier series for this correction can be
written in closed form using special functions, but it is perhaps more instructive
to write the decimal approximations of the Fourier coefficients. The sine curve arc
length from 0 to x is

{\displaystyle 1.21600672x+0.10317093\sin(2x)-0.00220445\sin(4x)
+0.00012584\sin(6x)-0.00001011\sin(8x)+\cdots }{\displaystyle
1.21600672x+0.10317093\sin(2x)-0.00220445\sin(4x)+0.00012584\sin(6x)-
0.00001011\sin(8x)+\cdots }
Law of sines
Main article: Law of sines
The law of sines states that for an arbitrary triangle with sides a, b, and c and
angles opposite those sides A, B and C:

{\displaystyle {\frac {\sin A}{a}}={\frac {\sin B}{b}}={\frac {\sin C}{c}}.}{\frac

{\sin A}{a}}={\frac {\sin B}{b}}={\frac {\sin C}{c}}.
This is equivalent to the equality of the first three expressions below:

{\displaystyle {\frac {a}{\sin A}}={\frac {b}{\sin B}}={\frac {c}{\sin C}}=2R,}

{\frac {a}{\sin A}}={\frac {b}{\sin B}}={\frac {c}{\sin C}}=2R,
where R is the triangle's circumradius.

It can be proven by dividing the triangle into two right ones and using the above
definition of sine. The law of sines is useful for computing the lengths of the
unknown sides in a triangle if two angles and one side are known. This is a common
situation occurring in triangulation, a technique to determine unknown distances by
measuring two angles and an accessible enclosed distance.

Special values
See also: Exact trigonometric constants

Some common angles (?) shown on the unit circle. The angles are given in degrees
and radians, together with the corresponding intersection point on the unit circle,
(cos(?), sin(?)).
For certain integral numbers x of degrees, the value of sin(x) is particularly
simple. A table of some of these values is given below.

x (angle) sin(x)
Degrees Radians Gradians Turns Exact Decimal
0� 0 0g 0 0 0
180� p 200g
1
/
2
15�
1
/
12
p 16+
2
/
3
g
1
/
24
{\displaystyle {\frac {{\sqrt {6}}-{\sqrt {2}}}{4}}}{\frac {{\sqrt {6}}-{\sqrt
{2}}}{4}} 0.258819045102521
165�
11
/
12
p 183+
1
/
3
g
11
/
24
30�
1
/
6
p 33+
1
/
3
g
1
/
12
1
/
2
0.5
150�
5
/
6
p 166+
2
/
3
g
5
/
12
45�
1
/
4
p 50g
1
/
8
{\displaystyle {\frac {\sqrt {2}}{2}}}{\frac {\sqrt {2}}{2}} 0.707106781186548
135�
3
/
4
p 150g
3
/
8
60�
1
/
3
p 66+
2
/
3
g
1
/
6
{\displaystyle {\frac {\sqrt {3}}{2}}}{\frac {\sqrt {3}}{2}} 0.866025403784439
120�
2
/
3
p 133+
1
/
3
g
1
/
3
75�
5
/
12
p 83+
1
/
3
g
5
/
24
{\displaystyle {\frac {{\sqrt {6}}+{\sqrt {2}}}{4}}}{\frac {{\sqrt {6}}+{\sqrt
{2}}}{4}} 0.965925826289068
105�
7
/
12
p 116+
2
/
3
g
7
/
24
90�
1
/
2
p 100g
1
/
4
1 1
90 degree increments:

x in degrees 0� 90� 180� 270� 360�

x in radians 0 p/2 p 3p/2 2p
x in gons 0 100g 200g 300g 400g
x in turns 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1
sin x 0 1 0 -1 0
Other values not listed above:

{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }{60}}\right)=\sin(3^{\circ })={\frac {(2-

{\sqrt {12}}){\sqrt {5+{\sqrt {5}}}}+({\sqrt {10}}-{\sqrt {2}})({\sqrt {3}}+1)}
{16}}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }{60}}\right)=\sin(3^{\circ })={\frac
{(2-{\sqrt {12}}){\sqrt {5+{\sqrt {5}}}}+({\sqrt {10}}-{\sqrt {2}})({\sqrt {3}}+1)}
{16}}} OEIS: A019812
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }{30}}\right)=\sin(6^{\circ })={\frac {{\sqrt
{30-{\sqrt {180}}}}-{\sqrt {5}}-1}{8}}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }
{30}}\right)=\sin(6^{\circ })={\frac {{\sqrt {30-{\sqrt {180}}}}-{\sqrt {5}}-1}
{8}}} OEIS: A019815
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }{20}}\right)=\sin(9^{\circ })={\frac {{\sqrt
{10}}+{\sqrt {2}}-{\sqrt {20-{\sqrt {80}}}}}{8}}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac
{\pi }{20}}\right)=\sin(9^{\circ })={\frac {{\sqrt {10}}+{\sqrt {2}}-{\sqrt {20-
{\sqrt {80}}}}}{8}}} OEIS: A019818
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }{15}}\right)=\sin(12^{\circ })={\frac
{{\sqrt {10+{\sqrt {20}}}}+{\sqrt {3}}-{\sqrt {15}}}{8}}}{\displaystyle \sin
\left({\frac {\pi }{15}}\right)=\sin(12^{\circ })={\frac {{\sqrt {10+{\sqrt {20}}}}
+{\sqrt {3}}-{\sqrt {15}}}{8}}} OEIS: A019821
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }{10}}\right)=\sin(18^{\circ })={\frac
{{\sqrt {5}}-1}{4}}={\tfrac {1}{2}}\varphi ^{-1}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac
{\pi }{10}}\right)=\sin(18^{\circ })={\frac {{\sqrt {5}}-1}{4}}={\tfrac {1}
{2}}\varphi ^{-1}} OEIS: A019827
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {7\pi }{60}}\right)=\sin(21^{\circ })={\frac {(2+
{\sqrt {12}}){\sqrt {5-{\sqrt {5}}}}-({\sqrt {10}}+{\sqrt {2}})({\sqrt {3}}-1)}
{16}}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {7\pi }{60}}\right)=\sin(21^{\circ })={\frac
{(2+{\sqrt {12}}){\sqrt {5-{\sqrt {5}}}}-({\sqrt {10}}+{\sqrt {2}})({\sqrt {3}}-1)}
{16}}} OEIS: A019830
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }{8}}\right)=\sin(22.5^{\circ })={\frac
{\sqrt {2-{\sqrt {2}}}}{2}}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }
{8}}\right)=\sin(22.5^{\circ })={\frac {\sqrt {2-{\sqrt {2}}}}{2}}}
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {2\pi }{15}}\right)=\sin(24^{\circ })={\frac
{{\sqrt {3}}+{\sqrt {15}}-{\sqrt {10-{\sqrt {20}}}}}{8}}}{\displaystyle \sin
\left({\frac {2\pi }{15}}\right)=\sin(24^{\circ })={\frac {{\sqrt {3}}+{\sqrt
{15}}-{\sqrt {10-{\sqrt {20}}}}}{8}}} OEIS: A019833
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {3\pi }{20}}\right)=\sin(27^{\circ })={\frac
{{\sqrt {20+{\sqrt {80}}}}-{\sqrt {10}}+{\sqrt {2}}}{8}}}{\displaystyle \sin
\left({\frac {3\pi }{20}}\right)=\sin(27^{\circ })={\frac {{\sqrt {20+{\sqrt
{80}}}}-{\sqrt {10}}+{\sqrt {2}}}{8}}} OEIS: A019836
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {11\pi }{60}}\right)=\sin(33^{\circ })={\frac
{({\sqrt {12}}-2){\sqrt {5+{\sqrt {5}}}}+({\sqrt {10}}-{\sqrt {2}})({\sqrt {3}}+1)}
{16}}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {11\pi }
{60}}\right)=\sin(33^{\circ })={\frac {({\sqrt {12}}-2){\sqrt {5+{\sqrt {5}}}}+
({\sqrt {10}}-{\sqrt {2}})({\sqrt {3}}+1)}{16}}} OEIS: A019842
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }{5}}\right)=\sin(36^{\circ })={\frac {\sqrt
{10-{\sqrt {20}}}}{4}}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\pi }
{5}}\right)=\sin(36^{\circ })={\frac {\sqrt {10-{\sqrt {20}}}}{4}}} OEIS: A019845
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {13\pi }{60}}\right)=\sin(39^{\circ })={\frac {(2-
{\sqrt {12}}){\sqrt {5-{\sqrt {5}}}}+({\sqrt {10}}+{\sqrt {2}})({\sqrt {3}}+1)}
{16}}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {13\pi }
{60}}\right)=\sin(39^{\circ })={\frac {(2-{\sqrt {12}}){\sqrt {5-{\sqrt {5}}}}+
({\sqrt {10}}+{\sqrt {2}})({\sqrt {3}}+1)}{16}}} OEIS: A019848
{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {7\pi }{30}}\right)=\sin(42^{\circ })={\frac
{{\sqrt {30+{\sqrt {180}}}}-{\sqrt {5}}+1}{8}}}{\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac
{7\pi }{30}}\right)=\sin(42^{\circ })={\frac {{\sqrt {30+{\sqrt {180}}}}-{\sqrt
{5}}+1}{8}}} OEIS: A019851
Relationship to complex numbers
Main article: Trigonometric functions � Relationship to exponential function and
complex numbers

An illustration of the complex plane. The imaginary numbers are on the vertical
coordinate axis.
Sine is used to determine the imaginary part of a complex number given in polar
coordinates (r, f):

{\displaystyle z=r(\cos(\varphi )+i\sin(\varphi ))}{\displaystyle

z=r(\cos(\varphi )+i\sin(\varphi ))}
the imaginary part is:

{\displaystyle \operatorname {Im} (z)=r\sin(\varphi )}{\displaystyle \operatorname

{Im} (z)=r\sin(\varphi )}
r and f represent the magnitude and angle of the complex number respectively. i is
the imaginary unit. z is a complex number.

Although dealing with complex numbers, sine's parameter in this usage is still a
real number. Sine can also take a complex number as an argument.

Sine with a complex argument

{\displaystyle \sin(z)}\sin(z)

Domain coloring of sin(z) in the complex plane. Brightness indicates absolute

magnitude, saturation represents complex argument.

sin(z) as a vector field

{\displaystyle \sin(\theta )}\sin(\theta ) is the imaginary part of {\displaystyle
e^{i\theta }}e^{i\theta }.
The definition of the sine function for complex arguments z:

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin(z)&=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}

{(2n+1)!}}z^{2n+1}\\&={\frac {e^{iz}-e^{-iz}}{2i}}\\&={\frac {\sinh
\left(iz\right)}{i}}\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin(z)&=\sum
_{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{(2n+1)!}}z^{2n+1}\\&={\frac {e^{iz}-e^{-iz}}
{2i}}\\&={\frac {\sinh \left(iz\right)}{i}}\end{aligned}}}
where i 2 = -1, and sinh is hyperbolic sine. This is an entire function. Also, for
purely real x,

{\displaystyle \sin(x)=\operatorname {Im} (e^{ix}).}{\displaystyle

\sin(x)=\operatorname {Im} (e^{ix}).}
For purely imaginary numbers:

{\displaystyle \sin(iy)=i\sinh(y).}{\displaystyle \sin(iy)=i\sinh(y).}

It is also sometimes useful to express the complex sine function in terms of the
real and imaginary parts of its argument:

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin(x+iy)&=\sin(x)\cos(iy)
+\cos(x)\sin(iy)\\&=\sin(x)\cosh(y)+i\cos(x)\sinh(y).\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle
{\begin{aligned}\sin(x+iy)&=\sin(x)\cos(iy)+\cos(x)\sin(iy)\\&=\sin(x)\cosh(y)
+i\cos(x)\sinh(y).\end{aligned}}}
Partial fraction and product expansions of complex sine
Using the partial fraction expansion technique in complex analysis, one can find
that the infinite series

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{z-

n}}={\frac {1}{z}}-2z\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{n^{2}-
z^{2}}}\end{aligned}}}{\begin{aligned}\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}
{z-n}}={\frac {1}{z}}-2z\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{n^{2}-
z^{2}}}\end{aligned}}
both converge and are equal to {\textstyle {\frac {\pi }{\sin(\pi z)}}}{\textstyle
{\frac {\pi }{\sin(\pi z)}}}. Similarly, one can show that

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\pi ^{2}}{\sin ^{2}(\pi z)}}=\sum

_{n=-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(z-n)^{2}}}.\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle
{\begin{aligned}{\frac {\pi ^{2}}{\sin ^{2}(\pi z)}}=\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }
{\frac {1}{(z-n)^{2}}}.\end{aligned}}}
Using product expansion technique, one can derive

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin(\pi z)=\pi z\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }\left(1-

{\frac {z^{2}}{n^{2}}}\right).\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle
{\begin{aligned}\sin(\pi z)=\pi z\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }\left(1-{\frac {z^{2}}
{n^{2}}}\right).\end{aligned}}}
Alternatively, the infinite product for the sine can be proved using complex
Fourier series.

Proof of the infinite product for the sine

Usage of complex sine
sin(z) is found in the functional equation for the Gamma function,

{\displaystyle \Gamma (s)\Gamma (1-s)={\pi \over \sin(\pi s)},}{\displaystyle

\Gamma (s)\Gamma (1-s)={\pi \over \sin(\pi s)},}
which in turn is found in the functional equation for the Riemann zeta-function,

{\displaystyle \zeta (s)=2(2\pi )^{s-1}\Gamma (1-s)\sin(\pi s/2)\zeta (1-s).}\zeta

(s)=2(2\pi )^{s-1}\Gamma (1-s)\sin(\pi s/2)\zeta (1-s).
As a holomorphic function, sin z is a 2D solution of Laplace's equation:

{\displaystyle \Delta u(x_{1},x_{2})=0.}\Delta u(x_{1},x_{2})=0.

The complex sine function is also related to the level curves of pendulums.[how?]
[5][better source needed]

Complex graphs
Sine function in the complex plane
Complex sin real 01 Pengo.svg
Complex sin imag 01 Pengo.svg
Complex sin abs 01 Pengo.svg
real component imaginary component magnitude

Arcsine function in the complex plane

Complex arcsin real 01 Pengo.svg
Complex arcsin imag 01 Pengo.svg
Complex arcsin abs 01 Pengo.svg
real component imaginary component magnitude
History
Main articles: Trigonometric functions � History, and History of trigonometry
While the early study of trigonometry can be traced to antiquity, the trigonometric
functions as they are in use today were developed in the medieval period. The chord
function was discovered by Hipparchus of Nicaea (180�125 BCE) and Ptolemy of Roman
Egypt (90�165 CE).

The function of sine and versine (1 - cosine) can be traced to the jya and ko?i-jya
functions used in Gupta period (320 to 550 CE) Indian astronomy (Aryabhatiya, Surya
Siddhanta), via translation from Sanskrit to Arabic and then from Arabic to Latin.
[1]

All six trigonometric functions in current use were known in Islamic mathematics by
the 9th century, as was the law of sines, used in solving triangles.[6] With the
exception of the sine (which was adopted from Indian mathematics), the other five
modern trigonometric functions were discovered by Arabic mathematicians, including
the cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant.[6] Al-Khwarizmi (c.?780�850)
produced tables of sines, cosines and tangents.[7][8] Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Harrani
al-Battani (853�929) discovered the reciprocal functions of secant and cosecant,
and produced the first table of cosecants for each degree from 1� to 90�.[8]

The first published use of the abbreviations 'sin', 'cos', and 'tan' is by the 16th
century French mathematician Albert Girard; these were further promulgated by Euler
(see below). The Opus palatinum de triangulis of Georg Joachim Rheticus, a student
of Copernicus, was probably the first in Europe to define trigonometric functions
directly in terms of right triangles instead of circles, with tables for all six
trigonometric functions; this work was finished by Rheticus' student Valentin Otho
in 1596.

In a paper published in 1682, Leibniz proved that sin x is not an algebraic

function of x.[9] Roger Cotes computed the derivative of sine in his Harmonia
Mensurarum (1722).[10] Leonhard Euler's Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748)
was mostly responsible for establishing the analytic treatment of trigonometric
functions in Europe, also defining them as infinite series and presenting "Euler's
formula", as well as the near-modern abbreviations sin., cos., tang., cot., sec.,
and cosec.[11]

Etymology
Look up sine in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Etymologically, the word sine derives from the Sanskrit word for chord, jiva*(jya
being its more popular synonym). This was transliterated in Arabic as jiba ???,
which however is meaningless in that language and abbreviated jb ?? . Since Arabic
is written without short vowels, "jb" was interpreted as the word jaib ???, which
means "bosom". When the Arabic texts were translated in the 12th century into Latin
by Gerard of Cremona, he used the Latin equivalent for "bosom", sinus (which means
"bosom" or "bay" or "fold").[12][13] Gerard was probably not the first scholar to
use this translation; Robert of Chester appears to have preceded him and there is
evidence of even earlier usage.[14] The English form sine was introduced in the
1590s.

Software implementations
See also: Lookup table � Computing sines
The sine function, along with other trigonometric functions, is widely available
across programming languages and platforms. In computing, it is typically
abbreviated to sin.

Some CPU architectures have a built-in instruction for sine, including the Intel
x87 FPUs since the 80387.

In programming languages, sin is typically either a built-in function or found

within the language's standard math library.

For example, the C standard library defines sine functions within math.h:
sin(double), sinf(float), and sinl(long double). The parameter of each is a
floating point value, specifying the angle in radians. Each function returns the
same data type as it accepts. Many other trigonometric functions are also defined
in math.h, such as for cosine, arc sine, and hyperbolic sine (sinh).

Similarly, Python defines math.sin(x) within the built-in math module. Complex sine
functions are also available within the cmath module, e.g. cmath.sin(z). CPython's
math functions call the C math library, and use a double-precision floating-point
format.

There is no standard algorithm for calculating sine. IEEE 754-2008, the most widely
used standard for floating-point computation, does not address calculating
trigonometric functions such as sine.[15] Algorithms for calculating sine may be
balanced for such constraints as speed, accuracy, portability, or range of input
values accepted. This can lead to different results for different algorithms,
especially for special circumstances such as very large inputs, e.g. sin(1022).

A once common programming optimization, used especially in 3D graphics, was to pre-

calculate a table of sine values, for example one value per degree. This allowed
results to be looked up from a table rather than being calculated in real time.
With modern CPU architectures this method may offer no advantage.[citation needed]

The CORDIC algorithm is commonly used in scientific calculators.

Turns based implementations

Some software libraries provide implementations of sine using the input angle in
half-Turns, a half-Turn being an angle of 180 degrees or pi radians. Representing
angles in Turns or half-Turns has accuracy advantages and efficiency advantages in
some cases. [16] [17]

Environment Function name Angle units

MATLAB sinpi[18] half-Turns
OpenCL sinpi[19] half-Turns
R sinpi[20] half-Turns
Julia sinpi[21] half-Turns
CUDA sinpi[22] half-Turns
ARM sinpi[23] half-Turns
The accuracy advantage stems from the ability to perfectly represent key angles
like full-Turn, half-Turn, and quarter-Turn losslessly in binary floating-point or
fixed-point. In contrast, representing 2*pi, pi, and pi/2 in binary floating-point
or binary scaled fixed-point always involves a loss of accuracy.

Turns also have an accuracy advantage and efficiency advantage for computing modulo
to one period. Computing modulo 1 Turn or modulo 2 half-Turns can be losslessly and
efficiently computed in both floating-point and fixed-point. For example, computing
modulo 1 or modulo 2 for a binary point scaled fixed-point value requires only a
bit shift or bitwise AND operation. In contrast, computing modulo 2*pi involves
inaccuracies in representing 2*pi.

For applications involving angle sensors, the sensor typically provides angle
measurements in a form directly compatible with Turns or half-Turns. For example,
an angle sensor may count from 0 to 4096 over one complete revolution.[24] If half-
Turns are used as the unit for angle, then the value provided by the sensor
directly and losslessly maps to a fixed-point data type with 11 bits to the right
of the binary point. In contrast, if Radians are used as the unit for storing the
angle, then the inaccuracies and cost of multiplying the raw sensor integer by an
approximation to pi/2048 would be incurred.

See also
Aryabha?a's sine table
Bhaskara I's sine approximation formula
Discrete sine transform
Euler's formula
Generalized trigonometry
Hyperbolic function
Law of sines
List of periodic functions
List of trigonometric identities
Madhava series
Madhava's sine table
Optical sine theorem
Polar sine�a generalization to vertex angles
Proofs of trigonometric identities
Sinc function
Sine and cosine transforms
Sine integral
Sine quadrant
Sine wave
Sine�Gordon equation
Sinusoidal model
Trigonometric functions
Citations
Uta C. Merzbach, Carl B. Boyer (2011), A History of Mathematics, Hoboken, N.J.:
John Wiley & Sons, 3rd ed., p. 189.
Victor J. Katz (2008), A History of Mathematics, Boston: Addison-Wesley, 3rd. ed.,
p. 253, sidebar 8.1. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on
2015-04-14. Retrieved 2015-04-09.
"Sine-squared function". Retrieved August 9, 2019.
See Ahlfors, pages 43�44.
"Why are the phase portrait of the simple plane pendulum and a domain coloring of
sin(z) so similar?". math.stackexchange.com. Retrieved 2019-08-12.
Gingerich, Owen (1986). "Islamic Astronomy". Scientific American. Vol. 254. p. 74.
Archived from the original on 2013-10-19. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
Jacques Sesiano, "Islamic mathematics", p. 157, in Selin, Helaine; D'Ambrosio,
Ubiratan, eds. (2000). Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western
Mathematics. Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-0260-1.
 "trigonometry". Encyclopedia Britannica.
Nicol�s Bourbaki (1994). Elements of the History of Mathematics. Springer.
"Why the sine has a simple derivative Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback Machine",
in Historical Notes for Calculus Teachers Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback
Machine by V. Frederick Rickey Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback Machine
See Merzbach, Boyer (2011).
Eli Maor (1998), Trigonometric Delights, Princeton: Princeton University Press, p.
35-36.
Victor J. Katz (2008), A History of Mathematics, Boston: Addison-Wesley, 3rd. ed.,
p. 253, sidebar 8.1. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on
2015-04-14. Retrieved 2015-04-09.
Smith, D.E. (1958) [1925], History of Mathematics, I, Dover, p. 202, ISBN 0-486-
20429-4
Grand Challenges of Informatics, Paul Zimmermann. September 20, 2006 � p. 14/31
"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved
2010-09-11.
"MATLAB Documentation sinpi
"R Documentation sinpi
"MATLAB Documentation sinpi
"OpenCL Documentation sinpi
"R Documentation sinpi
"Julia Documentation sinpi
"CUDA Documentation sinpi
"ARM Documentation sinpi
"ALLEGRO Angle Sensor Datasheet
References
Traupman, Ph.D., John C. (1966), The New College Latin & English Dictionary,
Toronto: Bantam, ISBN 0-553-27619-0
Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary, Springfield: G. & C. Merriam Company,
1969
External links
Media related to Sine function at Wikimedia Commons
Categories: AngleTrigonometric functions
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