BSHF 101 PDF

UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE
STUDY OF HUMAN BEINGS

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Human Being at the Centre of Social Processes
1.2.1 Social Science as Reflective Critique
1.2.2 Human Being as a Creative Agent
1.2.3 Science as Empathic and Critical Reflection
1.3 Social Science Procedure
1.3.1 Understanding Human Beings in their Social Setting
1.3.2 Science as Critique of Human Conditions
1.4 Racial Differentiation and the Unity of Human Beings
1.5 Social Roots and Forms of Prejudice
1 5.1 Prejudice in Science
1 5.2 Region Prejudice
1.6 Knowledge and Society
1.6.1 Information Society
1.7 Universalities and Specificities of Culture
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit you should be able to explain:
why human beings are at the centre of all social processes and what is the procedure for the study of Social Sciences in
the social roots of human beings and various forms of prejudices
the connection between knowledge and society.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
What do the various organised branches of knowledge, be it Sociology, Political Science, Economics or any
other discipline of social sciences, have in common? It is the fact that they all have to, at some point or the
other, focus on human beings as their central theme. It is precisely this centrality of human being as a subject
that integrates various diverse studies of society, economy, polity or nature and environment, together.
Although all these disciplines follow different approaches and methodologies, they share with each other the
same concern i.e. human beings. In other words, social sciences are all about individuals in the society.
1.2 HUMAN BEING AT THE CENTRE OF SOCIAL
PROCESSES
What is it that constitutes and sustains society? Who has put society on the path of development? Who
produces food? Who has given birth to political institutions? Is not the answer, human bang, in each of these
cases? That is the reason why the human being is more and more acknowledged as the principal subject of
social and scientific investigations. No doubt there was a time when the scientists denied human beings tbeir
place in social scientific endeavours. During that time the scientists did not want to look at themselves. They
were more willing to judge others. Today, the increasing concern of the scientist (natural or social) is to
study human beings. In spite of the increasing specialisation in both natural as well social sciences, human
beings, due to the central position occupied by them, are the subjects of all studies. For example, even a
zoologist who studies animals, compares their body structure etc. with that of human beings; a botanist who
studies plants does so in relation to their utility for human beings.
1.2.1 Social Science as a Reflective Critique

Science is a systematic body of knowledge acquired through a set of procedures comprising observation,
classification, elimination, generalization, verification and validation. Science can be considered valid if it
can generalise the observations of the scientists in a manner which is in accordance with these rules. Such
rules, rigid as they are, have little scope however for human values, meanings and their reflective character.
That is why for the scientist, to acknowledge who/man openly as the moving subject of his/her discipline,
and as a fellow being, is supposed to be fraught with dangers for the scientific mode of studying social
reality.
The problem is especially acute in social sciences, even though not all the disciplines of social sciences may
be equally exposed to it.
1.2.2 Human Being as a Creative Agent

Human beings are at the centre of all social processes. Since they are endowed with the ability to live with
creativity, they constantly reflect and improve upon the conditions that surround them. For example, a bird
makes a nest but the shape and make of the nest does not change. It has remained the same for ages.
Similarly a lion has had a cave as his house for long. But human beings who started by taking shelter in
trees, bushes and caves gradually moved to making huts, small houses, then to bungalows and now multi-
storied towers. This has been possible due to the creative urge and capability in human beings.
Human beings are not merely the passive bearers of culture, tradition and social structure. They not only
create but are also the creative agents of values, meanings, aspirations etc. It is this creativity that has led to
the formation of cultures and on the other hand, it is culture which provides objective conditions to human
beings for expressing their creativity. As Malinowski observed: "Man has freedom precisely because he has
culture" and "culture is an initial instalment in freedom".
1.2.3 Science as Empathic and Critical Reflection

For the social scientist this poses an important challenge. How will she/he treat human being as a cultural
being? Social scientists do this by self-consciously refusing to judge other cultures without first looking at
themselves and their own culture. "Love others but live your own culture" is a common saying in any
society.
It is necessary that the social scientists remain self-conscious in the pursuit of science, for only then, can
they reflect and empathise with this subject. To empathise means to judge your subject not merely from your
own standards, but also from the subject's own perception and evaluation of own self. This is not always
easy; because by training and habit, social scientists suffer from many constraints. The rules of science
exhort them to be objective and value neutral which is difficult to observe when the subject-matter is the
living, ever-changing and not-easily predictable human being. Attachments to various social groups and
limitations of time and money in the profession are some other difficulties which they have to cope with in
their daily routines. In these limiting circumstances, the path that invites the least resistance would be the
one which the social scientist takes recourse to easily and often uncritically as a matter of habit or tradition
and not after reflection. This unfortunately is the dominant trend in the social sciences, but a genuine student
must guard against these temptations arising out of an intellectual setting devoid of reflection, criticism and
respect for other points of view.
1.3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PROCEDURE

There have been many contrary views on how social science ought to be conducted. Extreme positions
ranging from recourse to pure intuition to observations of strict natural science rules have been articulated
by several scholars. Some others have suggested a middle ground between the two positions. For a truly
scientific study of human institutions, it may be necessary to combine the skills of intuition reflecting with
scientific and methodological techniques, because humans have the features both of nature and culture. They
are a biological entity and yet a product of culture and society.
1.3.1 Understanding Human Beings in their Social Setting

Social Sciences should aim first at understanding the manifold aspects of human beings in their social setting. To arrive
at the level of a meaningful Social Science, the social scientist should look at the subjects, with a sense of empathy.
This is the true meaning of reflection. It contributes to the social scientist's ability to observe and understand the
pressures and constraints, the freedom and choices that human beings are faced within society. It provides him/her the
perspective through which he can see an observed behaviour as an aspect of other possible behaviours.
For instance, it is a widely accepted view that rural people are fatalistic by nature. Through scientific
techniques one can possibly substantiate this belief it is quite likely if a question such as: "why have your
crops been poor this year?" is put to a villager, he might say: "It is all fate." But if the scientist understands
that the villager has the same rationality, humility and reflective ability as he himself possesses, he will be
careful in interpreting this reply. He will explore the context in which the statement has been made. He will
match it against the villager's other sets of beliefs and action in other spheres of life. For example, his ready
acceptance of modem technology in agriculture, modern systems of health care etc. He may then come to
realise that the research conclusions are still far from definitive.
It is customary among people not to judge others in terms of what the latter say about themselves. Normally,
they evaluate before reaching a conclusion (regarding others opinions/views about themselves). Take
another case from Survey Methodology widely used in social sciences. More often than not, queries
concerning family income are not correctly answered for obvious reasons. A surveyor normally checks this
bias through cross questioning the same respondent.
1.3.2 Science as Critique of Human Conditions

The arguments above in no way undermine science. What they tend to highlight is the lack of emphasis,
generally, in social sciences on the need for them to be a reflective critique of the human-conditions. It is not
enough as social anthropologists do, to gain rapport and establish communication by learning the language
of the people one studies or living in their huts, and dancing with them, unless the social scientist is willing
also to share his humanity with those she/he studied. This is also how a true research problem can be located
and studied. It is easier to blame people for being fatalistic, superstitious, traditional or even coldly rational
or inhumanly calculative, on the basis of one's own value judgements. Application of scientific methods with
the power of empathy in social scientists will offer a comprehensive and valid insight into the social
problems she/he studies. Only such an approach ensures that social sciences can offer a critique of human
conditions. The social problems that have greater significance as objects of research are also those where
critical, reflective and humanitarian goals of social sciences are fulfilled to the largest extent.
Check Your Progress I

Note: (i) Use the space given below for your answer.
(ii) Check your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1) Which of the Following statements are correct7 Tick ( ) or (x).

i) The focus of study in Social Sciences is the human being
ii) Human beings are merely the passive bearers of culture.
iii) An interaction between the features of nature and culture is necessary to have a scientific study of
human being.
2) Write about 50 words on the creative ability of human beings.
1.4 RACIAL DIFFERENTIATION AND THE UNITY

OF HUMAN BEINGS
Social anthropologists often face a paradoxical situation in their study and analysis of human reality. While
they are willing, (and indeed know that they must share the belief in the unity of human beings), their own
investigations show them that the subjects of their study (other human beings) are not always willing to do
the same.
Such a differentiation is made on the basis of caste, race, clan or kinship ties. Often this differentiation turns
into a bias and this becomes a guiding factor of social behaviour. Regional bias also sometimes gives added
support to such social behaviour. For example, in the region of Kachin, people believe that the surrounding
folks, be they Shans, Burmese, Thais or Ahoms-are not fully human. For a long time, the Europeans
regarded themselves superior to people from all other regions and they believed that it was the 'White Man's
Burden' to civilize other races and societies. This fallacy was used to justify imperialism and colonialism.
Gradually, the scientists (natural as well as social) of the "other regions", through their labour and research
proved the White Man's burden theory to be false and demonstrated that the other societies were in no way
culturally inferior to the European societies.
We would like to familiarise you with the basis of racial division, misconceptions related to it, and how they
were disapproved.
i) Division on the basis of Race

This refers merely to clusters of genetic distribution among human beings related to features such as colour
of skin, eyes, form of nose, lips, hair and other physical attributes.
What is called 'race' is a statistical property such as distribution and concentration of a pattern of genes in a
certain population. All humans in all societies share gene properties from a common pool in varying degrees
and there is no group of human kind which can qualify as a pure race. Biologically, therefore, racial
distinction is a matter of degree rather than of kind. Secondly, studies have proved amply that social and
cultural attributes such as linguistic ability, intelligence, power of abstraction and logic and all other
attributes of civilization are equally present in all human group. In this respect, human kind shares common
cultural, intellectual and human properties. The major racial types such as the Australoids (blacks), the
Caucasoids (whites) and Monogoloids (yellow) share this human and cultural potential in common.
ii) Race and Racism

The internal genetic divisions of races are often given erroneous meanings. A popular erroneous example is :
"whites are more intelligent than blacks". Such racial prejudices as were found in South Africa were used by
the apartheid regime to exploit the blacks as a majority. The world opinion therefore condemned the
apartheid government there as racist.
iii) Misconceptions about Racism

For many years, the misconception of racism was strengthened by attempting to define cultural abilities of
beings by correlating them with physical features and I Q (Intelligence Quotient) tests. Such social scientists
who adopted these methods had their own racial bias. Further, it were also the Limitations in their methods
of measurement of l.Q. which led them to conclude that the Blacks are inferior to Whites. It was overlooked
that the methods of l.Q. tests were culturally loaded in favour of those racial groups which defined
themselves as superior such as the Whites.
Another example of such misconception about racism: "sunnier the climate, weaker the intellect." Still
another example: industry, commerce, science etc., are all supposed to be the products of the superior white
mind. But do you believe this? How does, then, one account for the recent prosperity Japan, China and other
East Asian Tigers are enjoying, of late? Such misconceptions about racism should be abandoned with a clear
and scientific thinking that they have been artificially created to suit some narrow ends. Around the 1930s,
physical anthropologists and archaeologists began a series of excavations in Africa and came to very
interesting conclusions. They found concrete evidence that over three thousand years ago Africa cradled a
substantial part of human civilisation. Its art and culture spoke of a level of intellectual attainment which
was approximated much later by the northern people.
The remains of this early African civilization have been found at several sites and also quite unexpectedly,
in the Sahara desert. Who would have imagined this? For that matter who would have imagined that
conditions can deteriorate, for climatic, social or other reasons, to the extent they have in Africa. From a
continent studded with glittering seats of culture where musicians, artists, and thinkers flourished, Africa
became a continent ravaged by wars, slave trade, poverty and disease.
Or let us consider Greece. The accomplishments of the Greek civilisation were not carried forward in an
uninterrupted manner. It was enriched enrobe by the non-Greeks, even by the non-Europeans viz., the Arabs.
Where would Hipocratic medicine have been if the Arabs had not translated and integrated Hipocratic
knowledge with their own and thus, enriched medical science. The Romans took it up from the Arabs but
only after ancient medicine had already been significantly improved upon. It was systematic historical
research which demonstrated that racist bigotry is built on shallow foundations.
v) Pseudo-science and Race
But what about the supposed methods of science (or Pseudo-science) that reinforced racial prejudices? The
l.Q. tests? The cranial or physical measurements? Have not the racists found confirmation for their views
from such supposedly 'scientific' methods? It was again the social scientists with their reflective approach
who first questioned the scientific validity of these tests which were culturally biased and suffered from poor
logic.
In spite of overwhelming agreement among social scientists about the invalidity of racism, the deep irony is
that racial divisions and racial beliefs are still popularly upheld. The root of these prejudices perhaps lies
deeper in social, cultural and political divisions among human groups. Its bases are social, political and
economic rather than biological.
1.5 SOCIAL ROOTS AND FORMS OF PREJUDICE

Racism is the most acute form of social prejudice. We hesitate to use the term racism when we encounter
other kinds of prejudices. But perhaps a larger lesson can be learnt if we examine the basis of social
prejudices where natural differences are imputed, though not observable, to justify social distance. After all,
there are no observable racial differences between various castes, and yet each caste or jan pretends to be
naturally different, if not also superior, from other jahs. Purificatory rites, food taboos, and caste rituals find
their ultimate sanction in the belief that jatis are naturally different as their status is ascribed by birth.
Here too, the social scientist's job is not only to explain the existing social reality, but to account for its
historical background and the various stages before the present one. The social scientist will also probe why
and how this happened.
The theory of jati differentiation does not unfortunately exhaust the unfounded prejudices that abound in
India. Have we not heard the complaint from rich circles about how stupid and ignorant the poor people are?
Have we not heard time and again that the poor irrationally and ceaselessly multiply? Or, have we not heard
that the villager is naturally inclined towards irrational and superstitious medical practices? For example let
us take up the social prejudice against the poor. A poor person is unable to lead a life of comfort and ease
but this does not mean that he is stupid or ignorant. His children may not go to school due to economic
hardships, but this does not mean that they don't have the intellect to study. In such exercises where
generalizations are made overlooking the social realities, we only tend to reveal the magnitude of prejudice
which clouds our understanding of the problem.
1.5.1 Prejudice in Science

Even sciences are not entirely free from prejudice. Ordinarily, this takes from of generalising on the basis
of whatever is observable to the naked eye (obviously, and not going behind the phenomena.) As the great
thinker Karl Marx put it "had all appearances coincided with reality, there would have been no need for
science". Can we generalise, for example, for an ice-burg when actually we are in a position to see only one
tenth of its size (that is, its up)? These illustrations apply to most of the generalizations made in social
sciences where they are often made without regard to the total context and implicit human values. That is to
say, without exercising the power of reflexivity' which, a genuine social scientist must do, especially, while
conducting an enquiry. Failure to do so would only encourage unscientific usages of stereo-types to cover
deficiencies in enquiry. Often they are done also for political purposes. Take for example, the colonial
description of martial races. It is anybody's guess that the Punjabis or the Jats are not born to be soldiers
only, as if, the Oriyas and the Bengalis cannot fit that role. But the colonial masters had a design in coining
this racial myth.
1.5.2 Regional Prejudice
There exist in a country or a society certain regional prejudices. What do they indicate? They demonstrate
the narrow thinking of the people belonging to a particular region regarding their own superiority or
inferiority. Very often this gets reflected in the works of the social scientist. For example, the high rate of
food production in Punjab, Haryana and Western U.P. in comparison to the lower productivity in eastern
U.P. and Bihar was explained in terms of the lethargic nature of the peasants in the latter regions and
hardworking peasants in the former. But is this really true? No. In fact, the lower and higher levels of food
productivity are related to agrarian structures, irrigation facilities, fertility of the soil, variety of seeds and
implements used etc. This again was proved by the efforts of social as well as natural scientists. The
sociologists demonstrated after studying the habits, customs and culture of the people in the Eastern regions
that there was no question of lethargy involved. Thus, the regional prejudice which differentiated human
beings on the basis of lethargy was proved a misconception due to the efforts of scientists (natural and
social).
Check Your Progress 2

1) What do you understand by racism and racial discrimination? Answer in about 50 words.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….....................
…………………………………………………………………………………………….....................
…………………………………………………………………………………………….....................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
2) How have the regional prejudices in relation to food production in India found to be baseless? Write
in five lines.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….....................
…………………………………………………………………………………………….....................
…………………………………………………………………………………………….....................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
3) Which of the following statements are correct? Tick ( ) or (x).

i) The Government of South Africa follows a racist policy
ii) The notion of 'Whiteman's Burden' is a misconception.
iii) The roots of racial prejudices lie in biological factors.
iv) For a true study of society, social realities have to be ignored.
1.6 KNOWLEDGE AND SOCIETY

Let us now apply what we have studied so far to analyse the relationship between knowledge and society.
Some social scientists have suggested that human beings from the earliest times have used nature and natural
model to understand and classify their social world. Unlike the social world, there is a certain stability about
nature. Trees have branches, crows are black, cows give milk, the beetle behaves like a beetle, the vultures
scavenge like a vulture, a stone is generally unmoved, and so on. But when the social world is observed
there is so much fluidity and transition that it is difficult to be certain about anything at all. The social world
has to be put into order, and what better way is there to do this than by borrowing the stability of the natural
world to act as a model for the social universe. Hence, the tendency to impute natural differences where
actually there exist only social and cultural ones. This is a common prejudice and not a scientific practice.
This can be coupled with another important tendency in viewing of the world. According to this view,
human beings can never leave the world untheorised. Before Copernicus for example, it was commonly
believed that the sun moved around the each Even today, there may be some people who believe that the
each is delicately balanced on the horns of a mighty bull, and every time the bull hiccups, we have
earthquakes. There is no natural phenomenon, no universal mystery, whose theorising or solution has not
been offered simply because sufficient, authentic, or "scientific" evidences are not available. Little wonder
then that humankind should be classified and re-classified, and the universe should be theorised repeatedly.
If we proceed from this understanding then, we cannot escape the realisation that some of the categories of
social science regarding other human beings have their basis in a crude natural model, and that some of our
contemporary scientific theories may well seem bizarre or even funny to future scientists. That is why
whenever a social scientist sits on judgement on the knowledge systems, (whether they are beliefs, values,
theories, actions or prescriptions), it is always necessary to know the totality of the human context within
which knowledge is produced. Because, it is this context which eventually ensures the acceptance or
rejection of certain kinds of knowledge. What guarantee is there that our current notions of science will not
appear childish in our children's life time?
While accepting this, one should not, however, conclude that knowledge progresses without active human
intervention. The intervention of the microscope, the discovery that blood circulates, the early toying with
antiseptics, all of these, and many other discoveries gave humankind greater potential to cope with
problems. Society imposes a certain limit on the range of options that human beings can exercise, but they
cannot foreclose many others available but which may not be directly sensed. As a matter of fact, the only
reason why it is possible for one to be different from his brother and yet be member of the same family is
because of this duality. We are constrained and yet are significantly free. This is also how received
knowledge undergoes scrutiny from time to time. That human beings can produce knowledge is determined
by two premises:
i) To make knowledge is to disturb previous knowledge, and
ii) It is impossible to make knowledge if woman does not have the capacity for freedom of thought.
Religious theocracies and dictatorships have tried unsuccessfully to muzzle this freedom in the mistaken
belief that humankind had arrived at its final destination. It is the ceaseless restlessness of human beings that
causes empires to fall, regimes to crumble, and grand theories to be replaced. So, nothing is absolute in this
universe.
1.6.1 Information Society

It may not be out of place to discuss briefly though, about the information society which we are living
today.
'Knowledge is power' Francis Bacon had prophetically said about five hundred years ago. That was the time
industrial revolution was beginning to appear. Today's society is widely characterized as a 'post-industrial'
society because there is a shift in focus of activities from commodity production to an information
dominated service economy. Information results out of knowledge quantified, processed and packaged for
marketing. Today, information is a strategic resource. Masuda, one of the most visionary writers on the
subject, wrote in 1990:
"The information epoch to be brought about by computer-communication technology will not simply
have a big socio-economic impact upon contemporary industrial society; it will demonstrate a force of
societal change powerful enough to bring about a transformation into a completely new type of human
society which is the information society."
Most of these changes fast overtaking the industrial society have come about under the impact of
information Technology which, in turn is the outcome of a convergence of (i) the computer systems
(ii) telecommunications and (iii) information. Land and satellite-based global information networks are daily
sending all kinds of data to users across the world in seconds. The control of these networks by a few
multinationals is, therefore, becoming crucial in this knowledge enterprise which engages in its various
"information occupations"; more than 50% of the total employed workforce in the industrial countries of the
West. Some of the essential features of this emergent information society are:
a) Knowledge is a crucial resource and it is to provide the key to future innovations and policies.
b) A technocracy will emerge to rule.
c) This type of political-economic climate will witness a change in the societal values which will shift
in favour of the individual, the customer and the consumer.
d) Emphasis, henceforth, will be on leisure and culture and not on work as it used to
be in the industrial society.
e) Economic basis of the society will therefore be services and not manufacturing.
Where does India stand in this change sweeping over the globe? With about one percent of GDP allocated
for Research and Development, India no doubt will lag behind again (like during the days of industrial
development) unless (i) more investments are found for this vital area and (ii) strategic entries are made into
new areas like biotechnology which are open alike to all the countries, probably with more advantages to
India which enjoys a rich natural heritage.
1.7 UNIVERSALITIES AND SPECIFICITIES OF

CULTURE
An old anthropological maxim, which has done good service for several decades, tells us to search for
universals and absolutes. To believe, for instance, that a family should only mean a nuclear family, or that
legal systems must have specialised practitioners' courts, and written laws, or that all other religions but our
own are a lot of mumbo jumbo, expresses the lust for absolutes. To say the same thing in other words, my
beliefs and actions constitute the absolute standards which others must follow. This is something which we
may not be explicitly saying, but quite often implicitly conveying. Such an approach, to speak the least, is
not humanitarian; it is prejudicial and therefore, not scientific also. The reader/student may apply this simple
norm to what she/he says or does in day to day living situations to understand the importance of knowledge
in the building of society. Knowledge, in this case, refers to a conscious respect to be given to the diverse
groups in the society who are living as validly as we do with our of system beliefs and action.
We also know how, thanks to the tireless work of anthropologists, that every society has a set of strict rules
and prohibitions regarding moral conduct and sexual behaviour. There are no absolute rules and no natural
reasons why any one set of rules and prohibitions should be absolute. Matrilineal families, for instance, are
quite different from patrilineal families and yet in both cases, authority and affection are equally evident
though the forms may be different. It is not the father but the mother's brother who is the source of authority
in matrilineal societies. The father, in these societies, is very often an intimate and comfortable figure with
whom his son takes many liberties. But what is important is that there are many possible variations on the
reality we know of and are familiar with, and there is no reason why one particular form would have
precedence over the others.
In other words, there are universalities in the specificities of culture. A scientific approach to the study of
human beings should reflect upon this universality which is hidden in the apparent diversity of appearances.
That we must respect diversity in society in a 'universality' which stands above, and is respected by every
specific group. This will tell us in actual human terms the variety of ways through which human society can
be visualised. It is only after social science has searched the depths of this remarkable human diversity can
the scientist offer a reflective yet scientific study of human beings. Through social science the scholar
eventually studies himself/hereself.

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1) Which of the following statements are correct? Tick ( ) or (x)
i) The each is delicately balanced on the horns of a mighty bull.

ii) Human beings can never leave the world untheorised.
iii) Knowledge is closely linked with racial superiority.
iv) Scientific development will cease in the 21st century.
2) What is the role of theorisation in society? Write in about 50 words.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.8 LET US SUM UP

We hope that by studying this Unit you have learnt:
that for a scientific approach to the study of human beings, the human reality should be observed in a more reflective
manner.
that the study should go beyond treatment of human being as mere object of nature.
that human beings are the products of both nature and culture.
that empathy is necessary in a scientific study of humankind.
We find that perception of social reality and human condition in everyday life does not harmonise quite
often with scientific attitude that one should have about them. Even the concepts and methods in social
sciences and humanities do not always conform to standards of rational and human appreciation of social
and cultural realities. This breeds racial, regional and social prejudices. The evils of racism, caste prejudices
and regional prejudices can be abolished only when social science recognises the centrality of human beings
themselves.
The scientific approach to the study of human beings confirms that there is a bond of global unity, dignity
and freedom among humankind which is but a mosaic of diverse groups. This is what a scientific study of
human beings tends to affirm.
1.9 KEY WORDS

Conditioning: That part of man which has become second nature to him, e.g. habits.
Critique: A critical essay
Empathy: To put oneself mentally, in the other person's position.
En route: On the way
Exploitation: To deprive a group/person from his/her just rewards.
Fatalistic: The doctrine that individuals cannot change their destiny.
Hypothesis: A proposition or statement waiting for test or verification: unconfirmed
theory.
Inferiority: A feeling of inadequacy relative to other people or other groups.
Irrational: That which is not logical.
Matrilineal: Based on kinship with the mother or the female line.
Patrilineal: Based on kinship with the father or the male line.
Maxim: Consists of a rule or premise.
Paradoxical: That which is self-contradictory.
Prejudice: A bias against a group/persons regarding their habits and behaviours.
Pseudo-science: Fictitious or false science.
Racism: A doctrine presupposing the superiority of one race over the other, e.g. the Negroes were regarded
as inferior to Whites in the USA.
Specificities: That which deals with specific issues in Social Sciences.
Universalities: That which deals with wide scale generalisations in Social Sciences.
Validity: The truth being established by facts.
Verification: Confirmation by experience or by facts.
1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
1) (i) (ii) X (iii)
2) Sec. Sub-sec. 1.2.2

1) See Section 1.4
2) See Sub-sec 1.5.2
3) (i) (ii) (iii) X (iv) X
I) (i) x (ii) (iii) X (iv) X

2) See Section 1.6
UNIT 2 EVOLUTION OF
HUMANKIND
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Tool Making/Using-An Evolutionary Perspective
2.2.1 The Old Stone Age

2.2.2 The New Stone Age
2.2.3 The Bronze Age
2.2.4 The iron Age
2.3 Tool Making /Using and March of Culture
2.3.1 Social institutions and interactions

2.3.2 Specialization and Division of Labour
2.3.3 Urban Revolution
2.3.4 Rise of Great Religions
2.4 Nature and Human Beings: Adaptation and interaction
2.4.1 Patterns of Adaptation

2.4.2 Tribes and their Patterns of Adaptation
2.4.3 Interaction: Dependence, Conquest and Harmony
2.5 Evolution of Human Being as a Thinking Animal
2.5.1 Unique Capabilities of Thinking Human Beings

2 5.2 Species-specific Characteristics
2.6 Evolution of the Knowing individual
2.6.1 Growth of Two Cultures

2.6.2 Forms of Knowledge in Transition
2.6.3 Division of Knowledge into Disciplines
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Key Words
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to learn:
how tool making/using played an important role in the evolution of culture.
how cultural evolution took place in stages with changes in tool making/using
ability of human beings.
how did human beings adapt to, and interact with nature and with what implications
to their co-existence.
how did the knowing individual evolve over the years till date.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have learnt in Unit I why care is necessary in developing a scientific method for the
study of human beings. They assimilate and represent both nature and culture. They share
biological characteristics from nature and also overcome them through their superior
intellectual, creative and cultural abilities. The history of the evolution of human beings
is a long one from the Stone Age to the electronic and the nuclear age. In this Unit we
offer you evidence of how this evolution took place. However, here we shall limit our
discussion up to the iron Age.
The specific natural abilities of human beings contributed to their cultural and
technological success in forging tools, adapting to natural environments and making
inventions. All these led to growth of successive stages/periods of social and cultural
changes. Some of the remarkable contributions resulting out of this evolutionary
transformation include division of labour, agriculture and industry, urbanization and
revolutionary leaps in the field of knowledge. It also contributed to the growth of various
religious systems and their philosophy. Scientific knowledge too grew together with this
process.
The interaction between human endeavour and natural forces always creates problems of
adaptation. Too much exploitation of nature alters the balance of relationships between
nature and man. The adaptation of human beings to nature has therefore been always a
matter of great social concern. In this Unit we introduce to you several aspects of the
relationship between human beings and nature that contributed towards the march of
human civilisation.
2.2 TOOL MAKING/USING: AN

EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
It is often believed that some advanced primates may have used bones and stones as
tools. But, with the coming of the Homo Sapiens, tool making and tool using began in the
true sense. Only then tools, as we know them, emerged. The human being is an animal
that not only uses tools but also constantly improves upon them. It is this tool making
ability that has brought us to the present stage. Had it stopped at some stage, then perhaps
the world would never have been what it is today.
You may be interested to know that the first human being ever to have lived in a complete
environment dates back to about 5000,000 years. He is known as the 'Peking Man'.
On the basis of the tool making skills of human beings, archaeologists have arranged
human history into the following periods. The Stone Age (old and new), the Bronze Age
and the iron Age. However, all these stages did not evolve simultaneously in all parts of
the world. If one region witnessed the Stone Age, in another region Bronze Age had
started and in the third region Iron Age had come.
No. 1: The Primate
2.2.1 The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic)

Old Stone Age or the Paleolithic period begins somewhere between 5,00,000 and
2,50,000 years ago. In the Old Stone Age, human beings lived entirely on hunting,
fishing and gathering. The tools they fashioned from stone for this purpose were
rudimentary in character. These tools only enabled them to live off nature and not to
invest in it. Their requirements were met through trapping, hunting, plucking or digging.
They had no control over nature. Rather, they were dependent on it.
In cultural evolution, this period is described as a stage of savagery as depicted by

Morgan, a British anthropologist. Roughly-chipped flint served a variety of purposes
from killing a prey, to removing the skins, to digging up roots and tubers.
No. 2: The evolution of human beings
2.2.2 The New Stone Age (Neolithic)

The new Stone Age or the Neolithic period began some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. In
this age human beings were able to increase, and thus control to some extent, the supply
of food. They did this by cultivating cereals and breeding animals. This period also
provided us with evidence for the existence of granaries or store houses which imply that
food was often produced in excess of current requirements. The cultural characteristics of
this period correspond roughly with what Morgan called the Barbaric Age. It is during
this period of Neolithic Revolution that pottery, the techniques of spinning wool flax and
cotton into threads came into use. Finally, fashioned stone axes sharpened by grinding
also made their appearance at this time.
Stone Tools
No. 3(A) left: Hand Axe (Kenya, 8000,000 years); Middle: Laural Leaf Point (West Asia,
60,000-50,000 years); Right: Scrapper (West Asia, 60,000-50,000 years).
(B) Unfinished Hand Axe (Kenya, 8000,000) years

(C) Clever (Kenya, 8000,000) years
2.2.3 The Bronze Age

The next revolution in tool making came with the Bronze Age about 5,000 years ago, that
is, around 3000 B.C. This period supported an urban population, skilled craftsmen,
traders, priests, writers. Now the principal metals were used for making tools and
weapons, this period is described as the Bronze Age. The revolutionary implications of
the Bronze Age may not have been possible if human beings had not discovered the
mixing copper and tin to make bronze known in India, Mesopotamia and Greece, but the
wheel also had been discovered. The application of the wheel (with copper nails)
revolutionised transportation and two-wheeled and four-wheeled carts were being
commonly used by this time for a variety of purposes.
No. 4: Chariot from Indus Valley (3500 BC 2500 B.C.)
By this time wind too was being used as a source of energy primarily to aid water
transportation. We find sail boats being used from Polynesia to Egypt. The ruins of
Mohenjodaro and Harappa tell us of the application of kiln-fired bricks which meant a
huge expenditure of fuel and the ability of the artisans to control high temperatures.
In the Bronze Age, there are evidences to suggest that land was systematically reclaimed
from swamp and desert and record quantities of food stuffs were being produced
Artificial water ways also helped to protect society against the vagaries of the weather.
2.2.4 The Iron Age
Iron age commenced at around 1200 B.C. Unlike copper and tin which are quite rare and
hence expensive, iron is one of the commonest elements found in the earth's crust (here it
should not be taken to mean that iron was a commonly available metal all that time), in
the beginning, it was however a rare metal. The extraction of iron from its ore follows
more or less, the same technique as with the extraction of copper. The secret of its
production was however kept closely guarded and it took several years for this
knowledge to seep slowly, through a variety of sources, before it was universalised
across several cultures.
In the period of the Bronze Age technology, large empires had emerged in Greece, Asia
Minor, Mesopotamia and Egypt etc. The invention of iron tools and weapons by the
barbarians of Eurasia posed a major threat to these empires. Iron was used in India
around 1000 B. C. and excavations show that iron weapons such as arrow heads,
spearheads were used commonly in Western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C.
In the words of Gordon Childe, "Cheap iron democratized agriculture and industry and
warfare too. Any peasant could afford an iron axe to clear fresh land for himself and iron
ploughshares where with to break up stony ground" in the past the superior tools and
weapons were rare and expensive. The discovery of iron levelled these differences.
No. 5: Iron Tools from Taxila ( 1-5 Century A.D.)

Note: i) Read the following questions carefully and mark the right answers. In
each questions
you may find more than one right answer.
1) During Old Stone Age people procured food
i) by cultivation of crops.
ii) from hunting
iii) by gathering it from jungles.
iv) by importing if from other countries.
2) Which of the following statements are true or false? During New Stone Age:
i) no surplus food was available after self- consumption

ii) people were not aware of the techniques of making hand axe
iii) people used to breed animals.
iv) bones were used for making weapons.
3) The Bronze tools were made by
i) copper.
ii) tin.
iii) mixing copper with iron.
iv) mixing copper with tin.
4) Wind power and wheel were used for the first time during
I) Old Stone Age.

ii) New Stone Age.
iii) Iron Age.
iv) Bronze Age.
5) During Iron Age, iron was used for
i) making guns.
ii) making axes for clearing forests.
iii) making ploughshares for agriculture.
iv) making machines.
2.3 TOOL MAKING/USING AND MARCH
OF CULTURE
Human beings of every race, creed and colour possess identical abilities and are all
Homo Sapiens. From Paleolithic time, human beings were not just a tool making, hunting
and procreating species. They possessed a spiritual culture, had a vivid notion of spirit,
and performed sacrifices, and buried the dead with considerable ceremony. This is not
all. Their spiritual culture was enriched by paintings, etchings and engravings.
In the Neolithic Age you find yet another great leap in the culture of human beings. With
the ability to grow wheat and barley, control over livestock, and advances in the art of
pottery, there took place quite a substantial development of culture. Many inventions and
discoveries of this period such as the zymurgy or brewing beer, or the making of pottery,
are attributed to the work of Neolithic women. While man cleared land, made huts,
hunted, looked after livestock's and manufactured the necessary tools, it was the woman
who tilled plots, cooked, spun and baked earthen pots. They also manufactured
ornaments and articles for magical and spiritual ceremonies.
2.3.1 Social institutions and Interactions
The Neolithic human beings were, however, still quite isolated. Their villages were
generally self-sufficient and the production of food was just about enough to support the
existing population. These villages were generally situated in oases surrounded by desert
wastes, or at the foothills of mountains, or in clearings in dense forests.
2.3.2 Specialisation and Division of Labour

The use of copper or bronze brought about another revolution. This age gave rise to
specialists, such as metallurgists and craftsmen. They began to form guilds and clans
which zealously guarded the tricks of the trade. The coming of metal tools also made way
for the development of a permanent ruling class. These was more interaction between
different small settlements or villages. Women were also being displaced as the plough
changed the technique of farming from plot cultivation to large scale agriculture. While
woman generally used to hoe plots, it was the man who ploughed fields.
2.3.3 Urban Revolution
During the Bronze Age, an urban revolution also took place. Summer and Akkad were
two great urban civilization of this age. Towns became centres of a number of activities.
Here temples were constructed with the labour of hundreds of workers who had to be
supervised and directed. To do this, an architectural plan had to be drawn in advance.
These outlines were laid out with the aid of strings. In India, not surprisingly therefore,
the ancient knowledge of architecture was called the Sulve (string) Sutra. The impressive
temples thus constructed also needed to be administered. Records of receipts and
expenditures had to be kept. This spurred the invention of script writing around 2000
B.C. As worship was so highly institutionalised, here it was natural that a specialised
class of priests should also emerge. These priests were the first carriers of the literary
tradition and, hence, quite predictably, literary records generally portray the perspective
of the priestly class.
The disparity between the rich and the poor grew at an alarming rate from this time
onwards. Extortion's, illtreatment, slavery, and all kinds of exploitation were practised by
the rich upon the poor. This was made possible because of the technical sophistication
that human beings acquired in the Bronze Age. This sophistication brought about surplus
in food production giving rise to stratification and formation of social hierarchy. The
urban revolution also brought about a stupendous increase in knowledge. Geometry,
arithmetic, astronomy, medicine and theology developed at an impressing pace. Egyptian
science approximated the sign much more accurately than before. The solar calendar was
developed in the Nile Valley. Mohenjodaro and Harappa which were urban civilisations
of a later Bronze Age, also shared the characteristics of this revolution and knowledge
with other Bronze Age civilisations.
Along with the production of surplus food, superior tools and the growth of a learned
class, one also finds increasing institutionalisation and ritualisation of religious systems
2.3.4 Rise of Great Religions

Bronze Age showed further refinements in intellectual development. The Indus Valley
civilisation is a unique example of this. Further, we all know about the high intellectual
levels of the Vedas and the Upanishadas. These great texts not only deal with day to day
matter of life, but delve into the mysteries of life and other philosophical aspects. They
describe in great detail the religious doctrines and life of the people.
The growth of religious doctrines took various forms. Gautama Buddha came out with
his preachings and attained nirvana around 500 B.C. Around this time, or perhaps a
century earlier, Lao-tse and Confucius preached Taoism and Confucianism in China.
Eastern Iran saw birth of the great prophet Zarathustra around the time the iron Age
began in Iran. Thus, we see a tendency in the Iron Age towards differentation in the
religious traditions of the Bronze Age priests. The most compelling problem in Iron Age
theology was to reconcile the individual with the society. Soon both in Greece and India,
philosophy took a new turn and began to look at nature as comprising several constituent
parts. This gave rise to the theory of atoms in Greece or anu in India .

Note: i) Use the provided space for your answer.
1) What were the main changes brought about in the production system during Bronze
and iron Age?
2) Which of the following statements are right? Tick (9) or (x)
i) The Neolithic human being seems to have been a peace loving person.
ii) The population in the Neolithic Age was on the decrease.
iii) Urban settlements were there in the stone Age.
3) Write five lines on what you know about Urban Revolution.
2.4 NATURE AND HUMAN BEINGS:

ADAPTATION AND INTERACTION
It is quite tempting to explain racial and cultural differences on the basis of climate and
geography. You have seen this from earlier review of the developments in science,
technology and tool making ability of human beings and their advances in culture,
science and religion. Such human differences cannot be understood through differences
of geography. The impact of the Bronze Age or the Neolithic Age was not limited to any
one geographical area but. spread all over Europe and Asia. Even the long darkness of
the Paleolithic Age was shared universally as were its many artistic and spiritual
attainments.
2.4.1 Pattern of Adaptation
Even so it is worthwhile to consider how the human being, as a tool making animal,
adapts to nature and also tries to tame nature. The Eskimos in the remote Arctic regions
have adapted to their surroundings.
One finds people of the same environment often have very different ways of life. For
example, in Rajasthan we find the nomadic tribes as well as people living in settled
communities. Human beings therefore, are relatively freer from their environment than
other creations of nature. But environment places certain constraints on human beings.
The Eskimos must have warm clothes while tribal Santhals can afford to even go naked.
The Eskimos cannot practise agriculture but must hunt food for their existence. The Hopi
know agriculture techniques but are forced to comply with the desert conditions of their
regions and hence depend upon flood waters to grow their maize.
People also alter their environment to their advantage. Where slash and burning
cultivation takes place, vegetation and bushes are burnt to fertilise the soil. Self made
embankments to retain water is a common enough way by which human beings attempt
to alter their environment. Contrary to the simplistic belief (that in "primitive" societies
man only mystically perceives his environment), contemporary anthropology has
demonstrated that a tribal not living in a modern society is often an acute observer of
nature.
2.4.2 Tribes and their Patterns of Adaptation

Before tribes were touched by modem civilisation they had greater mobility and roamed
in a larger area. Like the Neolithic man, they always took good care to return to the soil
the nutrients that they exhausted in growing their produce. Though the tribals had a much
wider area to cultivate, even so they would return to the same plot of land after leaving it
fallow for some time before saplings were planted, so that the forest may grow again. In
this way they were able to maintain the balance in nature to their advantage.
No. 6: A Tribal at hunt
The "primitive" then had come to terms with nature and his environment. In some cases
he also learnt how to tame nature. This was most commonly evident in agricultural
operations.
The tribals know of the less obvious properties of plants, fibbers, roots, stones, fish,
animals, etc. They also know something about the planetary cycles, the movement of
tides, weather systems, seasons and so on. They can read signs in things. This helps them
to forecast the length, duration and intensity of seasons, natural catastrophes, pestilence
and so forth. Much of this knowledge was carried on and improved upon in folk and
peasant societies.
2.4.3 Interaction: Dependence, Conquest and

Harmony
From Paleolithic times onwards, man has been interacting with and adapting to nature
through the medium of his tools. The Paleolithic Man or the Kalahari Bush Man may
have had very simple implements, such as the planting dibble, the weed cutter, or the
blade bone hoe. It is with implements like these that the paleolithic man interacted with
nature for food, shelter and clothing.
From the Neolithic time onwards, the attempt has always been to try and adapt to nature
on an ever increasing scale according to requirements. The development of agriculture
and animal rearing, the discoveries of bronze and iron, the invention of automated
machines and vehicles, are all examples of our many and growing effort to conquer
nature. Interaction with nature has two aspects: (1) simple adaptation to nature and (2)
the attempt to dominate nature. Considering the vast powers of nature, what the human
beings have been able to tap and train to their advantage is still very small by
comparison. Yet, societies today are often too aggressive in their attitude towards nature
with little realisation that there are some limits and constraints on using nature.
It is in the nature of human beings to restlessly strive to reach new heights. But in this
process they, have to reflect on their knowledge and train themselves to shape tools and
technologies, which are in harmony with nature and not always seek to dominate and
indiscriminately destroy nature. With great despair we notice all around us the
deforestation of land and hills and the pollution of water and air. We watch with equal
despair the development of industries and technologies which single-mindedly destroy
our natural resources. One may not advocate a retreat from science, technology and
inventions. That would be both futile and anachronistic. The solution of our problems
also lies in invention and uses of new technologies in a manner which is friendly to and
not discriminative of the surrounding ecology. Let us not forget the harsh and miserable
lives of hunters and gatherers of the past and how they died helplessly and in great pain
from a host of diseases. The wonders of science have helped to prolong the life of human
beings and would it not be wonderful if science could assure prolonged existence for
their species?

1) Write in about five lines what you know about the life of a tribal.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------
2) How have the human beings been interacting with nature? Answer in about five
lines.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------
2.5 EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BEING AS

A THINKING ANIMAL
As you have seen above, human beings are alone among all the species of life who are
able to make and use tools according to their requirements. At the same time, they kept
moving up on the ladder of evolution in the world of living. How could all this be
possible? A simple answer is that all this progress till date could be possible largely
owing to expansion and evolution of the thinking capabilities of human beings. Rest of
this unit will address these facets in the evolution of the human being.
2.5.1 Unique Capabilities of Thinking Human

Being
The process of evolution endowed human beings with several unique capabilities. Only
they have the ability to use symbols, to think, to laugh, to question about secrets of life
and death. Such abilities are not found among other animals. Anthropologists have been
studying how these capabilities evolved in humans. The large cranial (brain) capacity of
humans evolved (to the present average figure of 1,450 cc from about 500 cc capacity)
slowly over a period of fifteen to twenty thousand years. Comparatively, the use of
language evolved faster, but it was influenced by the growth of the size of brain.
Culture, yet another distinctive feature of human beings, comes from the ability of
humans to conceptualise and to abstract through the use of symbols. It evolved slowly,
with the process of biological evolution of humans. But within the span of the past
twenty thousand years, not the biological but the cultural evolution of humankind has
come to dominate the mode of social changes. The use of language made more complex
manifestations of culture possible, and acquired institutionalized forms. But culture
existed even before the human attained the ability to use language.
The ability to communicate by using linguistic symbols liberated human beings from
their physical and environmental dependence. It made it possible for them to have an
objective and critical appraisal of natural and social phenomena. This ability is an
essential component part of the cultural endowment of human beings.
2.5.2 Species-specific Characteristics

There are, however similarities between human beings and animals which psychologists
like Konrad Lorenz, B.F. Skinner and others have identified. Despite many common
features that human share with other animals, human beings are unique. The uniqueness
lies in their perennial quest for knowledge and their capacity to succeed in it. We get the
proof of this in the scientific discoveries and inventions that humankind has made
possible since pre-historic days. The thinking ability in human beings has been made
possible due to their cortical capacity and their adjustive behaviour. Besides this, human
beings have to go through a long period of childhood socialisation. It is therefore said
"child is the father of man". It is their species-specific characteristic.
The brain released human beings from dependence upon their physical and
environmental situations. They used their brain power to forge tools or create objects to
lessen their burden. It also gave them variable power of speech, language and memory;
and capacity to organise their experiences with a historical sensibility.
Through socialisation, however, human self imbibes values and norms of society; learns
its language and the ability to express cognitive and emotional reactions. This
socialisation, however, is never complete. The plasticity of human nature makes it
possible for them to innovate, improvise and make creative contributions. It is this ability
of human kind that contributed towards scientific and technological knowledge, and
through it, to the march to civilisation and progress.
2.6 EVOLUTION OF THE KNOWING

INDIVIDUAL
The ability to associate events and cxperiences (through uses of symbols across space
and time) gives human beings an insight into the cause and effect relationship. It marks
the beginning of scientific logic.
In their quest for knowledge, human beings simultaneously discovered science and
values. Science gave them the power to establish causality and explain and control the
events of nature. The values offered them the basis to regulate their relationship with
fellow human beings. Language, through which we enter into both the scientific and
cultural dialogue, is a social heritage. Both science and values thus have a social
character.
Human Beings' quest for knowledge led them to great discoveries and scienti0~c
achievements. The technological advancement that humankind has made since the stone
age equipment are testimony to this reality. It has been made possible through growth in
their philosophical reasoning, logical skills and methods of scientific experiments. With
this advancement, the rate and volume of production of knowledge has increased
manifold. One estimate is that scientific knowledge doubles every ten years and that this
rate of growth is further on the rise.

Note: i) Use the provided space for your answer.
ii) Check your' answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1) The evolution of the thinking ability in humankind illustrates the fact that (check
one of the following for correct answer):
I) human beings got this ability from the new environment.

ii) human beings got this ability from social interaction.
iii) human beings got this ability by reciprocal evolution of their biology and
sociability.
iv) human beings got this ability as a gift of god.
2.6.1 Growth of 'Two Cultures'

The fast pace of growth of science has, in its turn, created problems of its relationship
with values and the moral order of society. In the Western society, scholars have
expressed disappointment about the increasing gap between the scientific and the moral
order of society. Instead of integration, science and moral values are showing increasing
evidence of dissociation or distancing from each other.
The separation of science from values not only creates 'two cultures', but increasingly
makes them run at cross purposes. We notice it in the present day race for armaments,
ecological destruction through industrialisation, control over human freedom and in
invention of weapons of mass annihilation like the atom bomb. Thus, for the survival and
the very existence of human beings, it is necessary that the social and moral character of
science is maintained. The mainstream Western tradition, believes in opposition between
nature and culture or between human beings and their physical environment.
In contrast (to the Western tradition), Indian tradition right from it inception took an
organic view of the relationship between scientific knowledge and its cultural or value
framework. In fact, science was encapsulated within the world view of ethics, and the
discovery of truth (satyam) was governed instrinsically by the principles of beauty
(sundaram) and welfare (sivam). No dichotomy between the sacred and the profane,
between the instrumental and the transcendental or between science and value was
entertained in the Indian tradition and practice of science. The converging points between
science and religion in the Indian tradition lie in the notion of science as yoga and sadhna
and the conceptualisation of truth as tentative or partial. Science treats the nature of truth
as being tentative and revisable with ever new discoveries and experiments. The quest for
knowledge, therefore, is perennial. The Indian tradition does not see any opposition
between science (discovery of truth) and value (normative basis of truth), it seeks rather a
unity among the principles of truth, goodness and beauty (Satyam, Sivam, Sundaram).
Cheek Your Progress 5

1) The notion of two cultures' has emerged due to the belief that (check one of the
following for correct answer):
i) science is not sufficient for solving human problems.

ii) the gap between science and humanistic social science has become acute.
iii) the culture of the rich differs from that of the poor.
iv) rural and urban societies form two cultures.
2.6.2 Forms of Knowledge in Transition
Evolution of knowledge till date has passed through three distinct stages of transition and
growth as given below.
i) Magical Form of Knowledge
Knowledge in the first instance, grew through symbolic representation of nature, self, and
of the fellow human beings. It played a central role in determining the human's
relationship with both nature and culture; First, it evolved in magical and religious forms.
Magic, which for the primitive human being was equivalent to scientific knowledge, was
based on principles of causality governed by two rules:
i) First rule was that "like produces like". For example, since rain is accompanied
by thunder, so if one could produce something similar to thunder, rain would
follow. It was common among some ancient tribes to roll down heavy boulders
from hill-tops to produce thunder-like sound to bring about rainfall.
No. 11
ii) The second rule was: "Once a part always a part". it was believed that if
something is done to a part of a person, or his/her image, the ensuing results
would devolve upon that person as such. For instance, if human nail or hair could
be obtained and burnt or damaged, then this bum or damage would occur also to
the person to whom these parts belonged. Or, if his image could be made and
subjected to harm, the harm would be transferred also to the person.
These laws of magic tried to establish causality as sought in modern day science but were
based on false premises. They violated the rule of validity. That is why magic is called a
pseudo-science.
Some magical rituals and explanations of events, however, integrated with practical
knowledge as these evolved through trial and error over a period of time. Magical rituals
were very common in all crucial economic activities such as hunting, food gathering and
agriculture. Magic was integral to other rituals related to death, birth, marriage and
initiation rites, etc. Mother goddess cult emerged from these magical . The process of
learning for human beings was from the very beginning related to their conceptions of
nature, spirit and supernatural.
IN MAGIC IN MODERN MEDlClNE
DISEASE DISEASE
DUE TO DUE TO
ENTRY OF ENTRY OF
EVIL SPIRITS (OUTSIDE ELEMENTS) GERMS
IN HUMAN BODY BACTERIA & VIRUS
Religious beliefs grew with magical beliefs. In some cases religious beliefs may have
followed when magical principles failed. It is said that like science, magic seeks to
command nature. Religious beliefs emerge when magical commands fail to materialise.
Nature, on which human beings have no control inspires a supernatural awe. It is
symbolically converted into (religious) forms of deities, and made object of worship and
prayer. The origin of cultural expressions, such as dances, songs, dramas and most
objects of arts is attributed to some extent to early magical and religious rituals. As
human culture and civilisation advanced through evolution of agriculture, industry and
technology, sharp differentiation between religion and magic took place. Religion
evolved in Europe into a more organised social institution, such as the Roman Church
and various other sects. Magic which right from its beginning was highly individualised
as a form of skill and knowledge came under pressure both from science and religion.
This was manifest from the persecution of magicians and witches in Europe during the
medieval period. Wherever it survived, it did so in the form of the skill of an individual
or a few persons.
ii) Separation of Science and Religion

With the emergence of imperial political organization, there took place large scale
growth in trade, commerce, technology and industrial production. This is revealed
through the history of ancient civilisations like those of India, China, Egypt, Greece and
Rome. With few exceptions, now a differentiation between the scientists and religious or
priestly classes took place. The separation, however, was often hazy. With the decline of
the Graeco-Roman civilization and the rise of Christianity, Church had emerged in
Europe as the most powerful social and political institution. It was a major setback to the
process of differentiation between religious and scientific knowledge. All knowledge was
now subject to approval of religious authority represented by the Church. Its seminaries
were the only institutional organisations recognised for generation and communication of
knowledge. This pattern continued for several centuries until it was challenged by forces
of renaissance and religious reformation during the 15th and 16th centuries. During this
period, contributions to science made by Galileo, Copernicus and Newton and the
religious reforms initiated by Luther and Calvin made it possible that humanistic, rational
and empirical forms of knowledge could slowly emerge. Luther and Calvin emphasised
the role of individual over that of Church for religious salvation. Galileo and Newton
offered scientific and experimental evidence instead of theological cosmology. Slowly,
the nature of seminaries which were like theological schools changed. These were taken
out of the control of the Church and taken over by the city councils of citizens for
administration and cultivation of knowledge. The modern university system thus came
into being on a secular basis of organisation, production and communication of
knowledge. This process of secularisation of knowledge in the European society took
several hundred years and it was shaped under the influence of its own social, political,
cultural and economic transformations.
2.6.3 Division of Knowledge into Disciplines

What we see today as disciplines under the Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and
Humanities are the result of the division (of knowledge) which took place during the
period of emergence of University system in Europe. This division is based largely on
classification of reality on certain philosophical grounds. That is to say, each discipline
whether it is physics, chemistry, economics or sociology, assumed that it had for its study
a separate 'subject-matter'. However, as knowledge advanced in depth and stock, it was
observed that the scope of a discipline could not be demarcated on the basis of the
'subject-matter' which may have been shared by many disciplines in that group. For
example, study of individual is the subject matter for disciplines of Social Sciences group
(like Economics, Political Science, Sociology etc.). Does this then mean that the
'individual' is artificially divided among these disciplines? Is the economic man different
from a 'political' or 'sociological' man? No. The individual which is the subject matter
cannot be fragmented among the disciplines. They are merely different because they
adopt different conceptual approaches to, and study different facets of the same subject
matter i.e. the individual. That is where there lies hope for integration of knowledge for
comprehensive understanding of the subject-matter (individual in social sciences)
through genuine inter-disciplinary researches.
Many social and natural science disciplines such as statistics, economics, chemistry and
physics, etc. emerged in response to demands to solve specific needs of society.
Necessity indeed was the mother of inventions. But chance discoveries (serendipity) and
creativity also played a role in the growth and differentiation of knowledge. All these
diversifications have given rise to professional groups of vested interests who pose a
major problem to the integration of knowledge. In the domain of logic, concept and
method, however, significant advances have already been made during the past few
decades which point to the possibility of more and more integration of knowledge.
1) How did separation of Science and Religion take place? Answer in about five lines.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------
2) What are the problems vis-a-vis the integration of knowledge ? Answer in about five
lines.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------
2.7 LET US SUM UP

Human beings are endowed by nature to be reflective and active. Only they and not other
animals, have the ability to abstract and represent their experiences through use of
symbols and later, language and other sophisticate mediums of communication.
They grew with the evolution of the tool making ability evolved in course of time. In the
process of evolution, stone tools and weapons were replaced by those of metals- first
bronze, then iron. Each corresponding stage contributed to the growth of culture, art,
social organisation, religious beliefs and economic institutions. Occupational guilds and
urban settlements emerged during the Bronze Age; the iron Age saw the rise of complex
social and political organizations, systems of scientific knowledge, medicine, astronomy
and mathematics which later contributed to the rise of the contemporary historical
civilisation. Writing, which was slowly evolving during the Bronze Age, saw its fuller
growth during the Iron Age.
Evolution of material aspect of culture coincided with evolution of ideas, values and
social institutions. The tool making ability of human beings gave them power to adapt to
nature as well as to control it. A part of the crisis of our civilisation today is about the
nature and extent of this adaptation. We have yet to establish a harmonious relationship
with nature in the wake of our present day industrial and nuclear civilisation. The much
talked about topic of "sustainable development" is all about this critical relationship of
adaptation and mutual harmony.
Over these years, the ability to think grew into systematic learning and knowledge so
much so that today's (post-industrial) society is being described as a 'Knowledge Society'.
Magic, religion and science are the major forms, which knowledge took in the course of
evolution but the forces and factors of those changes have remained quintessentially
European.
The perennial quest for knowledge has led human beings to great discoveries and
scientific achievements. But with exponential growth of knowledge has also come in the
train, emergence of the "two cultures" i.e. the worlds of Science and Moral values. Both
are increasingly distancing themselves from each other, though this was typically true of
the developments in the West. The Indian tradition, however, always focused on an
organic, integral relationship between scientific knowledge and its cultural or value
framework. Despite various vested interest groups engaged in perpetuation of this
divergence, significant advances have already been made during the past few decades to
bang about integration of knowledge for which sufficient evidences are forthcoming from
the domains of logic, concept and methodology.
2.8 KEY WORDS

Abstraction: Process of formation of ideas, or quality of things by separating it mentally
from any particular material object.
Adaptation: The process by which human beings adjust to a situation.
Aesthetic: Related to beauty, art.
Anachronistic: That which is severely out of date.
Annihilation: Bringing to nothingness, to destroy or demolish.
Anthropologist: A student of or specialist in the study of man in totality, his physical,
social and cultural life.
Antiquarian: Dealing in antique or rare old objects.
Australopithecine: A primitive group of early man living in Africa a million years ago.
Billet: A wooden club.
Bipedal: Two-footed animal.
Cognitive: Knowing ability related to perception, memory judgement.
Conceptualise : To form concept or idea or thought in general.
Cortical: Related to gray matter or the brain, outer layer of brain.
Cosmology: Study of universe as a whole, its systems and structure.
Cranial: Related to the cranium or skull of the brain.
Culture: Total way of life, arts, modes of thinking, rules and regulations by which
society is run.
Dialects: Forms of spoken languages peculiar to a region or regions.
Encapsulate: Enclose inside as if in a capsule.
Ethics: Study of standards of conduct or moral judgement.
Existential: Expressing existence, or based on existence.
Environment: That which surrounds man, e.g. atmosphere, buildings, trees etc.
Evolutionary: Any irreversible process which makes organisms or institutions move
forward to a higher stage, e.g. humans have evolved from apes.
Extraction: To remove from the main body.
Heritage: Property that can be inherited, something handed down from one's ancestors.
Homo Sapiens: Latin name for a class of things/organisms of the same nature.
Improvise: To make or provide or do with whatever is in hand, to provide without
advance preparation.
Intrinsic: Inherent, or belonging to the real nature of a thing.
Institutionalised: Those norms and rules which have become part and parcel of social
process and organisation.
Insular: Isolated and safe outside the environment.
Laity: All the people not belonging to any profession; laymen in society.
Metaphysical: Supernatural.
Morphological: Related to form and structure of plants, animals or societies.
Monolithic: Huge complex structure of single stone.
Mutilate: To damage by removing a part.
Mystically: Exploring the inner vision and direction of man's mind.
Neolithic: New stone culture, when humans lived many centuries ago using stone
tools of more sophisticated kind.
Nirvana: Final spiritual release from earthly bonds and struggle.
Over-arching: Across the arches, that which goes across or connects specific or
particular.
Palaeontology: The science that deals with the life on earth in earlier times as known
from the study of fossils.
Palaeolithic: Old stone culture when humans used instruments of chipped stones many
centuries ago for hunting and cutting.
Perennial: Lasting for a long time.
Plasticity: Flexibility, impressionability.
Primates: Highest order of mammals e.g., man, apes etc.
Pseudo: 'False' or spurious.
Putrification: To become rotten, rottenness.
Quantum-leap: An advancement which is elemental or basic in nature.
Renaissance: The great revival of art, literature and social awakening in Europe during
14th and 16th centuries. You will know more about it in Block 2.
Seminaries : Schools, specially private schools and colleges in the past where priests
were trained in Europe.
Serendipity: Accidental discoveries; chance discoveries.
Transcendental: Abstract and supernatural.
Transformative: That which changes the original form Taboo: That which must not be
done because it contradicts social rules.
Technology: The state or science of industrial arts in which complex instruments are
used.
Zymurgy: Chemistry of fermentation for making wine.
2.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) (ii) & (iii)

2) (i) False (ii) False (iii) True (iv) True
3) (iv)
3) (iv)
4) (ii) & (iii)
1) See sub-section 2.3.2

2) (i) 9 (ii) x (iii) x

1) (iii)
1) (ii)
1) See Section 2.6.2 (ii)

2) See Section 2.6.3
UNIT 3 SOCIAL CHANGE AND EVOLUTION
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concepts of Change: Evolution, Development and Growth
3.2.1 Social Change
3.2.2 Development
3.2.3 Development and the New World Order
3.3 Differentiation in Social Forms
3.3.1 Simple to Complex Society
3.3.2 Regional Cultures: Technological Advance and Social Differentiation
3.4 Emergence of Class Divisions
3.5 Process of Human Settlement
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Some Useful Books
3.9. Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
3.0 OBJECTIVES
You have studied in Unit 2 how human beings forged new tools and made social, cultural and economic
progress. In this Unit, you will be introduced to the more specific dimensions of this progress, i.e. social
change in the context of social and economic institutions. After reading this unit, you should be able to:
distinguish between concepts of evolution, change and development in societies,

trace the development of society from simple to complex forms, and
know how the process of human settlement evolved over the years.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
We very often talk about social change. As you already know society has changed a lot; morals have
changed; values have changed; customs have changed; etc. But have you ever paid attention to or thought
about the process of change? For example, if customs have changed, why did they change? How; did they
change? Is the change for the better? Was this change necessary?
Questions like these are not to be asked only for the sake of inquiry or curiosity. They are relevant in terms
of further evolution and development of human society.
Social change is the most crucial feature of all societies. It is necessary for the survival of any society to
adapt itself according to the changing bio-social and physical environment. Therefore, human beings and
their social institutions have evolved through time, along with changes in environment. Social changes result
in differentiation of forms of social institutions. From a rather simple form, these institutions become
complex. These changes in social institutions are governed by historical conditions.
It is not just that human society has been changing. It has also developed in various spheres related to human
life: ideas have developed, social institutions have developed, skills and arts have developed, etc. But what
is development?
Development is a process of change to which societies attribute positive value.
This Unit also tells you about the nature of differentiation in societies which move from simple to complex
forms of structures and functions. Changes in technology and modes of production play a crucial role in this
process. This unit, therefore, deals with evolutions of occupational differentiation in societies and the class
differentiation that emerges out of it.
An attempt has also been made to describe the process of human settlement, from agrarian to industrial
society; urban settlements; institutions of power and so on.
3.2 CONCEPTS OF CHANGE: EVOLUTION,

DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH
During the process of evolution, the social structure undergoes many changes. These changes are related to
types of work, nature of social organisation, values, beliefs and a number of human institutions. But social
change unlike biological evolution can also be reversible as a process. For example a village may, in course
of development evolve to become a city or town. But if advantages of economy or of location are lost, the
city can once again suffer decline and become a small village. This is what we would call a reversible
process. However, biological evolution from one stage to a higher one is an irreversible process.
3.2.1 Social Change

Social change is a process through which social organisations, social relationships and forms of values and
beliefs of people in societies are altered. This happens either as a result of internal changes in societies, such
as pressure of population, changes in technology, etc. or as a result of external pressures. These may include
contact with other societies through war and trade, etc.
Social change is closely related to time scale. Here, one can refer to small scale changes as the gradual
development of a leadership role in a small group, such as a club or a factory. There can be short term
changes as in the employment rates. There could also be long term changes such as in occupational
structures. There are also cyclical changes as we see in the cultural life of a society. A fashion or life-style
which declines and revives again after a short period of time.
According to some sociologists, social change refers to the unfolding of man's social arrangements through
time. Hence, the analysts of social changes should focus their attention on the variations in time of one or
more of the social forms, population attributes, and patterns of interaction among members of society. The
changes in the cultural pattern, which include values, beliefs, knowledge and world view also form a part of
the process of social change.
3.2.2 Development
Development is a special form of social change. It implies changes in a direction treated as desirable by the
members of society. L.T. Hobhouse, in his work Social Development (1924) proposed a four-fold criteria of
development, such as increase in scale, efficiency, mutuality and freedom. As you will notice each of these
criteria refer to a position or state of affairs in society, which enhances its desirable features.
In contemporary sociological literature the term 'development' has been used firstly, to draw a distinction
between the highly industrialised developed societies, and the societies which are predominantly rural and
agricultural and have relatively low levels of income, i.e. the developing societies. Secondly, it refers to the
process by which the developing societies are now becoming industrialised.
Development, therefore, is a strategy of social change in a direction, which, as mentioned earlier, is

considered desirable by the members of a society. This may differ from one society to another depending on
the socio-cultural background and political and geographical situation, but in all societies, the general
connotation is the same. It implies growth in education, agriculture, industry, etc., simultaneously.
As such, growth as a concept is a part of the process of development. Without growth, there can be no
development.
The objectives of development are formulated in terms of specific social and economic policies. It reflects a
preferred direction of social change.
Development thus, refers to a specific process of the concept of social change. Development as a concept
assumed prominence due to the rise of the welfare role of the state. It was recognised that societies must
plan and organise their process of social change so that the welfare of the people may be enhanced. For
example, the development objectives in India have been defined as those of modernization, economic
growth, self-sufficiency and equality. The Five Year Plans in India have been formulating sets of social,
economic and physical targets for introducing changes in society through fiscal, industrial and agrarian
policies of change.
3.2.3 Development and the New World Order

When the states have assumed the responsibility of development and well-being of the people, the
international arrangements in which these states interact among themselves have also become important for
them. This is more so in these days of fast integrating world. You must have heard about 'global village',
'globalisation', 'privatisation' and 'deregulation of economics', etc. These new concepts describe a
phenomenon which is only recent. The Cold War between the superpowers (US led bloc and USSR led bloc)
came to an end with the disappearance of the Communist bloc of Eastern Europe. In the resulting scenario,
some of the important changes (relating to social development) which took place during the 1990s may be
mentioned as below:
i) As change-initiators, two more agencies joined the state. Civil society (dominated by the widespread
presence of non-governmental organisations) and 'Market' (everdemanding privatisation of hitherto
government controlled sectors of the economy and other sectors) joined the state in planning and
deciding the welfare of the people.
ii) The UN system took up vigorously the task of articulating (for international solution) social problem
areas for immediate attention of the global community. Series of Conferences were prepared and
Programmes of Action formulated under the welcome initiative of the UN. The major World
Summits (with participation from hundred and more states (which met under the UN initiative) are:
a) On child at New York in 1990.

b) On environment (The Earth Summit) at Rio or the Rio Conference in 1992.
c) Human Rights Conference in Vienna in 1993.
d) On Population and Development at Cairo in 1994.
e) On Social Development at Copenhagen in 1995.
f) On Women at Beijing in 1995 and
g) On Human Settlement or Habitat 11 at Istanbul in 1996.
iii) A notable gain which the poor Third World Countries have achieved towards the end of the Cold
war days is the Right to Development which the developed western countries did not consider of
primary importance. The General Assembly of the UN did, however, finally adopt a Declaration on
the Right to Development in 1986 after many years of preparation by the poor Third world countries
backed by the then Soviet Union. In 1993, the World Conference on Human Rights at Vienna
succeeded in achieving two more gains in this area:
a) all the nights-political, cultural, economic, social, etc. are indivisible and inter-dependent and
b) for genuine democracy to take roots (which the developed countries have been asking of the
developing ones) development and popular participation are unavoidably necessary.
The Right to Development which has henceforth, become morally acceptable to all the countries after the
Vienna Conference, has been defined as:
"An inalienable right by virtue of which every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate in,
contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development, in which all human rights and
fundamental freedoms can be fully realised."
It has been further clarified that "the human person is the central subject of development and should be an
active participant and beneficiary of the right to development".

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit.
1) What do you understand by "Social Change"?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) Identify some new developments which have occurred during the 1990s.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.3 DIFFERENTIATION IN SOCIAL FORMS

Differentiation is the process by which the rudimentary characters in a system undergo changes in forms. It
gives rise to new and more complex types of life forms of social institutions. As such, it is a biological as
well as a social process. This process takes place in society due to a number of reasons such as increases in
population, food and other resources, inventions of new technology, etc. These changes replace older modes
of production and occupation. New institutions and social organisations also emerge. Thus, social
differentiation is an evolutionary process of change in society.
3.3.1 Simple to Complex Society

Let us now see from a general perspective, how human beings and their social institutions have evolved
from simple to complex forms. From forest-wandering, food gathering primitive societies, to village-
dwelling agriculture based societies, to finally highly developed Industrialised modern societies living in the
metropolitan cities today.
This social evolution has occurred very slowly over a long period of time. Studies in pre-history and
archaeology, to which you have been introduced, show very clearly how human beings and their society
evolved. Evolution of new tools and technology accompanied evolution of social institutions. During the
early Stone-age or Paleolithic period as you have studied, human being used pebble tools in the beginning,
then started using bi-faced stone-tools made by chipping. They discovered fire and its uses and by the end of
this period started building shelters for themselves. They lived by hunting and food gathering but the notions
of property, barter or exchange of commodities had also taken root in its nascent form in this period.
Culturally also, the early Stone Age human beings had started burying their dead, and even made offends to
them. They practiced magic, and developed beliefs which ultimately led to the emergence of religions. They
also learnt to live and organised life in small group and bands. Some division of labour between sexes and
age groups, as well as specialisation of skills had emerged.
The period was followed by the middle Stone age or Mesolithic age. In this period human beings faced
severe climatic changes which they met by changing their ways of life. The emergence of new forests in
Europe after the end of glaciation, expansion of semi-desert terrain in Asia and Africa, led them to migrate
and evolve new technologies to meet new challenges. What we see in this evolution process is a movement
from simple to complex social forms, institutions, etc.
3.3.2 Regional Cultures: Technological Advance and Social

Differentiation
Each social group that had evolved during this period had its own distinct culture. For example, the life-
styles of the early caveman and the bushman were distinct in relation to their food, their tools and their
places of shelter. The caveman learnt to draw and in this process depicted what he saw outside. Fortunately
for us, such paintings made by the caveman were discovered and we have a few illustrations for you (See
No. 13).
No. 13: Cave Paintings and Engravings (Altamira, Spain)
The evolution of the cultural process in different regions was effected by geographical
variations. For example, at a particular time in Asia when human beings were using logs
of wood to float, in Africa canoes made out of dugout wood were being used for
fishing.
The point we are trying to emphasis here is that is not necessary that there was or there
has to be a simultaneous cultural evolution in all regions. If the caveman in Spain drew
excellent pictures, the caveman in other regions might not have developed the ability to
draw. Thus, we may know about the cultural pursuits of the former, but nothing about
the latter.
During the next stage of social evolution, i.e. the Neolithic Age, a fundamental
technological and social revolution took place. Naturally, you would ask what was this?
This was the shift to agriculture as the major source of food production. During this
period the dependence of human beings on the vagaries of nature relatively declined.
They started producing their own food and living in permanently settled communities.
Today, we might underestimate the importance of this because society has attained a lot
in the form of cultural and technological advances. But judging by those times, say
some 50,000 years ago, this development was a great advance for human beings. There
is a close link between the development of technology, mode of production and the
systems of social relationships. This is evident if you study the history of human
society. Let us briefly try to understand this link.
In the most primitive age when human beings were slowly evolving their technology
and mode of production, the social structure of their society was a simple one which
included:
elementary knowledge of technology, i.e. of stone and bone tools:

some rudiments of beliefs, kinship and family organisations;
use of symbols, gestures and some sort of language (about which we virtually know
nothing) for communication, etc.
During this period there was no surplus production, hence, no class or strata
differentiation. Human beings lived in small bands and groups. They led a nomadic life
moving from one place to another. But their movement obviously depended on the
availability of food.
But what difference did the coming of agriculture make? This, in fact, proved a turning
point in the process of social evolution.
It is very difficult to pin point how human beings stated growing their food. In all
probability they learnt about it through their observations of plants and trees. Once they
decided to grow food there came a great shift in their life-style-from nomad to settled
community life. This was an unprecedented human achievement-a revolution in the
human life-style.
No. 14: Sowing Operations
What were the implications of this shift to settled community life?
The need for dwellings to survive for a longer period must have led to the construction of hut type structures.
Initial food production-must not have been sufficient to meet the requirements. Thus, hunting and collecting food must
have gone along simultaneously with food production.
To increase food production human beings must have experimented and created new tools. For example, the
development of geometric tools, indicates the use of something similar to a sickle which can be dated to 10,000 to
8,000 years ago. In India such microlithic stone tools have been found in Gujarat. They were hafted in a bone or
wooden piece to make a composite tool like a sickle.
The first sowing operations were probably done with digging sticks. The later inventions were the hoe and the plough.
The process of taming the animals and using them for various purposes started.
The beginning of agricultural operations meant that material resources (like food) could be multiplied with more
labour. This led to over production (i.e. production out stripping the needs) and consequently, to the idea of surplus
production. From here started the rudiments of a barter system.
This led to division of labour not only in terms of skills but also on the basis of sex and age.
The division of labour led to the emergence of distinct social organisations and forms of administration.
The production of food surplus released some people from the task and agriculture. Some of these people now could
devote themselves to the development of other skills like arts and crafts, tool making, etc.
Increased contact with each other and accumulation of knowledge accelerated the pace of social evolution.
This pace was further accelerated by increase in population; emerging beliefs and social norms;
differentiation in social structures, etc.

1) Which of the following statements are correct'? Tick ( ) or (x).
i) Cultural development took place all over the world simultaneously. ( )

ii) Geometric tools of New Stone Age were made of Bronze. ( )
iii) The shift agriculture was a great achievement in the process of social evolution. ( )
iv) Human beings of the stone age period had a culture of their own. ( )
2. Write in about 100 words the impact of settled community life on social evolution.
Discuss your answer with the concerned Academic Counsellor at your Study Centre.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.4 EMERGENCE OF CLASS DIVISIONS

In the process of development, the most significant contribution was the discovery of metal and its uses.
Prof V. Gordon Childe, an eminent scholar of pre-history wrote in his famous work 'Man makes Himself',
that:
"the stone axe... is the home made product that could be fashioned and used by anybody in a self
contained group of hunters or peasants. It implies neither specialisation of labour nor trade beyond
the group. The bronze axe which replaces it is not only a superior implement, it also pre-supposes a
more complex economic and social structure. The casting of bronze is too difficult a process to be
carried out by any one in the intervals of growing or catching his food or minding her babies. It is a
specialists job, and these specialists must rely for such primary necessities as food upon a surplus
produced by other specialists".
In the Bronze Age, metal was used in a limited sense for making weapons, tools and ornaments. However,
the discovery of iron and its smelting process as you have read earlier, led to another revolutionary change in
the history of human beings. This was a tough metal and the tools (like the plough) made out of it
increasingly contributed in the expansion of food production.
No. 16: iron Tool (Taxile, 1-5 Century A.D.)

Human being also developed more efficient techniques of irrigation like the storing of water, etc. Gradua71y
more food surplus was generated.
The invention of the Wheel had already speeded up travel and trade. Now, it is confirmed that most of the
Bronze Age civilisations had trade contacts with each other. The use of coins as money did away with the
barter system. Weights and measurements were introduced in the Bronze Age itself. The human society was
on the path of overall progress.
Alongwith these changes in society human relations were also changing. With the increase in food surplus,
class distinctions also emerged. There was a class of owners and masters of the means of production. On the
other side were the producers and labourers who served the masters.
No.17: Weights and Scale (Indus Valley 3500-2500 B.C)
In some societies like ancient Egypt and Greece there developed a system of slavery. Soon this system took
the shape of a mode of production. Slaves were mainly used for agricultural production and construction
purpose. These slaves were sold as any other commodity.
In certain parts of Europe the institution of serfdom and feudalism emerged. You will read about these in
subsequent blocks.
3.5 PROCESS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT

We have already introduced you to some of the key factors such as mode of production, technology and
geographical conditions, etc. that contributed to the process of social change, evolution and human
settlement. In this section we shall further discuss some other related aspects which played a crucial role in
the process of human settlement.
i) Women played a crucial role in human settlement. The students of pre-history agree that women
were primarily responsible for the cultivation of plants, fruits and vegetables. They tilled the soil,
cultivated plants and reared animals for purposes of food production. This process must have
emerged along with the division of labour based on sex. R is assumed that these tasks were
performed by women when men went out hunting.
ii) The development of social institutions like the family, clan, tribe, etc. also helped the human beings
in settling down. This led to the emergence of small villages and hamlets. The choice of these
settlements was, of course, determined by geographical endowment of the land, water resources and
climatic conditions.
iii) Due to the need for regular supply of water, rivers played an important role. It is, therefore, not
surprising that river valleys were favourite places where early settlements of human beings emerged.
All the great civilisations of the ancient world flourished along the river banks.
iv) Agriculture, as we have already seen, played a vital role in human settlement.
v) The division of labour, which must have emerged out of sexual differentiation, gradually extended
to cover specialised groups of people working in a specific craft. In India, occupational division of
labour became hereditary and took the form of caste system which passed through various stages.
Stage in the Evolution or Caste System
Stage-l Caste due to occupational division only, not by birth. Caste could change with change in
occupation. Freedom to choose occupation.
Stage-2 Caste hereditary i.e. by birth. But freedom of occupation i.e. for example, a Shudder could
do Brahman's work but would be called Shudra only.
Stage-3 Caste and occupation both hereditary. Occupation according to caste.
Stage-4 Division of caste into sub-castes.
vi) In the process of social change and human settlement there emerged certain political institutions like
the village council, village headman, king and his cabinet, and so on. These institutions further
contributed to the development of human settlements.
vii) With the development of trade, technology and specialised skills the human settlements took the
forms of towns and cities. There emerged civilisations that were urban in nature. Some of the
features of the shift from rural to urban society were:
Towns emerged as trading centers.

Towns became the seats of power and administrative centres.
Some cities were also founded and developed as centres of pilgrimage.
The industrial revolution completely changed the composition of cities in certain industrialised societies.
The urban and rural settlements are differentiated on the basis of occupation structure.
The majority of urban households have non-agricultural occupations whereas the rural households depend primarily on
agriculture.
It is this shift from purely agriculture based occupational structure to a structure based on trade, industries and services
which marks the emergence and development of city life.
viii) You will read in detail about these aspects in further blocks of this course. However, we will have to
mention here that the development of science and technology has now increased the pace of social
evolution tremendously. Today, the developed industrialised societies are passing through the phase
which is described as a 'post industrialised category of evolution'. This, according to some social
scientists will be a stage where technocrats, scientists and intellectuals will dominate the society.
You have read about Information Society in the previous unit.
The cities are increasingly becoming unliveable. The poor and the landless move for jobs and homes to
cities. For the first time ever, half the world's people will be living in cities. From one person in 20 at the
beginning, now we have one in almost two living in cities towards the end of this century. Between 1950
and 1995, the number of one million-plus cities grew six times in the developing world (from 34 to 213).
A11 over major cities have air pollution level (due to vehicular emissions) which is 4 to 5 times what is
considered safe by the WHO.
Process of Human Settlement

1) Which of the following statements are correct? Tick ( ) or (x)
i) The discovery of metal had no significance in the evolution of human society. ( )

ii) Slavery was a mode of production in some ancient civilisations. ( )
iii) Women introduced civilisation of plants. ( )
iv) All great civilisations flourished in the deserts. ( )
2) Write in about five lines the contribution of women in the evolution of human settlement.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3) What were the four stages of the development of the institution of caste? Answer in about hundred
words.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4) Discuss the differences between rural and urban settlements in about five lines.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.6 LET US SUM UP

Social change is a process that takes place in all societies. Yet to understand its various forms one has to
grasp it as a concept and distinguish it from related concepts such as evolution, growth and development.
Biological evolution is an irreversible process of change from simple to complex forms of life. Social
change is governed by the process of evolution, but sometimes this process can also be reversible. Growth,
development and progress are idealised aspects of social change that are generally products of human efforts
and planning.
The process of change involves movement of societies from one form to another, differentiation of their
organisation, modes of work and cultural patterning. This movement is from simple to complex stages.
Technological development plays a key role in this process. It leads to better control on forces of nature,
increase in food surpluses, growth of settled form of human groups and communications, growth of
countries into towns and cities, and evolution of new institutions of power, social classes and forms of
government.
In the course of human evolution, it has also been established that development is a human right and such a
development has the human being at the centre of all policy planning, making and administration.
3.7 KEY WORDS

Canoes: Small narrow boats used by tribals in various pans of the world.
Connotation: A meaning in addition to the primary meaning of word or sentence.
Diffusion: Dissemination or dispersion or scattering.
Fiscal : Related to public revenue taxation. etc.
Glaciation : To form into ice ; refers to geological time when larger parts of earth were covered with
glaciers.
Guild: A community based on occupational specialisation, mainly artisans during the medieval period of
Europe.
Heterogeneity: Differences based on birth or origin from different sources. Intellectual: A person involved
in scholarly pursuits.
Nascent: In the process of birth or not yet mature.
Quantum: Latin word that refers to amount sufficient at a time.
Retrogress: To move backward or revert to infer state.
Smelting: Process of extracting metal from the ore. Vagaries: Unaccountable movements, freakish
behaviour or motion.
3.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

(1) Chattopadhyaya, D. (ed.) 1982: Studies in the History of Science in India (Vol. I &: 11), Editorial
Enterprises, New Delhi. (2) Gordon Childe, 1956: Man Makes Himself, 3rd Edition, London. (3) Kosambi,
D.D. 1956: Introduction to the Study of Indian History, Bombay. (4) Korovkin, F., 1981: History of the
Ancient World, Progress Publishers, Moscow. (5) Singh, Yogendra, 1973: Modernisation of Indian
Tradition, Thompson Press, New Delhi.

1) See Sub-section 3.2.1.

2) See Sub-section 3.2.3.
1) (i) x (ii) X (iii) (iv)

3) See sub section 3.3.2.

1) (i) X (ii) (iii) (iv) X
2) See Sub-section 3.5 (i)
3) See Sub-section 3.5 (v)
4) See Sub-section 3.5 (vii)
UNIT 4 DOMESTICATION OF
ANIMALS AND ORIGINS OF
AGRICULTURE
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Man as Hunter/Gatherer
4.3 Archaeological Evidence for Domestication
4.4 The First Farmers of Western Asia
4.5 The Development of Farming and Herding in India
4.6 The Consequences of Agriculture and Herding
4.7 Social Structure of Hunting and Farming Societies
4.8 Development of Social Complexity
4.9 Let Us Sum Up
4.10 Key Words
4.11 Answers to Check Your Progress /Exercises
4.0 OBJECTIVES
In Block l, you learnt about the various phases through which human beings and their
culture evolved. The emergence of new social activities with new modes of production
played a crucial role in this process. Agriculture as a mode of production marks an
important phase in the evolution of human society. In this unit we shall try to learn about
the importance of agriculture. After studying this unit you will be able to know:
the process of transition of mankind from food-gathering to settled agriculture
through domestication of animals and cultivation of plants,
the nature of the climatic and ecological factors which contributed to this
development,
the nature of archaeological and historical evidence which establishes the pattern
of this evolution.
the social consequences of settled agriculture, such as settled community life or
sedentism, attachment to land, cooperative activities and growth of complex
social forms etc., and
how the origin of settled agriculture led to the sophistication of technology and
growth of a new political organisation.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Human beings slowly evolved their economy from the stage of food-gathering to
cultivation of plants about 10,000 years ago. This development was achieved first in
Western Asia, in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria and Palestine. In the Indian subcontinent, rice
cultivation originated in Belan Valley in the Vindhya Plateau and wheat-barely
cultivation in the North-Western region of Afghanistan and Pakistan. The wheat-barley
cultivation preceded the rice cultivation. The evidence for wheat-barley cultivation goes
as far back as 6500-5000 B.C., whereas the rice cultivation in the Ganga Valley started
around 2000 B.C.
The archaeological evidence in the form of domesticated animals, seeds, household
equipment-specially the ground stone tools and pottery etc. suggest this process of
evolution. Settled agriculture and domestication of animals went hand in hand. The
growth of agriculture led to major social changes. It brought about settled village
communities, contributed to the growth of agricultural technology including the use of
hoes and ploughs. These led to greater control over nature. It also introduced new social
institutions such as cooperative activities, kinship organisation, political institutions of
chief tainship and various new cultural practices and beliefs. The emergence of
agriculture was thus a beginning of the flowering of a more complex civilisation later.
4.2 MAN AS HUNTER/GATHERER

Mankind, as we discussed earlier, has been on earth for about 1.75 million years. For
more than 99% of this period, human beings have been hunters and gatherers. It was
only about 10,000 years ago that they began to change over to farming and keeping
animals.
As hunters and gatherers, human beings lived off the resources of their environment.
They collected roots, fruits and seeds for food and killed or caught animals, birds and
fish with the aid of stone tools, fibre nets, bone harpoons or traps.
Skeletons and stone tools of the earliest hunters were found in Tanzania and Kenya in
eastern Africa. As one can imagine, the earliest stone tools were simple in shape and
rough in workmanship. It took human beings hundreds of generations to develop more
sophisticated tools. As the human being became a more efficient hunter, human groups
very gradually migrated into Europe and Asia, and later into northern America and
Australia, so that by about 8,000 B.C. there were groups of hunters and gatherers in
almost all parts of the world. In each region human societies adjusted to vastly different
environments so that stone tools and food depended on locally available resources.
Social Organisation of Hunting-Gathering Society

As hunter and gatherer the human being had a distinctive social organisation. Although
hunting was necessary for food, some individuals like pregnant women, women with
small children and youngsters could not hunt. On the other hand, gathering was less
arduous and could be done by most people. Thus, only those human groups might have
survived and proliferated who had worked out an efficient division of labour.
Studies of hunters and gatherers who still survive in isolated pockets of the world have
shown that survival also depends on mobility. Men have to be away on hunting
expeditions, sometimes for days at a stretch, while women, children and old people
remain behind to arrange plant foods (e.g. fruits, roots, etc.) around their settlement.
More important, groups have to adjust to seasonal fluctuations in their environment:
pools or lakes can dry up in hot weather in which case camps have to move to permanent
water resources. The inhabitants of a camp consumed and exhausted the fruits available
in one area and then moved on to another area of the forest. So, within a hunting-
gathering society, people may have to live in small and dispersed camps for some
seasons of the year, but in large groups in other seasons. As groups repeatedly split up
and come together again, individuals can choose the group with which they will move.
We will see how these patterns gave way to new ones when people abandoned hunting
and gathering as a way of life and adopted agriculture and settled life. First, let us
explore how they changed over to agriculture. Where did this happen? If it began to
happen some 10,000 years ago, how do we know about it?
4.3 ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR
DOMESTICATION
When it is said that human beings 'domesticated' plants and animals for their economic
and social needs, it means that they chose certain plant and animal species to produce
their food and controlled the growth and reproduction of these species. They sowed the
seeds of wild grass in prepared fields and grew plants and crops. They chose the breeds
of plants which they thought would grow best in their particular region. Similarly, they
captured the young of certain wild animals, kept them in captivity, and controlled their
mating. Here too, the human beings selected those species of animals which they thought
would be easier to tame or those which would give good milk and food. When breeding
of plants and animals is taken up deliberately, the species themselves undergo a
physiological change. After generations of breeding, the 'domesticated' plant or animal is
very different from its wild ancestor.
(a) Wild and (b) Domesticated Wheat
In the mounds of prehistoric villages, archaeologists find animal bones which they can
identify as belonging to a particular animal, wild or domesticated. For example,
domesticated sheep differ from wild sheep in the shape of the skull, or the size of the
teeth and horns. Seeds could survive in the debris of a prehistoric mound if they were
burned and became carbonised. The impressions of seeds can be left in the mud used by
prehistoric people for pottery or house plaster, and these impressions can be carefully
studied. So it is possible for an archaeologist to tell whether the plant or animal remains
of a prehistoric village were domesticated or wild.
Also, the archaeologist looks for household equipment which would be useful for animal
herders or farmers. A hunter can break off a portion of an animal and roast it on fire to
eat it. But grain must first be ground on a mortar or quern, and cannot be prepared into
dough for bread or cooked as porridge unless there are suitable containers. In many parts
of the world, therefore, though not everywhere, pottery had developed when agriculture
had begun. Farmers must clear the ground for tilling. Then they have to prepare the
surface of the ground to sow the seed. So they had to devise stone tools with a long and
accurate cutting edge to fell trees or a good sharp end to make neat holes in the ground.
This they did by grinding stone tools to gain sharp and accurate working edges. Thus
'ground stone tools' are also indicators of agricultural economy.
2. Primitive Agricultural Tools

1) The domesticated sheep can be distinguished from wild sheep (Check one of the
following
for correct answer):
i) as they have large size and weight

ii) as they have smaller teeth and shorter horns
iii) as they have different feeding habits
iv) as they have marked differences in skin cover
2) Write five lines on social organisation of the hunting-gathering society.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
3) How do 'ground stone tools' indicate that society was agricultural?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
4.4 THE FIRST FARMERS OF WESTERN
ASIA
Western Asia was one of the first regions in the world where domestication began. On
the (Map 1), we can locate the modern countries in which the earliest farming villages
lie: Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria and Palestine. We can see the Zagros mountains and trace
their sweep from west to east and then south-east. We can also locate the north-south hill
ranges of Lebanon. From the altitude key given in the map, one cam see that east of
Lebanon and south and west of the Zagros, lies the low country.
Map 1
In western Asia the amount of rainfall a region receives from the Mediterranean winds
depends on its altitude. High mountains receive the most snow and rain, valleys enclosed
within the mountain ranges receive a little less, plateau the even less, and the Tigris-
Euphrates through the least. The thickness and variety of natural vegetation depends on
the amount of winter rainfall. Thus, the high mountain slopes are covered with mixed
trees including pine, while the plateau and lowland are covered with mixed trees
including pine, while the plateau and lowland are too dry for trees to grow and are only
covered by grass. Significant for us are the hill zones, 700 to 1500 meters above sea
level, covered with open oak and pistachio forest. Here, wild wheat and barley grasses
grow naturally, and this was also the habitat of wild sheep, goat, cattle and pig. This is
called the 'natural habitat zone' and it extends into the hill regions of northern Iran and
Afghanistan. The animal and plant species mentioned above were to become the first
domesticates.
Let us see what information has been gathered by archaeologists about the earliest
farming sites of western Asia. The transition to a farming economy was gradual. At sites
like Zawi Chemi, Shanidar and Karim Shahir in the oak woodlands of northern Iraq, we
have the remains of seasonal camps of hunters who were preparing wild grass seeds.
During the early occupation of Ali Kosh (about 7500 B.C. onwards) in southern Iran, we
have evidence of a winter camp of people who had domesticated sheep and gathered
food, but had already begun to experiment with agriculture. For wheat and barley seeds
have been found here, and they could not have grown wild in the dry country around Ali
Kosh. This dry country, though lacking wild wheat and barley, is excellent grassland in
winter and it is felt that animal herders from the upland forests used to descend here in
winters to graze their animals. When descending every year they must have brought with
them seeds of barley and wheat to sow in prepared fields around Ali Kosh. Thus, it
appears that agriculture had begun about this time and was closely interrelated with
animal herding.
In Syria and Palestine a slightly different process is evident. May early sites have been
found in the oak woodland belt and along the coast. These show that people were still
basically hunters and gatherers, but appear to have given up seasonal movements from
camp to camp. One will wonder how this was possible. It appears that hunters could
settle in this region after about 10,000 B.C. because they had begun to exploit their
immediate localities with a new efficiency. They took their food from a very great variety
of species, large and small animals, snails, all kinds of water creatures, birds, rodents and
many plants. Such a wide range of food base removed the necessity of wandering.
At Abu Hureyra in the dry region on the Upper Euphrates, in Syria, 150 km east of the
natural strands of wheat and barley, seeds were recovered. People may have brought
seeds to sow far from their natural habitat because in this area, a smaller variety of edible
plants and animals was available than in the coast and the woodlands.
After this initial stage, we find permanently established farming villages over much of
western Asia. For example, Jarmo (6500 to 5800 B.C.) in Iraq was a village of about 20
to 30 mud houses, each with a courtyard and several rooms, and contained ground stone
axes, querns and pottery. The people kept sheep and goats and grew wheat and barley.
Between 8300 and 7300 B.C., Jericho in Palestine was a large village where agriculture
is evidenced, but not animal herding (which was to develop later). Jericho was
surrounded by a 2-metre wide stone wall with round towers, one of the earliest instances
of fortification in the world. An underground spring bringing water to the surface near
the village made early agriculture possible in this very dry spot.
3. Boulder, Foundations of a House at Jarmo
The largest village, however, was Cat Al Huyuk (6500 to 5400 B.C.) in southern Turkey.
Here, cattle, sheep and goat were bred and barley, wheat and peas were grown. The two-
room mud houses were built back to back, sharing walls, so that there were no streets or
lanes. Every house was entered from its roof. No one knows why! Pottery, stone axes,
bone tools, simple stone ornaments, basketry and wooden bowls were made and many
houses were painted with unusual scenes: leopards, an erupting volcano or vultures
dismembering human corpses.
4. Interior of a Room at Catal Huyuk (Painted with Vultures Devouring Headless
Human
Bodies)
There was a gradual transition in western Asia to a new economy based on raising sheep,
goat and cattle and growing wheat, barly and legumes. In some areas farming and
herding developed together, in other areas the former preceded the latter but what about
India?
4.5 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FARMING

AND HERDING IN INDIA
Our subcontinent (See Map 2) contains a great diversity of climates, soils and farming
patterns. Therefore, it is not surprising that the earliest domestication, established in
different regions and in different periods, was based on different species. The villages
were different in their development in various regions:
i) Let us start with the north-western fringes of the subcontinent. We had said that
the natural
habitat zone extends into Afghanistan. In northern Afghanistan , caves occupied
by hunters and gatherers contained the remains of wild sheep, cattle and goat
bones. By about 7000 B.C. sheep and goat were domesticated in
5. Neolithic House at Mehrgarh
Afghanistan. The western mountain borderlands of the subcontinent are not far. The
farming village of Mehrgarh in present day Pakistan was founded between 6000 and
5000 B.C. It contained rectangular mud houses. Not surprisingly, its domesticates were
basically the same as those of the western Asiatic villages. Also, these were the same
domesticates on which was founded the economy of the Indus civilisation.
ii) But we know that much of the subcontinent receives only monsoon rain and
depends on rice. The earliest evidence for rice cultivation in India comes from
the Belan Valley. The Belan flows down the edge of the Vindhya plateau to join
the Tons river and thence, the Ganga near Allahabad. Originally, this area had
thick forest of teak, bamboo and dhak, and was inhabited by tigers, nilgai, chital,
and other wild animals. The forest floor was thickly covered with grasses,
including wild rice. Camps of hunters as well as early farming villages were
found in this region. At Chapani Mando site, the people hunted wild cattle, and
prepared wild grass seeds on querns and cooked them in simple handmade pots.
At a later site, Koldihwa the archaeologists have found round houses of wooden
poles covered with thatch, bones of domesticated cattle and seeds of cultivated
rice.
iii) After about 2000 B.C., other rice growing villages emerged within the Ganga
valley and along the eastern edge of the Chotanagpur plateau (overlooking the
Ganga delta). Cattle were also kept and by now other crops like pulses were
known. Even today, wheat is important in the upper Ganga valley, while below
Allahabad wheat gives way to rice as the principal crop. This is because the
rainfall gets progressively heavier further east. In the iron Age, the Ganges
civilisation which ultimately gave rise to the flourishing kingdom of Magadha,
was characterised by rice and cattle as the mainstay of the economy. Early
kingdoms in Tamil Nadu and coastal Andhra Pradesh also relied on rice
agriculture.
iv) On the hilly and generally dry Deccan plateau, some of the most productive lands
centre around the Sholapur and Raichur doabs formed by the Bhima, Krishna and
Tungabhadra rivers. Many of the first villages of peninsular India, (2400 to 1700
B.C.) were located in and near these doabs. Maski, Tekkalkota and Hallur were
villages of wood and thatched houses, with storage bins and stone querns, settled
continuously for several centuries. Ground stone hoes were used to raise finger
millet (ragi), mung and horse-gram. Some domesticated animals like sheep, goat
and buffaloes were kept, and they must have been economically very important.
At Kupgal and Kodekal there are mounds upto 3 meter high, composed of ash.
Archaeologists found that this ash was produced by the burning of cattle dung.
These might have been placed where accumulated dung was set ablaze, perhaps
as part of some ritual.
Millets are hardy and coarse plants which have been important crops of villages all over
peninsular India, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa. Ragi we saw, was first cultivated at the
above mentioned sites. It is still not known whether wild ragi grew in India, or came from
Africa. After about 1700 B.C. bajra is known to have grown in peninsular India and
Gujarat. The earliest jowar cultivation dates to about 1500 B.C. in Maharashtra, Malwa
and Rajasthan.
1) Mention the names of farming villages as discovered by archaeologists against

each of the
following West Asian countries.
Countires Villages
i) Palestine ----------
ii) Iraq ----------
iii) Turkey ----------
iv) Pakistan ----------
2) What important evidence have archaeologists gathered from West Asian villages
which
indicates the presence of agriculture there?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
.
3) Which were the main rice producing areas in India?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
Map. 2
4.6 THE CONSEQUENCES OF
AGRICULTURE AND HERDING
The shift from hunter and gatherer stage of human evolution to agriculture and farming
brought about certain changes in the social organisation of human beings. Here, we shall
discuss some of these changes.
i) Animals and Crops

We do not know when exactly specialised animal herding developed in some parts of the
world. It seems that in large tracts of land which could not support agriculture, or in areas
where the dry season was severe and fodder was not available for a large number of
animals, people gave up interest in agriculture and became full time animal herders. They
used to take their animals to pastures in different areas. Until today many communities in
western Asia and western India move around with their flocks of sheep and goat. But in
other parts of our subcontinent and in Europe, village communities have both tended
fields and kept animals.
Even in areas where animal herding became specialised, cattle gradually became
important for farmers. This was because as strong beasts, the cattle were capable of
drawing heavy ploughs to till the earth, aerate the clods, and draw nutrients into the root
zone of the crop from deeper levels. This kind of ploughing make for greater productivity
of the soil than the earlier manual digging of individual holes with hoes.
ii) Sedentism
Whatever the importance of animals, if a group depends on agriculture it tends to be
sedentary rather than mobile, unlike hunters and nomadic herdsmen. You must have
noticed that all the crops we have earlier described are annual grasses. They have to be
sown at one time of the year and are ready for harvest only three or four months later.
While they are growing they have to be protected, watered and weeded, Transplantation
and weeding in rice fields is especially laborious. When land becomes the object of
human being's labour in this way, they become attached to it. When there is only one
wheat or rice harvest every year, people have to store grain for eating during the rest of
the year and also to use as seeds in the next sowing. This also discourages nomadism.
Many prehistoric farming villages were equipped with immovable equipment like storage
bins and grinding stones. Many of these sites were occupied continuously for several
generations. And a site like Jericho, with its stone defences, must have been a permanent
site indeed!
iii) Attachment to Land

When people spend a lot of time as well as their skill and labour on certain plots of land,
they are determined not to easily give up this investment. There emerges not only
physical but also emotional attachment to land. That is why they are even ready to fight
for retaining it.
iv) Ecology
We have also seen that human beings began to introduce certain plants and animals into
areas where they were not originally found. Thus, they became conscious agents in the
transformation of the ecological balance of earth.
4.7 SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF HUNTING

AND FARMING SOCIETIES
Ancient farmers did not necessarily eat better than hunters and gatherers. Neither can we
say that farming was the more reliable subsistence, because early farmers would always
have to contend with crop diseases, soil depletion, floods or droughts. Nevertheless,
agriculture brought about social changes which are more complex.
In the first place we had argued that it is important for farmers to be sedentary. We also
see that farming groups develop stronger relationship between households than the
hunters. The main reason is the nature of cooperation between households. Several
people may come together to hunt a large animal. But once the prey is caught and the
meat shared, this 'work team' disbands. The next hunt may be carried out by some of the
previous members and some new ones. So in hunting societies cooperation remains ad
hoc. But agricultural societies require sustained cooperation over the life cycle of the
crop. Where rain-fall and high temperatures are confined to particular seasons, farmers
have to complete ploughing, sowing, watering and harvesting on schedule. Thus, several
households need to work together to ensure that the schedule is kept. Such 'work teams'
cannot be ad hoc because, unlike in hunting, the results are never immediate: they are
only gleaned at the harvest. So agriculture brings about more permanent communities
and communities with more organic solidarity than the fluctuating groups of hunters.
Early agriculturists expressed this solidarity through the idiom of kinship, and therefore
are called 'Tribal Societies'. All members of a tribe consider themselves to be
descendants of one person, and are therefore, related to one another. All members of a
tribe being considered kinsmen, they hold tribal land jointly. Elder and more experienced
members have the authority to settle disputes or arrange marriages or decide how fields
will be allocated between members, but they do not possess more land than others. Tribes
are usually simple societies with little specialisation of occupations. All members work
together and are assured of basic resources (land, water rights or herds) for their living.
4.8 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL

COMPLEXITY
Once agricultural tribes were established certain further changes started taking place. The
first villages were often established in zones where subsoil water made 'wet patch'
cultivation easy. Jericho depended on the water brought to its vicinity by underground
spring. Other villages may have depended on neighbourhood streams. In such situations
fields located close to the source of water would be better than fields further away. As
population increased or reliance on agriculture grew, some tribesmen would have no
choice but to till marginal, less fertile lands. Those members who had the best lands
would be able to produce the biggest harvests and give feasts to others, thereby, acquiring
high status and putting others under their obligation. In the mind of primitive man,
wealth was due to the favour of the ancestor or gods. Thus, those who
6. Granaries at Mehrgarh
repeatedly had successful harvests could claim to be the closest to the ancestor-gods.
These tribal chiefs would, thus, have a new kind of authority. While still kinsmen of all,
and not possessors of more land or animals than their followers, they could help families
in trouble and organise sacrifices to the gods. This gave them the authority to decide all
serious disputes, allocate all lands, manage the cult and round up people for work which
would benefit the whole community. The town wall of Jericho could not have been built
without a chief to command, regulate and coordinate the work. Again at Mehrgarh, after
3000 B.C. stone carving and shell cutting developed as crafts, and together with ordinary
houses there were two distinct storage buildings probably used as granaries. Community
storage would indicate that a chief was regulating the collection of produce.

Note:
i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your answer with that given at the end of the unit
1) Agriculture brings about settled communities of human beings because (Check

one of the following her correct answer)
i) it involved hard work

ii) it calls for better technology
iii) crops take time to mature and need protection
iv) it leads to better condition of living.
2) The nature of cooperation in hunting societies differs from those in agriculture

based societies because (Check one of the following for correct answer):
i) cooperation in hunting society is emotional

ii) cooperation in hunting society is ad hoc
iii) cooperation in hunting society is partial
iv) cooperation in hunting society is magico-religious.
3) Write a short note on the status of chiefs of the early tribal society.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
4.9 LET US SUM UP

The transition from food-gathering and hunting to settled agriculture started with
domestication of plants and animals. The first farmers who undertook this innovation
were from western Asia, where the ecology and climate were conductive to cultivation of
wheat and barley on the mountain slopes and river valleys. Sheep and goat were
domesticated. The archaeological sights of farming villages in Turkey, Iraq, Palestine,
Iran, Pakistan and India illustrate this process. In India the cultivation of plants took a
varied form because of the differences of ecology and climate. The growth of agriculture
contributed to settled or sedentary life-style, attachment of man to land and property,
replacement of the ad hoc type of cooperation existent among the hunting societies by a
more sustained form of cooperation. New kinship solidarity emerged among settled
agriculturists and political institutions such as chiefdom and kinship came into existence.
The interaction between man and his environment thus brought about changes in both.
There is evidence that domesticated plants and animals undergo changes as also changes
occur in man's habitat, social relationships and thinking. These changes brought about a
complex social organisation, and in course of time it led to the growth of civilisation.
4.10 KEY WORDS

Archaeology: the scientific study of human past or history.
Domestication: to become adaptive to home life
Habitat: physical environment
Kinship: relationship by birth or marriage
Kinsmeo: people of the same kinship group
Mortar: a vessel or pot in which food is pounded, usually of stone
Sedentism: settled, non-migratory
Species: a group of individuals having common characteristic.

PROGRESS/ EXERCISES
1) (ii)
2) See Section 4.2
3) See Section 4.2
1) See Section 4.4

2) See Section 4.4
3) See Section 4.5
1) (iii)
2) (ii)
3) See Section 4.7 and 4.8
UNIT 5 THE RIVER-VALLEY CIVILISATIONS
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Factors for the Growth of Early Civilisations
5.3 Three Distinct River-Valley Landscapes
5.4 City Dwellers of Lower Mesopotamia
5.4.1 The Sumerian Civilisation

5.4. 2 Sources of Kings Power
Chart-l The Chronology of Mesopotamia
5.5 Egypt
5.5.1. The Egyptian Culture
5.5.2 Administration
Chart 2 The Chronology of Egypt
5.6 The Harappan Cities' Civilisation

Chart-3 The Chronology of the North Western Subcontinent
5.7 Let Us Sum Up
5.8 Key Words
5.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit we intend providing you an insight into the transition of the early agricultural societies to the
stage of civilisation. It meant more complex social organisation, urban growth and development of advanced
trade and market networks and political and cultural systems.
By the end of this Unit you would be able to know:
about the major civilisations, such as those of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Mohenjodaro and Harappa which sprang up in the
river valleys,
the social, political, economic and cultural system of these civilisations, their common and unique features,
chronological sequence in which these social and economic changes followed in
each of the major river-valley civilisation, and
the form of interaction among the political institutions, urban centres and patterns of culture.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The river-valley civilisations marked a definite stage of improvement over the agricultural societies. This
process took time and it was not until 2600 B.C. that the Indus civilisation emerged. Civilisation could not
have emerged in the simple agricultural societies because its growth depended upon rise of new institutions,
such as organised kingdoms in place of kin-based polity of tribal chiefs, rise of urban centres, civic officials,
cultural specialists, written records, market, trade and commerce, etc. These did not exist in the agricultural
societies which were based on simple community based economy. The major river-valley civilisations are
those of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa. These arose in the valleys of rivers like Tigris
and Euphrates, Nile and Indus. These rivers flooded the plains leaving behind fertile soil where cultivation
led to economic surpluses. Great Urban civilisations arose in these valleys contributing to arts, crafts, trade
and a unified complex political system. As you would note from the chronology of evolution in these
civilisations that major social transformations took place in the course of millenia. It led to technological
innovation in transport, navigation and architecture apart from the rise of sophisticated patterns of culture.
5.2 FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF EARLY

CIVILISATIONS
Let us now examine the factors that led to the growth of the early civilisations. After a look at the maps, we
see that the first civilisations did not emerge in those regions where the first farming began. Moreover, if
farming began by 5000 B.C. in northwestern India, it was not until 2600 B.C.-twenty four centuries later-
that the Indus civilisation emerged. Thus. agriculture cannot be assumed to be the only 'causes' of
civilization. Also, many early and late agricultural societies in the world did not develop into civilisations.
But one can also confidently assert that no civilisation could emerge in a hunting gathering society, without
sedentism, without permanently organised communities, and above all, without storable food. We all know
that rice and wheat can be kept for years whereas meat and fruit rot within days. We shall discuss the
importance of storable food and its relationship to the growth of civilisation a little later.
Civilisation represents a stage in history when several tribal communities are united into a political and
economic order, i.e. when political and economic relationship cut across tribal boundaries. Such processes
come from a ruler at the centre, whose officers carry out his orders which all are obliged to obey. This is
very different from the structuring of community life around kin relationships. Here, we are not discussing
the various theories about the origin of the ruler or king as a political institution. Suffice to say is that the
political actions of the ruler (king) at the centre are effective because they are backed by force of social
acceptance. People would not obey a command to join the army or build a palace for the king or surrender
rent from their harvest to the king's officers unless they agreed to it or they had no choice. Rulers thus have
the power to organize trade, raise armies, or sponsor craft production.
This gives rise to much movement of people and goods through the ruler's territory. In the civilisations of the
Nile, Euphrates and Indus, cities ('urban centres') emerged. In urban centres many people were engaged in
non-food-producing occupations like administration, craft or scribal work, trade, or as professional priests.
Now, seal cutters or scribes did not produce food but they did consume it. So there had to be a regular
supply of food which was met by the villages.
In such a society rulers will not be able to function and cities will not survive unless food is imperishable.
Also, the cost of transportation between village and city must be low. For example, if a team of six oxen or
donkeys transport 1000 kg. of grain between a village and a city, but it costs 1005 kg. to feed the animals
and their drivers during the journey, it would effect the city economy adversely.
Thus, we find that civilisations cannot develop unless there is (a) a reliable agricultural base, and (b) easy
transportation provided by nature. A quick glance at maps will show you that the three civilisations we will
study are located in relatively flat valleys crossed by large river systems. Water transport was in ancient
times much cheaper than land transport. This was because boats sailed with the energy of winds in river
currents and there were no animals to feed. The wheel also reduced the energy required from animals for
transportation. In all three areas of our study, the river boat and the wheeled cart I were in use long before
civilisation emerged.
In all the three civilisations, tolls were made of stone, copper and bronze. For ornaments and craft work,
however, variety of stones, shell, silver and gold were used. Metal and precious stones were not found
within the Nile. Euphrates or Indus valleys and could only be procured through trade. The sending of
expeditions, or by settling colonies near their resources. All three of the river valleys were fertile and large;
all were arid regions fed by rivers which draw their waters from high rainfall and mountain regions at their
source, giving permanent water and fertile silt to their valleys. In all three civilisations wheat and barley
were the staple crops, and animal wealth came from cattle, sheep and goat.
5.3 THREE DISTINCT RIVER-VALLEY

LANDSCAPES
But here the similarities end. Of all the three rivers, it is the Nile (the longest river in the world) which is the
most reliable and the easiest to tame. The Nile enters Egypt at Aswan and then flows through a narrow
valley flanked by high desert on east and west. Near Cairo it forms a wide delta, where much cultivable land
is available, and near the apex of the delta was the most densely inhabited region of ancient Egypt. In
September, the Nile overspills its banks in Egypt forming a huge lake, and it appears that the villages are
islands floating in water. Having thoroughly moistened and fertilized most of the narrow valley, the flood
subsides in October, and farmers are ready to plough. Egypt receives very little, almost negligible, rainfall
but due to the long span of the Nile flood, the construction of irrigation canals was found to be unnecessary.
Mesopotamia is fed by two large rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. The settlements of the Sumerian
civilisation were situated along the Euphrates, as the Tigris is a swifter and suddenly flooding river. On
entering Summer the Euphrates flows slowly and throws out several branches, which in turn bifurcate
further. In Egypt flooding takes place before the crop season, but the Euphrates begins to rise in December
and is at its highest level in April. Rainfall being deficient for crops, and river levels being high during the
crop season, natural branches of the river or man-made ditches or canals are used to water the fields. In
Mesopotamia much labour went into canal digging and cleaning canals of their mud deposits.
Like the Nile, the Indus also floods before the ploughing season: usually in August. But the Indus is not a
manageable river it carries almost twice the volume of water compared to the Nile and flows much more
swiftly. The Indus, therefore, does not produce a sheet flood-its flood waters escape in large overflow rivers
like the Eastern Nara and the Western Nara, these in turn (like the Indus) overflow and change course
frequently. The wide Indus valley thus receives its pre-plough water and fertilization in a haphazard manner,
some tracts getting good water while others being left dry and this too varies in different years. Thus, the
residents of the Indus valley civilisation must have faced the greatest challenge for agricultural production.
Having made this scenario clear, and having assessed the geographic similarities and differences, let us
proceed to look at the various features of each of the three civilisations, each unique and worthy of. study in
its own right.
5.4 CITY DWELLERS OF LOWER MESOPOTAMIA

Mesopotamian history is extremely rich in sources, and Mesopotamia takes a high place in world history
because it saw the earliest cities and states, had the most prosperous agricultural economy of ancient times,
and left a strong legacy to the world in literature, mathematics and astronomy. In the accompanying Chart-l,
we have given you only the barest chronological outline and in this short lesson, we will only be able to
trace an outline of the first period of its civilisation in the third millennium. Why is the history of
Mesopotamia known to us in such vivid details? For decades archaeologists have been digging its ancient
towns so that we have by now masses of temple plans, pottery, sculptures, seals, metal artefacts, graves and
above. all, clay tablets. You would like to know what are clay tablets? The Mesopotamians wrote on wet
mud tablets by pressing the wedgeshaped end of a stylus (of reed or wood) on to the surface. When written,
the tablet was dried or baked. Baked mud, as you know, can survive burial in the soil for centuries unlike
paper, bark or wooden boards, which are organic materials and therefore perishable. The study of the
writings on these tablets tell us a lot about that period.
On clay were written epic stones about the earliest king; myths about the doings of the gods and the creation
of world; folk stones; laws promulgated by kings; letters from kings to their officers; and detailed account of
all public offices. No more than three kings in all Mesopotamian history. could read and write, but by 2000
B.C. writing had become indispensable to the management of state affairs. Copies would be kept of all
letters written by a king to his deputies; when the replies were received they were 'filed' together with the
copies in boxes or on shelves in what we could say were archive room. We can reconstruct much economic
history as there are several accounts of merchants listing intake and outgoings, as well as accounts of state
cattle pens and temple workshops employing people in spinning and weaving. All work on temple land was
recorded: the people working at various tasks, ploughs and seeds handed out to them, the sizes of various
fields, and the amount of harvest reaped from them.
5.4.1 The Sumerian Civilisation

The language used by the first city-dwellers was Sumerian, and so we call this the 'Suzerain Civilisation'.
Each written sign stood either for a whole word or for a syllable, unlike modern alphabets in which one sign
stands for one vowel or one consonant only. Because they were pressed with the end of a stylus, the signs
were geometric in shape. From the chronological chart, we find out the name of the second language used in
Mesopotamia and the dates when it was in use. For both languages the writing, being wedge-shaped, was
called 'Cuneiform'.
7. Akkadian Writing in Cuneiform Letters
Suzerain settlements began as humble villages (see the first horizontal column in the chronological chart),
but by 2500 B.C. grew to the size of cities. Extensive archaeological surveys show that these cities were
very much larger than the contemporary cities of the Indus or of Egypt. From temple accounts of agricultural
work we can see that the productivity of the land was very high, probably the highest known in the ancient
and medieval world. So, the output of the farmers could meet the needs of a substantial non-food-producing
population living in cities.
Each city was the religious and political centre of an independent city state. There were many states in
Summer, often at war with one another. A city state comprised its urban centre with surrounding villages
and agricultural lands, fisheries and pasture grounds for sheep and goat herders. The grandest buildings in
the city were the palace of the rulers and the temples of the chief deity.
Although the gods lived in the heaven, they owned estates on earth. The temple was literally the god's house
on earth, in which he was offered regular meals, rich clothing and jewellery. The temple fields, fisheries,
herds and workshops comprised the god's estate. According to Mesopotamian belief, man was created to
serve the gods SD that they could enjoy themselves. In the temple, singer-priests and chanter-priests
'pleased' the gods; ordinary people came with their food offerings; craftsmen made furnishings and
decorations for the gods; and animals were regularly slaughtered as sacrifice.
Some temple fields were parcelled out to tenants in return for about 10% of the harvest; some were given to
pests as payment for their service. The animals were herded and cloth was woven from sheep's wool by
temple servants. For this work, these servants received sufficient rations in flour, oil and clothes to meet
their basic needs. In contrast to tribal societies, then, there was now a section of society which did not have
its own resources and gave its labour in return for bare subsistence. Kings played a rather ambiguous role in
all this. In their inscriptions, kings would boast that particular gods had chosen them to be the king and
organize prosperity for the gods. So the kings were the foremost servant of the gods, never claiming to be
gods themselves. They spent heavy resources on temple building. At the same time, kings were never actual
priests, exclusively occupied in natural and temple administration. Though temple builders, kings were also
law givers, the chief administrators, organizers of trade and owners of large private estate. Their palaces
were much larger than temples, and heavily fortified. A large number of people were employed to work in
the palaces and on the private estates of the kings.
We should not consider the early kings as only religious figures. Sumerian kings were primarily the
Wielders of military power, but were involved in temple building and administration to legitimise their
authority; that is, to justify their power in the eyes of the people, and above all to gain control of temple
wealth. Temples had by the Early Dynastic period accumulated much wealth and controlled a lot of land.
Originally, all this wealth was public property but the Sumerian kings had the necessary power to use the
wealth as if, it was their private property. Early dynastic temple records name the king, and not the god, as
the owner of temple lands.
5.4.2 Sources of King's Power

But, one may ask, what gave the kings such power that they could undermine the position of the temple
priests ?
About fifty years ago, archaeologists digging at the city of Ur came upon a huge cemetery. They found
hundreds of graves of ordinary people, buried with a few ornaments and pots. They also found sixteen
graves of a very special character, large brick chambers built underground, for kings and queens. Royal
persons were buried with masses of jewellery, musical instruments, gold and silver vessels, as well as
ceremonial weapons made of gold and silver. In some graves the king or queen was buried with many
courtiers, guards, ox-drawn chariots, and their drivers. The enormous wealth of these tombs is specially
striking when we recall that no metal or stone was locally available in summer, but had to be imported from
the Zagros or Syria or Turkey or India. Thus, the kings must have grown wealthy and powerful by
successfully organizing long distance trade, ending large quantities of cheaply produced grain, oil and
textiles to exchange for minerals. Texts found in a palace indicate that merchants went abroad to trade as
agents of the king, returning with much wealth. And we find that often the kings boasted about their success
in foreign trade in their temple inscriptions. Wealth and military power must have gone hand in hand. Early
in the third millennium warfare was perennial in Summer. Although the land was immensely fertile,
agriculture remained unstable. The channels of the Euphrates could suddenly change course, depriving all
communities located down them, of water. Canals had a short life because they silted up at a fast rate, and
after some years could not be cleaned effectively. Thus, communities were periodically obliged to fight for
land or for access to water.
Successful military leaders would acquire war captives with whom they could enlarge their armies and
become even more powerful. They could gain wealth from captured booty, especially from wealthy cities of
their enemies (some sumerian temples were clearly sacked and destroyed by enemies, judging from the
broken debris and ruined objects and ash found on their floors by archaeologists). And the more copper and
bronze a king could import for the making of weaponry, the more successful he would be in the war.
A Sumerian proverb says, 'It is the poor who are the silent men in Summer'. We know little about the
ordinary farmer or potter. Ordinary people took regular offerings to the temple, and were obliged to do
labour for the king or join the army. Occasionally in literature, we come across stories in which the people
complain about the king. But the complaints are never about taxation; they are about the amount of work
they are expected to do for building temples, or city walls, or going on expeditions. It seems that ordinary
people in the country-side were not subject to a harvest tax or to rent. The state drew its revenues from the
temple and palace estate and from compulsory labour and foreign trade.
At the same time, several legal contracts of the period show that farmers-perhaps because they were
impoverished or in distress -were selling their land to members of royal families or the nobility. To be fair to
the kings, however, we find from the contracts that they did not seize lands but paid a fair price for them, in
grain, bread, fish, oil or copper
CHART-1: The Chronology of Mesopotamia
4500 to 2900 B.C. UBAID Lower Euphrates plain was first

URUK occupied by fishermen and
AND JAMDAT farmers: nest of the plain was
NASR settled very gradually. Small
PERIODS temples raised at settlements.
From modest beginnings, copper
and bronze metallurgy come to
high technical standards. Late in
this period, writing appears.
cylinder seats begin to be used
and temples become large and
elaborately decorated buildings
come up.
2900 to 2300 B.C. EARLY The period of the Sumerian city-
DYNASTIC states and the earliest civilisation.
PERIOD See text
2300 TO 2000 B.C. DYNASTY OF Sumerian is gradually replaced by
AKKAD the official and household
AND IIIrd language, but Sumerian is taught
DYNASTY OF UR in schools and 6th writing system
remains the same. Sargon of
Akkad conquers part of Assyria
Syria and becomes the world's
first emperor The IlIrd Dynasty of
UR consolidates its administration
of all Summer.
2000 TO 1600 B.C. OLD New peoples immigrate into
BABYLONIAN Mesopotamia but use the
PERIOD Akkadian language. Several kings
fight for supremacy, including
Hammurabi of Babylon. Many
documents are copied in the
scribal schools.
1600 TO 1150 B.C. KASSITTE People from the Zagros seize the
PERIOD throne of Babylon and adopt
Mesopotamian culture. Akkadian
becomes the language of
international diplomacy all over
western Asia.
MINOR DYNASTIES The iron Age begins. The camel is
domesticated.
1000 TO 612 B.C. ASSYRIANS With its huge and efficient
military machine, Assyria, by 750
B.C created an empire including
the South Syria, Palestine and hill
kingdoms of 6he Zagros Assyrian
kings cheated the world's first zoo
and library. Their capital,
Nineveh, fell to the Babylonians
and Medes in 612 B C.
625 TO 539 B.C. NEO-BABYLONIAN PERIOD Babylon, the bitter enemy of
Assyria, now becomes the great
Mesopotamian power Babylon
becomes the world's largest city,
famed, for its wealth and its
intellectual traditions The sign for
zero may have been invented in
this period Babylon falls to the
Achemenid Persians in 539BC.
539 TO 331 B.C. ACHAEMENID Babylon is the granary of the
RULE Persian empire. Persian kings
make Babylon their winter
residence.
331 B.C. INVASION OF Alexander, successor to 6th
ALEXANDER Persians, is awed by the
cosmopolitan sophistication of
Babylon and resolves to make it,
his Asian capital, but dies before
he can do so.
311 TO 125 B.C. SELEUCIDS Minor Greek rulers rake much
interest in Mesopotamian
literature and astronomy. The
Akkadian language and cuneiform
script goes out of use after 75 A D
Babylon, once the centre of use
world, drifts towards decline.
Check your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer
1) Outline the distinctive features which your would associate with 'civilisations'.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) The Mesopotamian civilisation grew up in the river valley of (Check one of the following for correct
answer):
a) Indus
b) Ganges
c) Tigris and Euphrates
d) Nile
3) Writing became indispensable for management of state affairs in Mesopotamian valley civilisation
(Check one of the following for correct answer) by about:
a) 5000 B.C.
b) 2000 B.C.
c) 1000 B.C.
d) 500 B.C.
4) Write a note on role of religion in Sumerian civilisation.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5) One gets evidence about the power of the King over that of priests in Sumerian civilisation. From
the archaeological site of (Check one of the following for correct answer):
a) Euphrates
b) Nineveh
c) Ur
d) Babylon
Map3.
5.5 EGYPT
We will now discuss the Old Kingdom of Egypt and its civilization. One can get a rough idea of the
developments in a chronological setting from the chronology in Chart-2. In ancient Egypt the names and
order of succession of the Pharaohs (kings) was remembered as a part of a strong tradition, and often this
information as well as information on important events during a reign were recorded either in chronicles or
on temple and tomb walls. It was a custom for Pharaohs to honour their royal ancestors. A Pharaoh could
organize the offering of sacrifices to even sixty or seventy five dead kings, in which case all these previous
kings would be named on the walls of the temple where the rituals were conducted. We, therefore, have a
reliable chronology of kings, derived from many inscriptions.
It may surprise one that archaeology gives us only limited information on ancient Egypt. The extremely dry
climate of Egypt has helped the preservation of ancient remains-even the mummified bodies of dead
Pharaohs-in the soil. But the dry desert soil was the location of only burial monuments and temples.
Egyptian towns and villages stood within the cultivated plain of the Nile. This is a narrow plain, annually
inundated. Medieval and modern settlements of ten overlie ancient villages in this densely populated valley.
Therefore, the remains of ordinary village houses or village shrines, or even important town building, have
either been washed away by floods, or lie in wet soils or lie buried under later settlements. We know little
about the sizes of towns, of villages, about ordinary houses and the life of the peasants.
5.5.1 Egyptian Culture

Fortunately, Egyptian history is not merely a list of the names and wars of the Pharaohs. Paintings and
reliefs on temple and tomb walls vividly depict scenes from everyday life: the ploughing of a field,
carpenters at work, scribes writing. Or a monkey biting its keeper. There are also written accounts:
biographies of people inscribed on their tombs, and letters and stories on papyrus.
Egyptian writing was 'hieroglyphic'; consisting of picture-like signs. A picture could mean what was drawn,
e.g. for 'house', other picture-signs, however, stood for only one sound: e.g. for 'n', and for 'd'. So there were
sense-signs as well as sound signs. When the Egyptians wrote on papyrus (this is the origin of our word
'paper'), the signs were joined up and looked less like pictures.
Papyrus is a reed-like plant of Egypt. Its green stems were sliced thin, the strips were then laid side by side
and crosswire over each other, and then pounded into sheets. After beings pressed and dried in the sun, the
sheets were ready for writing. Ink or various colours were used in small dry cakes to which a wet brush was
applied. Therefore, Egyptian writing is multi-coloured, an extension of drawings, and very pleasing to the
eye.
8. Papyrus Plants
The pyramids are great tourist attraction of Egypt today. Pyramids are gigantic stone tombs square at the
base, with four triangular sides meeting at the top. They were each part of a larger complex containing a
temple near the Nile, a causeway between this and the pyramid, and death chapels
9. A Pyramid Complex with Valley Temples and Causeways.
When a Pharaoh died his body was brought in a large wooden boat down the Nile to the valley temple and
then carried up the causeway to its final resting place within the body of the pyramid. Often, a large boat has
been found buried by the side of a pyramid. The Egyptians conceived of the after-life as a mirror reflection
of life on earth and the dead Pharaoh was not only sumptuously dressed but provided with food, furniture
and weapons, etc.
Pyramids were in many ways the symbols of the power of the Pharaohs. They were huge monuments. Their
size, however, was not a simple outcome of Pharaonic pride or 'egomania'. A Pharaoh was regarded as a
sacral figure formed, it was believed, by a deity 'in order to do for Him what should be done'. He was an
incarnation of Hours, the falcon-god, and descendant of Re, the Sun-god. He guaranteed the cosmic order
and was the high priest of every temple in the land. Much more a sacral figure than the Sumerian king, the
Pharaoh nevertheless was very much the human head of state. Ritually purified at his coronation and
crowned with the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Pharaoh led a life of lavish display, engaged in
administration and toured
10. (a) The Red Crown of Lower Egypt 10. (b) The White Crown of Upper Egypt
his whole kingdom every two years. We had mentioned earlier the importance of honouring dead kings. A
fund was established at each pyramid complex for the continuous honouring of the dead kings. A tract of
land was donated to the priests in charge of the cult of a dead Pharaoh. The income from this land supported
the personnel and provided the material for offerings and sacrifices.
11. Egyptian Script
5.5.2 Administration
Originally, all high officers of the realm were given what they needed by the palace. But rulers of the Vth
Dynasty started a custom of making large land grants to men in high positions. With royal permission these
estates could be inherited by the recipient's sons.
Privileged with such land holdings, provincial officers, especially those in Upper Egypt, began to acquire
independence. The Vth Dynasty was then obliged to create the office of the 'Governor of Upper Egypt a
check on their independence. Let us explore the career of one officer who rose to be the Governor of Upper
Egypt. His life story is inscribed on a slab of stone on his tomb.
Weni-the officer, was a man of humble birth who climbed the political ladder under the patronage of the
Vlth Dynasty. "When I was a mere magistrate," he writes "His Majesty made me King's friend and overseer
of the Palace. I displaced four Overseers already there. I acted to His Majesty's satisfaction in giving escort,
preparing the king's path, and taking up courtly positions, so that His Majesty praised me beyond anything.
When there was trouble in the King's harem, he made me hear the matter, myself alone, because he had
confidence in me. It was I who put it in writing, although my rank was only Overseer of the Palace. Never
before had the like of me heard a secret matter of the King's harem".
"When the King inflicted punishment on the Asiatics (Palestinians) and Sand-dwellers (people of the Sinai
desert), he made up an army of many tens of thousands from Upper and Lower Egypt. He sent me forth at
the head of the army, in which were King's friends, Seal bearers of the King, Heads of towns, Official
Translators, and Overseers of temple tenants. It was I who was in command, though merely an Overseer of
the Palace, because only I could prevent one quarrelling with his fellow, prevent men from snatching bread
or sandals from a wayfarer, or stealing from a village".
"The army returned in peace; ... it had razed the land of the Sand-dwellers, ... slain thousands of the enemy
... and carried away many as prisoners... His Majesty praised me more than anything."
Weni led several more military campaigns and then was made Governor of Upper Egypt, incharge of
collecting taxes and recruiting labour. He was ordered to quarry stone near the Upper Nile and despatch it to
the Pharaoh. He boasts that he carried out the work very fast. Like all people of status, he was keen to be
buried in a splendid tomb, and asked the Pharaoh for assistance. "His Majesty sent a Seal-Bearer and sailors
to cross the Nile and fetch me limestone from Tura. They brought back a coffin, lid, doorway and liberation-
table. Never had the like been done for any servant."
Weni had been sent as Governor to the southern frontier of Egypt. This region was becoming economically
important. Agricultural resources came to the Pharaoh from lands owned by him as king, and from harvest
taxes levied on ordinary people. But the state required other resources; good timber, stones, and metal.
Nubia, to the mouth of Egypts, was a source of many of these goods. Harkhuf, a prince of the Vlth Dynasty,
writes on his tomb at Aswan: "His Majesty sent me together with my father the Unique Friend, and a priest,
to Nubia to open up the way to this country. I did it in seven months and brought back all kinds of good". On
his third visit, Harkhuf "returned with 300 asses laden with incense, ebony, oil, leopard skins, elephant tusks,
and throwing sticks (boomerangs?)". Also inscribed on this tomb is a letter from the Pharaoh to Harkhuf,
concerning a pygmy Harkhuf had brought into Egypt. Apparently this pygmy knew strange dances. Pharaoh
writes: "You say in your letter that you have brought a Ding (pygmy) of the god's dances from the land of
the Horizon-dwellers (the heart of Africa), just like the Deng someone had brought years ago...l will perform
many excellent requests to benefit you and even the son of your son... come north to the palace at once.
Hurry and bring with your this Deng... Get stalwart men to guard him on the boat so that he does not fall into
the water I want to see this Deng more than all the tribute of distant lands... ".
Egypt acquired goods from other lands also. The Sinai/desert (land of the Sand-dwellers) was a source of
turquoise and copper. Inscriptions of Old Kingdom Pharaohs have been found near these mines. From the
mountains of Lebanon, Egypt acquired cedar wood, and at the port of Byblos, objects were found inscribed
with the names of some Pharaohs. Meanwhile, let us not forget that the eastern desert also had minerals like
shiny alabaster, copper and small deposits of gold.
Let us turn our concluding thoughts to the pyramids again. Two million granite blocks, each weighing 2.5
tons and requiring eight men to lift it, went into the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza. The stone was
quarried in Upper Egypt and transported 700 miles down the Nile. The whole project must have taken the
labour of thousands of men working for about twenty years. The state would have had to feed all these
workmen over the entire period. It has, therefore, been suggested that pyramid building exhausted the
resources of the Old Kingdom. The First intermediate period saw weak kings, invasions from Asia,
bloodshed and anarchy. It was left to the Middle Kingdom Pharaohs to revitalize the administration. But
never again was Egypt to witness the building of such colossal geometric line.
CHART -2 The Chronology of Egypt
3100 B.C. TO PREHISTORIC PERIOD Many farming villages are

established The uses of copper
and bronze are discovered: gold
2686 B.C. DYNASTIES I is imported: crafts develop and
writings begins
AND II Legendary kings fight wars to
unify many parts of Egypt
2686 OLD KINGDOM See text.
TO
1647 B.C.
Pharaohs build pyramids Memphis is the capital.

....... (Period of invasions and chaos)
Thebes is now the capital. Administration becomes efficient Military campaigns against Libya. Sinai Nub,
Palestine Many works of literature are produced.
........ (Hyksos from Asia invade
Egypt)
The horse is introduced in

Egypt Temples built at Karnak,
Thebes. Abydos. Queen Hatshedpsut sends a
daring expedition to the coast of northeast
Africa which returns with baboons ivory, gold,
and ebony-the whole adventure is depicted
in pictures on her funerary temple Egypt
conquers Palestine and Syria and Pharaohs
many Asian princesses Pharaoh Tutenkhamen
is today famous because of the discovery of
his mummified body wearing a gold mask and
splendid jewellery.
5.6 THE HARAPPAN CITIES' CIVILISATION

If for Egypt the archaeological data on habitations are limited and we rely heavily on monuments and texts
for historical studies, for the first civilisation of the Indian subcontinent, the reverse is true. We rely
exclusively on archaeological data, for although the Harappans had a system of writing, (with the use of
signs indicating whole words) we have not yet been able to decipher the writing. We may remember that
Egyptian, Sumerian and Akkadian scripts were deciphered only through the use of bilingual inscriptions. In
these, the same text was written in two (or more) languages or scripts, one of which was known to modern
scholars and thus provided the key to the unknown. So far, we have no bilingual inscription giving a text in
both the Harappan script and a known ancient script and language. In any case the Harappan inscriptions are
short, usually on seals and occasionally on pots or copper sheets. Perhaps, the Harappans wrote on cloth,
bark or other perishable materials-we will never know.
Another Contrast with early Egypt and Mesopotamia is that no temples or magnificent tombs have been
found at Harappan sites. We can only infer that Harappan rituals did not take place in specially constructed
sacred buildings (we may recall that early Hindu ritual also, until the Gupta period, involved no structural
temples). And Harappan ideas about death may not have led to the erection of sumptuary tombs for kings.
'But', one may ask, 'were there any kings in Harappan society?' We suggest that there were rulers of some
sort. In a previous section we had talked about the complex economics of civilisations and cities. As is
evident from the following paragraph, the Harappans had true cities (with many specialists making seals,
metal tools, shell bangles and decorated beads) and a well organized economic network that connected
villages and cities (for example, there was a standardized system of weights in use in all the Harappan areas.
See illustration No. 17. page 53 of the Block). Without a class of rulers to impose their laws and direct the
economy such institutions of complexity would not have been possible. 'Then', one will ask, 'where are the
Harappan rulers? Are there palaces, if not royal tombs?' There is no single building at either Mohenjodaro or
Harappa, the two largest excavated sites, (presumably one or both of them were the capital) which can be
easily identified as a palace. But in some Harappan settlements there was a feature totally absent in Egypt
and Summer.
At Mohen-jo-daro, Harappan, as well as some small settlements, there was one area distinct from the rest,
artificially raised, walled in, and often carrying non-residential buildings. These sections have been called
'citadels'. At Mohen-jo-daro the Great Bath, the large granary and pillared hall lie within the citadel, and at
Lothal there was a large storage structure in the citadel. In the Kalibangan citadel, there was an elaborate
ritual area. Therefore, 'citadels' may have been the counterparts of the Sumerian fortified palaces where state
functions (including state rituals) were carried out. The problem, however, remains. Why should the rulers
have wanted to separate themselves, why did they fortify the 'government' areas against the population of
their own towns? We have no answer; some scholars have suggested that the rulers were alien; others, that
citadels were convenient points of defence in times of war.
When we study the map we locate the two largest sites, Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa. We also find
Ganweriwala-it is almost as large as the two former sites, but has not been excavated. We notice that, unlike
Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa, Ganweriwala is surrounded by a dense cluster of settlements. From the map, it
is clear that the Harappan heartland was the Saraswati river system. In the third millennium, the Saraswati
may have been a major tributary of the Indus. We may note that there are more settlements in Sind than in
Punjab, more in Kutch than in Kathiawad. We also find the outlying sites in Makran, the south Gujarat
coastal plain, the Upper Chenab and Sultan rivers, Baluchistan and northern Afghanistan.
CHART-3 The Chronology of the North-Western Subcontinent
5500 B.C. NEOLITHIC Beginning with Mehrgarh.

farming and/ or herding
communities are found in
Baluchistan and the
Indus plains, raising wheat,
barley, dates, cotton,
and seep, goat and cattle. (See
Unit 5) Use of mud
Houses, ground stone axed,
pottery, flaked stone
tools, grinding stones and bone
tools Craft
production-pottery in large
quantities, and sea
shells, turquoise and lapis
ornaments-begin at
Mehrgarh.
3500 B.C. to 2600 B.C. EARLY INDUS PERIOD More retirements established in
the plains and hills.
Great flow of people and pottery
between sites in
hills and perhaps The use of
copper begins, so also
of wheel and plough. For the rest,
no great changes
in technology.
A few seals are in use perhaps in
validate exchange
transactions and identity of the
owner Granaries for
community use at Mehrgarh Many
settlements are
surrounded by defensive walls
Mehrgarh and
Rahman Dheri are very large and
use many
imported materials.
2600 B.C. to 1800 B.C. MATURE HARRAPA PERIOD Sites characterised by use of chart
Flakes, copper/bronze tools of,
uniform type, large bricks of
shape 4:2 I, stone
weights, stone seats, shankh
bangles. long carnelian beads, tiny
disc beads of steatite, and often
citadels, town planning and drains
(see text). Sites with these
artefacts found in central Indus
plains Sind, between Sutlej; and
Jamuna, also in Kutch Kathiawad,
costal south Gujarat, upper
Chenab, North Afghanistan and
Makran coast.
1800 B.C. onwards REGIONAL CULTURE Many Harappan sites abandoned
No foreign trade inter-regional
exchanges decline, poorer, local
cultures in Sind, Lower Punjab,
Sutlej Jamuna divide and Gujarat
Writing and city-life abandoned
Pew seals or weight
Copper/bronze in use Fewer and
poorer crafts
Map. 5
Why did the Harappans spread their settlements so far? It appears that the reasons were economic. For
example, the settlement at Shortughai, such a long distance from the Indus, is close to one of the only
regions of Asia where lapis lazuli, a blue precious stone, is found Manda and Ropar are at those points
where the Chenab and Sutlej, respectively, become navigable. Perhaps, good timber was acquired from the
mountain regions further up and sent to the central Indus valley down these rivers. Bhagatrav, is near the
teak forests of the western Ghats. And there are two sites on the Makran coast-an extremely barren land-
probably functioning at ports safe from dangerous monsoon storms and currents which affect the coasts of
western India and Sind.
Yes, the Harappans needed ports, because they had a busy trade with Mesopotamia Mesopotamian texts
refer to the boats of 'Meluha', a black land with peacocks, as a land from which came gold, lapis lazuli and
fine timber. Shankh shells which are only in Indian coastal waters, and Harappan seals and a weight which
were used for trade, as well as stone beads decorated in a typical Harappan style, were found at various
Sumerian sites dating between 2600 and 1800 B.C. Some trade texts from Sumer refer to merchandise
coming in and going out by sea; the exports of Sumer were mainly grain oil and textiles, and also silver. At
Mohen-jo-daro, a fair quantity of silver vessels have been found and we infer that silver was imported from
Sumer. (The Sumerians themselves were getting silver from Turkey and re-exporting it.)
Harappan cities were never as large as the largest Sumerian cities. But whereas the Sumerian cities gradually
grew in sizs and were unplanned, many Harappan towns and cities were laid out on grid plan.. Large and
narrow streets cut one another at regular angles to form rectangular blocks of buildings between them.
Although Mohen-jo-daro was inhabited for centuries, the same town plan was maintained, except in the very
last days of' the city. We also notice that uniform sizes of brick were used for all buildings in a town. This
indicates that it was not individual house owners who made their own bricks, but that there was organized
mass brick production. Similarly, in cities like Mohen-jo-daro, sanitation was not left to individual
householders, but there were street drains to clear waste from several houses. Town planning and street
drains indicate that the basic amenities for urban life were provided to the citizens.
We see that at most Harappa sites there is a fairly uniform though, generally, simple technology: long stone
blades (made from chart stone available only in Sind), simple copper or bronze tools such as axes or fish-
hooks or tools for stone cutting, wheeled carts, and a very sturdy, heavy and strong range of pottery. The
impression we gain is that the Harappans were not great technological innovators (their metal work, for
instance, was not as advanced as the Sumerian metal work) but had achieved an efficient organization of
resources and labour so that tools, ornaments or basic household equipment's even if made at a few sites,
were dispersed to all their villages and towns (even to people in Gujarat, where there was no earlier tradition
of agriculture, leave alone of bronze working or town life).
12. Copper and Bronze Tools and Weapons from UR
13. Mohen-jo-daro Tools & Weapons
Whereas the Sumerian and Egyptian civilizations survived the rise and fall of ruling dynasties for more than
2000 years, the Harappa civilization collapsed after some 600 years. Many settlements (large cities and
small villages alike) were deserted. The writing system was forgotten. The technological traditions of
metallurgy, seal-cutting and head-making came to an end. Some people seem to have migrated up the
Saraswati river and founded new villages. In Sind, Harappan sites were occupied by people with a different
culture. ln Gujarat, some settlements continued to be occupied but there was no more foreign or internal
trade, the Harappan weight system was discarded, and no one now lived in cities.
The reasons for this decline remain a mystery. Did natural calamities impoverish the economy or cause
depopulation? Was agriculture too undeveloped to support a trading' economy for long? Or can we suggest
that too much dependence on state organization contributed to it, so that if the ruling class suffered a decline,
so also did the urban administration, trade networks and technological traditions? Scholars are still
attempting to answer these questions.

1) What insights do we gain from the 'pyramidst on the culture and belief of ancient Egyptians? Write a
short note.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) Identify some of the main features of the Harappan towns.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.7 LET US SUM UP

The river valley civilisations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa evolved as a result of
sedentism following the innovation of agriculture. Civilisation emerged soon after, although no causal
relationship between settled agriculture and rise of civilisation can he shown. The coming of civilisation was
marked by rise of kingship, more integrated political system, enlargement of relationships between tribes
and other communities and rise of urban culture. It was also characterised by expansion of trade, increased
use of writing, rise of specialists in the areas of crafts, religion and culture, administration and economy.
This is evident from the features of the Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Harappan civilisations. These
civilisations contributed to great works of art, architecture and culture. Monumental temples and palaces of
the Sumerian kings, the great pyramids of the Pharaohs and Harappan citadels are proofs of it. New
technologies of writing, book-keeping and transportation were innovated. It contributed to the growth of
economy. The river valleys offered ecological advantages for irrigation, cheap navigation, expansion of
agriculture and trade in commodities. This created wealth, consequently powerful dynasties of kings and a
flourishing civilisation emerged. These civilisations also decayed after a time; its reasons are still a matter of
speculation.
5.8 KEY WORDS

Artefacts: an object made by workmanship of man
Booty: spoil taken in war
Chronology: science for computing or arranging units of time
Citadel: fortress on commanding height
Cosmopolitan: one free from local or regional prejudices
Estate: landed property
Hieroglyph: pictorial representation of writing, sacred character
Inscription: writing embossed on walls or pillars
Legitimise: to hold justifiable
Millennium: one thousand years
Sheet-flood: flood that spreads out on earth surface
Stylus: A kind of writing pen.
5.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/
EXERCISES
1) See Section 5.2
2) (c)
3) (b)
5) (c)
2) See Section 5.6

UNIT 6 FEUDAL SOCIETIES
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Slavery
6.2.1 Slavery in the Indian Context

6.2.2 Slavery, Serfdom and the Peasant Societies
6.3 Transition to Feudalism
6 3.1 Henry Pirenne's views on Feudalism

6 3.2 Thesis of Marc Bloch
6.3.3 Perry Anderson on Feudalism
6.4 Growth of Feudal System
6.4.1 Form or Labour under Feudalism

6.4.2 Feudal Production System
6 .4.3 The Class of Lords
6.5 The Dynamism of Feudal Economy
6.5.1 Growth of Population

6.5.2 Trade and Urbanisation
6.5.3 Growth of New Economy
6.6 Decline of Feudalism
6.6.1 Shortage of Labour

6.6.2 Peasant Rebellions
6.7 Feudalism in the Indian Context
6.8 Let Us Sum Up
6.9 Key Words
6.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit our intention is to give you a very brief idea of slavery. After this, we discuss in detail Feudalism as it
existed in Europe and India. After reading this Unit, you should be able to explain.
what is slavery and its various forms,

the various theories about the origin of feudalism in Europe,
the main features of feudalism and feudal societies,
the nature of institutions which gave feudalism its dynamism and the causes of its decline, and
the nature of feudalism in India.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The Assyrian, Egyptian, Babylonian and Indus civilizations were not slave economies as they had no clear
idea of chattel property.
It was classical Greece which first transformed slavery into a systematic mode of production. This was true
of Rome as well. Slavery was a superior means of extracting surplus in comparison with other methods of
exploitation. The great advantage of slave labour was that slaves were exempt from military service. The
three basic components of slavery were:
1) the slave's status as property,

2) totality of master's power over him, and
3) his kinlessness.
War and trade supplied Greece and Rome with slaves. After having existed for several years despite
occasional revolts and reforms, slave mode of production slowly gave way to change. As large-scale
conquests stopped, the door to acquisition of slaves was also closed and slaves began to settle down on
farms as serfs and retainers in households. The system gave way to feudalism.
What is today identified by historians as feudal society in Western Europe began to take shape about the
fifth century A.D. The term 'feudum' came into use only towards the end of the ninth century. Interestingly,
a systematic study of feudal society began only ~n the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries.
Scholars devoted themselves to analysing the factors leading to the rise of feudal society. Several theories of
its origin have been offered.
Feudalism contributed to increased ruralization of economy, use of new technology of agriculture and
emergence of a class of worker, the serf. The position of the serf was neither like that of the 'Slave' in
Antiquity who was completely separated from the means of production, nor it was such that he could be
absolute owner of these. The serfs enjoyed an intermediate position between the slaves of antiquity and free
wage labour of industrial capitalism. An elaborate system of rights and obligations characterised the
relationship between 'Serf' and his 'Lord' to whose land he used to be attached.
Feudal society in Europe had a dynamism of its own. Expansion of agriculture increased food production. It
contributed to rise in population and invention of new technologies of waterwheel and windmill. The surplus
population spread out to remote parts of Europe, cut down forests and thus vast land reclamation took place.
The small peasants took initiative in this process. Lords also began to release serfs from bondage by
charging them 'commutation' fee. The free serfs turned into peasantry, but as agriculture was capital
intensive, only a few succeeded, a vast majority lost their borrowed capital too. All this was alien to feudal
economy and marked the beginning of capitalist farming.
Feudalism in India has been associated by scholars to a phase of history when trade declined, and currency
became scarce. This motivated the state to give land to Brahmins and officials for economic expansion.
These classes subjected peasants who cultivated their land to their own control, contributing to the growth of
feudal relationships. Whether feudalism really existed in India, continues to be a matter of debate among the
scholars.
6.2 SLAVERY
Before we go onto study feudalism, we must have a look at the system of slavery and the slave mode all
production. It is only then that one will be able to understand the transition from slavery to feudal serfdom
which occurred as a gradual process.
Slavery is generally defined as "a system in which one is subject to the power of the other contrary to
nature". The slave as a "possession" or "property" of his or her master is essential to the understanding of
slavery. In a slave society, the slave was reduced to the level of a near commodity. Aristotle (Greek
Philosopher) described the slave as a "property with a soul". The relations between the slave and his master
lay out in any kinship bond or formal contract but were determined by the circumstances of birth into a
category of dependents, on debt, or on other conditions of bondage. The slave had no freedom or choice of
action.
Slavery existed in all human societies in some from or the other, but it was mainly in the Graeco-Roman
world that slavery attained its greatest functional significance and numerical strength. In these societies
slavery evolved into an institutionalised system of large scale employment of slave labour. It was the slave
mode of production which provided the ultimate basis for the rise of these civilisations. The rise and fall of
the urban culture in Greece and Roman was closely related with the dominance and decline of the system of
slavery. These societies were known as slave societies due to their large scale-dependence on 'slave labour'.
The significance of slave labour lay in its two contradictory attributes:
i) it represented the degradation of labour in which human beings were converted into inert
means of production and had no social, political and economic rights.
For example, the Roman law even called the agricultural slave as instrument vocale i.e. the
speaking tool. Slavery developed into the most oppressive form of labour extraction. Under this, the
human being was not selling his labour but he himself was a saleable commodity. He was sold and
purchased in the market and put to various forms of labour by his master. Generally, slave labour
was used in transport, mining, construction and agricultural operations.
ii) The slave mode of production led to large-scale generation of surplus. This provided the
ruling class a life of luxury and leisure while slaves led a life of misery. Slaves, at times,
opposed their inhuman treatment. Very often, we find that slaves attempted to escape or
revolted against the tyranny of their masters. In such cases severe punishments were
imposed on them.
6.2.1 Slavery in the Indian Context

Slavery did exist in Ancient India. There were different categories of slaves depending upon the mode of
procurement. For example, some were slaves by birth because they were born to slave parents.
Slaves were mostly employed as domestic servants and as agricultural labourers. In the 'Arthashasthra' of
Kautilya, we find the recognition of the institution of slavery. But at the same time, Kautilya at length
discusses the working conditions of slaves and even lays down the conditions for freedom of slaves. For
example, if a child was born to a woman slave from the master, she would be considered a free person.
Similarly, a slave could earn for himself by working extra and in cases, even buy back his freedom. In fact,
slavery did not develop as a mode of production in India. Megasthenese, the Ambassador of Greeks in the
court of Chandragupta Maurya commented that "no Indian is a slave". This was because the nature of
slavery was so different in India when compared to the slavery in the European world that he could not
notice the form of slavery which existed in India.
6.2.2 Slavery, Serfdom and the Peasant Societies

Slavery represents absolute subjection of a person, or persons by another where the subjugated person loses
all rights and freedom. Serfdom represents an intermediate stage between the slavery of the ancient society
and the free wage labour of industrial capitalism. Peasant societies are societies having agriculture as the
main source of living for majority of the people, where landholdings are generally small and family provides
both the necessary labour as well as the consumer of the surplus.
Slavery and serfdom are not mere social formations of two types, but both of them represent two different
stages of historical development of society. Slavery, in its absolute form is characterised by the slave mode
of production, while serfdom which belongs to feudal society forms part of its mode of production. The
former is the preceding phase and the latter, the succeeding phase in the course of historical development.
The transition from slavery to feudal serfdom was a gradual process. In Rome, when the conquests stopped,
fresh supply of slaves also stopped. This improved the condition of the already existing slaves in the society.
The internal sale of slaves also stopped since each family of slave-owners tried to preserve its own
hereditary slaves. As a consequence, slaves grew more attached to the households or lands of their masters.
Diminished supply of slaves led to rehabilitation of free labour. Freemen had always existed in the society as
artisans, public servants, etc. They sometimes worked on farms too, as hired labourers.
The reorganization of state occurred in such a way that occupation and social status became hereditary and
fixed in a manner, not much different from the Indian caste system. These changes diminished the Freeman's
mastery over himself or his power to determine his occupation. It reduced the distance between him and the
slave, and slowly the latter together with free domestic servants and workshop labourer etc. passed into the
common condition of serfdom. Thus, slavery, serfdom and peasant societies are the characteristic features of
dynamic socio-historical development in societies.
Check Your Progress l

1) How would you differentiate between slavery and the slave mode of production Answer in about
five lines.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) Discuss how the transition from slavery to feudal serfdom took place. Answer in
about five lines.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.3 TRANSITION TO FEUDALISM

In 1887 a German Historian Brunner, concentrating on the military aspects, traced the genesis of feudalism
to the horse stirrup. He argued that in 733 A.D, the emperor of France (then called Gaull, Charles Martel),
defeated the Arabs in a battle at Poitiers near Paris. However, Martel could not pursue the Arabs because his
army consisted primarily of infantry, whereas the Arab soldiers escaped on the far more mobile horsebacks.
Martel realized the need for introducing a large segment of cavalry in his defence forcer.` Maintaining a
cavalry, however, was after all a more expensive proposition than an infantry. For this Martel needed more
resources. Land being the chief resource in pre-modern societies, the Emperor began by acquiring land from
those who had a great deal of it - the Church for example. But the acquisition of land did not solve all of
Martel's problems. Medieval Europe was also short of money in circulation, because of declining trade,
though it was not short of wealth. Thus, while Martel acquired land from the Church as well as his rich
subjects, he could not pay his cavalrymen in cash which was scarce; consequently, he began to alienate land
to them in fief. This according to Brunner was the origin of feudalism.
Burner's argument was supported and opposed with equal vehemence by subsequent historians for a long
time. The chief weakness of the argument, however, was that it attributed the rise and development of a vast
social, economic and political structure which lasted over a thousand years to one small device, the horse
stirrup.
6.3.1 Henry Pirenne's View on Feudalism

Meanwhile, the concept of feudal society began to grow and included many more dimensions than the
military one. In the 1920s and 1930s, the Belgian historian Henry Pirenne visualized feudal system in terms
of the nature of its economy. Pirenne believed that Europe of antiquity was marked by a developed urban
economy based on long distance trade or the 'grand trade' as he called it. The long distance trade was
possible owing to cheap navigation across the Mediterranean. However, in the late seventh and early eighth
century, the Arabs invaded parts of Europe and occupied crucial control points of the Mediterranean;
Gibralter, the point of entry from the West, and Sardinia right in the middle of the Sea besides Alexandria,
the eastern entry point, which was already under their control. Thus, alien control of these points of
navigation disrupted the long distance trade and led to the localization as well as ruralization of the
economy, or what Pirenne called the 'closed estate economy'. From the eleventh century, the Christian
Crusaders drove the Arabs out of Gibralter and Sardinia; long distance trade revived again, as also the urban
nature of the economy; as that happened feudalism declined. Pirenne, thus posited a dichotomy between
trade and feudalism-a concept that has been questioned and given up in European historiography but
continues to exercise a strong influence on historians in other regions of the world, including India.
6.3.2 Thesis of Marc Bloch

The great French historian Marc Bloch undertook a comprehensive analysis of feudal society, covering
every dimension: the economic, the social, the cultural, the ethical as also the politico-administrative. He
noticed that Western Europe was subjected to a series of invasions from a number of sources. In the fifth
century, the Germanic tribes had barged into the region from Very long distances and had brought the grand
edifice of the Roman Empire to pieces. The Arab invasions followed the Germanic. The Arabs in turn were
followed by the Magyars of Hungary, and the series culminated in the Scandinavian raids in the tenth
century. All these invasions had created a great deal of insecurity; they also disrupted the economy. Thus,
everyone in Western Europe during the middle ages was searching for security and subsistence. This search
for security and subsistence led to the formation of what Marc Bloch described as 'ties of interdependence".
All sections of society entered into these ties; peasants surrendered their lands and resources to the local lord
who promised them security and subsistence and returned the lands to them on condition of their cultivating
his fields without being paid wages. The local lord in turn, similarly, sought security and subsistence from
the one more powerful than him by surrendering his lands etc., to be given back as fiefs on condition of
rendering military service to the bigger lord. The smaller lord thus became the vassal of the bigger lord. The
process went on until everyone became the lord of some and the vassal of others except the king who was
the vassal of none and the peasant who was the lord of none. These ties of interdependence also produced
corresponding religious ideology and cultural ethos. In all these views, the emergence of feudal society was
attributed to some or the other dramatic event or events.
6.3.3 Perry Anderson on Feudalism

It was Perry Anderson, an English scholar, who looked at the rise of feudalism as a long drawn process
occurring at the base of society. For Anderson feudalism arose as a consequence of a mighty clash between
two social systems, each in a process of transition. The European society of antiquity, based on the use of
slave labour, was increasingly facing problems of productivity falling short of rising demand. The gap was
widening because slave labour was essentially an inefficient form of labour where slaves had no interest in
adopting new productivity raising devices. The ancient Graeco-Roman civilisation was thus facing a crisis.
The tribal social organisation of the Germanic peoples too was facing a crisis of a different kind: its tribal
egalitarian social structure was under strain partly due to the growth of stratification within and partly owing
to contact with the highly developed Roman civilisation. Their clash in the fifth century resulted in the
collapse of both, giving rise to a new social and economic system, named feudalism.
Feudalism is, thus, considered today by historians to be the result of complex interaction between various
forces of social existence-economic. political, cultural, institutional and so forth-at all levels of society. Its
rise is thus a long drawn process rather than a sudden event.
6.4 GROWTH OF FEUDAL SYSTEM

Historically, feudalism stands mid-way between slave society of ancient Greece and Rome and the modern
day capitalist society. Here, we will discuss the main components of feudal system.
6.4.1 Form of Labour under Feudalism

In slave society, the slave worked on land etc., which his master owned. The slave was paid no wages for his
labour and had no formal right either over the land he cultivated or over its produce or over any part of the
produce of his labour. He did not even have formally a family of his own in that his wife and children could
be sold apart from him. He was treated by his master merely as a vocal instrument as distinct from the semi-
vocal (ox) and the silent instrument (plough). He was, of course, completely separated from the means of
production-land, implements, etc. over which he possessed no title.
Under capitalism too, the worker is separated from the means of production-the factory, the instruments, the
raw material etc. with which he works. But he is entitled to wages in return for his labour; he is also free to
move from one employer to another. These features mark him out from the slave of antiquity.
In between the two stands the medieval serf, who was neither completely separated from the means of
production nor was he the absolute owner of these. A slave was like a piece of property which could be
bought or sold anywhere, any time. The serf could not be sold apart from the land he worked on. In case the
lord sold the land to another lord, the serf was automatically transferred to the new owner. The serf had the
hereditary right of occupancy of land given to him by the lord, but he did not have the ownership right. The
occupancy right was expressed in the phrase often used as a characteristic description of feudal society: "the
peasant is tied to the land". This phrase had a dual meaning. If on one hand it meant that the peasant could
not leave the land of his lord and go elsewhere, on the other it also limited the lord's right to evict the peasant
from the land. Thus, even if the lord sold off a particular piece of land, the peasant could not be evicted from
it; the land carried him to the new Matsue.
Obligations of the Serf

Besides, the tied peasant or serf was fully entitled to the produce of his and his family's labour and of the
land in his occupancy, even when the land formally belonged to the lord. And, of course, he had a family of
his own. In return for the occupancy of the land, however, the serf was obliged to cultivate other fields, the
produce of which went to the lord's household, without being paid for the labour. This was the rent he paid
in labour for using the land which formally belonged to the lord. This was so even where the land under his
occupation had originally belonged to the peasant himself but he had surrendered it to the lord in search of
security and subsistence as we have seen above. The amount of labour rendered by him amounted to a half
of his total labour.
The emphasis on the extraction of peasant's labour by the lord makes sense if we examine the production
system in early medieval Western Europe.
6.4.2 Feudal Production System
Until about the tenth century, the fertility of West European soil was extremely low. It has been estimated
that until then, the seed-yield ratio stood at 1:1.6 or at best at 1:2.5. And only about half the cultivated land
was sown in one year, the other half lay fallow. This was because manure was the chief bottleneck in
European agriculture and remained so until the coming of chemical fertilizers.
The natural low fertility was in turn reinforced by inefficient technology. The plough used by the early
medieval peasant dug merely the surface of the soil; hence, it was called the ''scratch plough'. Because of
lack of familiarity with the yoke, which would enable the ox to draw the plough with the strength of his
shoulders, resulted in a grossly inefficient use of his draught power the plough was attached to his horns.
The use of the horse for this purpose was still uncommon, again owing to inefficient harnessing. The plough
was tied to a band which ran across the horse's breast; thus, the more forcefully the horse pulled it, the more
his breathing was restricted. Other implements too were mostly made of wood and therefore, not the most
efficient.
Consequently, the deeper fertility of the soil remained unutilized, so that the roots of the seeds spread
horizontally, rather than vertically. This in turn necessitated the sowing of each seed at considerable distance
from the others, in order that each seed got adequate amount of soil or germination. Thus, vast fields had to
be tilled for obtaining a dismal amount of yield. It has been estimated that until about the tenth century A.D.,
100 acres of land was required to maintain a peasant family at the bare margin of subsistence, and an
average estate of a lord comprised 4000 acres.
It is not difficult to imagine, therefore, that the process of agricultural production in early medieval Europe
was extremely labour-intensive.
Climatic Factors
But then there was yet another facet to the labour intensity of this process.
The sunshine in Western Europe lasts at the most four months. Therefore, the entire activities of agricultural
operations, from tilling the field to harvesting and storing the crop, have to be completed within three to four
months. It was, thus, that 120 days comprised the formal period of agricultural operations. This fact resulted
in a concentration of the demand for labour during the four months in a process of production that was
already extremely labour-intensive. Hence, the emphasis on labour rent. Hence, also the fact that early
feudalism placed the heaviest burden on those with least resources, namely those who had noting to give
except labour with bare hands.

1) The militaristic explanation for the origin of feudalism has been given by (Check one of
the following for the correct answer).
a) Marc Bloch
b) Perry Anderson
c) Brunner
d) Henry Pirenne.
The average size of manor of feudal lords used to comprise (Check one of the following for the correct
answer)
a) 1000 Acres
b) 2000 Acres
c) 3000 Acres
d) 4000 Acres
2) Why was agricultural productivity low during the feudal period?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.4.3 The Class of Lords

The primary objective assigned to the feudal society was to provide a small minority of lords with a life of
extravagance. The class of lords, of course, composed several layers:
i) At the base were the Knights who had been assigned lands in fief in return for military service. The
fiefs, originally assigned for the duration of service, gradually acquired the characteristics of
hereditary property. The fief holder had the land cultivated through a combination of unpaid labour,
wage labour and sharecropping etc.
ii) The main element of the class of lords was the manorial lord. The manor, or estate, on average
comprised 4000 acres. It was usually divided into three parts: the demeane, the tenement and the
waste. The demeane and the tenements were under cultivation and the waste comprised forests and
pastures, etc. open for use by the entire community. The produce of the demeane went into the lord's
house (or hill) and that of the tenement into serfs labour. Both the demeane and the tenements were
scattered in strips in different parts of the estate.
iii) At the top of the hierarchy were the banal lords who derived their power over men from their control
over land. They also had a right to make arbitrary demands over the inhabitants within their
jurisdiction. Their resources too were the largest within the class.
The power exercised by the class of lords over the peasants arose from obligations imposed on them by
'custom'. Custom, instead of codified law, indeed was the predominant source on which the administration of
justice and regulation of the social order was based. Both custom and 'obligations' were rather flexible
entities and required a great deal of interpretation. From about the tenth century the higher lords came to
concentrate judicial rights too in their hands and this completed the subjection of peasants to them. On the
other hand, the very flexibility of custom often worked in favour of the peasants who sought to resist newer
'obligation' on the plea that they were not customary. Of course, the peasants' plea always carried much
greater weight if they mobilised their collective strength behind it.
Let us briefly recapitulate the basic features of early feudal society. A small minority of lords was
maintained in a life of luxury and waste by a vast majority of labouring people in a system of agricultural
production where large number of labourers were required for the agricultural operations. The greater
demand for labour had tied the peasant to the field. The peasant was not allowed to leave the land. Yet, he
had the formal assurance of the subsistence and security for himself and his family. This was the case until
about the end of the tenth century.
Clearly that society lived with an enormous amount of tension. These arose from the acute scarcity of
labour during the four months of agricultural operations and its surplus during the rest of the year, when the
demand for food at the lower social strata would gradually exceed the supply and cause 'famines'. That
society must find some solution to the problem in order to survive and grow.
6.5 THE DYNAMISM OF FEUDAL ECONOMY

Roughly from the eleventh century, Western Europe enters into what Marc Bloch has called the 'Second
Feudal Age'. Some extremely important technological and socioeconomic changes characterised this period.
The old 'scratch plough' gradually gave way to a heavy plough which dug deeper into the soil and thus,
opened up the deeper' fertility to agricultural use. The new plough also broke the clods thus evenly spreading
soil nutrition. The growing knowledge of the yoke enabled the cultivators to use the ox more efficiently. The
horse too was harnessed more effectively replacing the earlier leather band across his breast with a solid
circumference around his neck to which the plough was attached. The knowledge of horse shoe in turn
prolonged the life of his shoe-nails (hooves) and enabled him to drive into hard virgin soil. The spread of
oats cultivation at this time suggests increasing use of horses in agricultural as well as in other activities.
Agricultural practices also changed. Some new crops such as legumes (beans, lentils) came to Europe at this
time. Growing of legumes had several advantages:
i) They provided vegetable protein to peasant diet which till then primarily consisted of carbohydrates
and occasional animal protein when they killed some wild beasts.
ii) The legume roots went deep into the soil and used its low Iying fertility which corn plants did not.
iii) The legume roots fertilized the soil with nitrogen even as the plants were growing.
iv) The legumes and some other new crops improved the system of crop rotation so that two-thirds of
the cultivable land, instead of a half as earlier, began to be sown each year. In other words, the
system of two-field rotation gave way to three-field rotation.
The net consequence of all these developments was the raising of the seed-yield ratio from 1:2:5 to 1:4,
which doubled the amount of food grains available for consumption. In former ratio, of the 2.5 grains, I had
to be preserved as future seed: thus 1.5, were available for consumption: with the later ratio 3 grains would
become available for it. This development also reduced the demand for labour with bare hands. With the
yield rising, 25 to 30 acres sufficed to maintain a peasant family as against 100 acres earlier. Thus, the
wastage of labour in traversing the fields was minimized.
6.5.1 Growth of Population

More and better food also raised population at the lower strata of society to unprecedented levels. If
population had grown by a hundred per cent in the three-and-a-half centuries preceding 1000 A.D., it grew
by 170 per cent in the next three-and-a-half centuries from 20 million to 54 million. Thus, even as less
labour was required for agricultural operations as fields became smaller, the population was growing faster
than ever before.
There was yet another technological development which contributed to this process. The coming first of the
waterwheel and then the windmill to Europe took over many jobs earlier performed by human hands; the
most widespread of these jobs was grinding of corn. As a result, more of human labour was spared for
agriculture.
6.5.2 Trade and Urbanisation

The technological and socio-economic changes which took place in the llth-12th centuries altered the face of
Western Europe. The growing population spread out to the uninhabited parts of Europe, and cut down
forests to bring more land under cultivation; pastures similarly receded before the plough. The twelfth
century in particular is a century of a great movement for land reclamation in Europe. This movement began
with individual initiatives of petty peasants; the lords joined in later on to give it an organized form. With
labour demand declining and population rising, the serf was released from being tied to land. In return for
this release the serf paid a commutation fee to the lord: the lord used this money to buy labour in the
growing labour market at steadily declining wages. It has been estimated that one lord obtained money in
commutation equivalent to four times the value of labour that would have been due to him from his serfs.
Paid labour was also far more productive than unpaid labour.
The rising productivity and production levels in the countryside also gave a fillip to trade as well as
urbanisation. Now, countryside had more to sell than earlier and thus, the growing trade could maintain a
larger segment of the population in cities. Trade 'was never absent anyway; now there was more of it.
Agricultural production also came to be guided more and more by the profit motive and this brought
merchants, both rural and urban, on to the agricultural scenes.
6.5.3 Growth of New Economy

As we have noted, this agricultural progress was not based as much on labour intensity as on the intensity of
capital investment in the form of heavy plough, the yoke, the horse etc. Thus, only those few peasants who
could afford this investment benefited from it. Other small peasants, the vast majority of them, took loans to
invest in land. One small crop failure or even a slight fall in prices deprived them of their lands and other
equipment and drove them into the swelling ranks of the landless agricultural workers. On the other hand.
the smaller lords, no longer in command of unpaid labour of serfs, and merchants, took to agricultural
production with a view to earning profit; thus, they produced only those crops which fetched them high
prices; and they employed wage labour.
This was a new kind of economy, alien to the feudal economy. This was am economy worked by the
emerging capitalist farmer and the wage-earning landless agricultural worker, who would freely move to
places where wages were the highest. The feudal extravagance also yielded to a new kind of ethos where
reinvestment, rather than wastage of profit would enlarge the scale of production, and bring in even more
profit.

1) How do you differentiate between demeane, tenements and waste?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) What was "commutation fee"? Write in five lines.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3) Why did only rich peasants benefit from 'Agricultural Progress' ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.6 DECLINE OF FEUDALISM

However, the rate of "agricultural progress" began to decline by about the second decade of the fourteenth
century. This was to bear a major impact on subsequent history of the region.
The reason for this decline lay in the frantic land reclamation movement of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. The fast growing population had cut down forests and done away with pastures at a pace that
destroyed the delicate ecological balance between these on one hand, and the arable land on the other. The
cutting down of forests led in the West European ecology to continuous rain. In 1315 and 1316 the sun did
not shine; consequently, the crops failed and the ensuring famine wiped out a tenth of the population. The
elimination of pastures on the other hand affected the health and numbers of cattle and that in turn, reduced
the animal manure, chief source of fertilizer for the field. The productivity of land was therefore affected,
and as a consequence, human beings' health suffered.
The fourteenth century as a whole was marked by numerous famines on one hand, which weakened human
resistance to disease, and epidemics on the other which took a heavy toll of human lives. The Black Death of
1348-SI was only one, though the most disastrous in the series. It was caused by the plague and it brought
death to anywhere between a fourth and a half of the population of Europe. Even if we accept the lower
figure, the population of Europe had declined by 40 per cent at the end of the fourteenth century than at the
beginning.
6.6.1 Shortage of Labour
Understandably, such massive deaths caused enormous convulsions on the continent. The immediate result
was a great labour shortage, and consequent rise in wages. But the prices of agricultural products declined in
correspondence with falling demand, also owing to massive deaths. This trend was reinforced by the
abandoning of less fertile lands and cultivation of the more fertile ones again for the same reason and
paradoxically, this raised the production levels even as the demand was crashing. While the wage labourers
gained double from this trend of rising wages and declining food prices, the lords were the chief losers.
Their incomes from land declined even as the costs of production rose with rising wages. Moreover, the
prices of luxury goods rose sharply because many of the artisans had died, and production levels therefore
had fallen. Thus, the lords were faced with the dilemma; should they do without the luxurious life style to
which they had been accustomed for centuries because their incomes were declining and the prices of these
goods were rising ? Or should they squeeze the peasants instead and maintain their standards of luxury?
Inevitably they chose the latter alternative. But they sought to squeeze the peasants through the institutional
effort of the state rather than through individual initiative. The state, never a strong entity under classic
feudal conditions when its power was distributed amongst the lords, now rose as a powerful institution to
intervene on behalf of the lords.
6.6.2 Peasant Rebellions

The peasantry responded by fleeing and rising in rebellions of truly continental dimensions. Massive peasant
rebellions rocked France, and England in the fifteenth century, Spain and Germany. These rebellions were
ultimately crushed, but the feudal reaction of the State which had triggered them off lay in a shambles by the
end of the century. The state as a last resort tried to enforce feudal regulations on peasants. But the
conditions were favourable for the peasant and the state power failed to achieve its aims.
The crisis of 14th-l5th centuries or the crisis in the feudal economy of Europe contributed to the decline of
feudalism and prepared the ground for the rise of capitalism. The European economy began to recover some
of it lost strength from the fifteenth century onwards, but this recovery was made possible because the
economy had turned its back on what was being increasingly rendered a backward looking system. The
destruction of feudalism was the result of its own internal development over the centuries. The destruction
did not come simultaneously in all regions of western Europe; in France the collapse of feudalism came
much later than in England. In eastern Europe feudalism was still firmly established between the sixteenth
and eighteenth centuries; while by that time in western Europe it had merely become a subject of the
historian's quest.
6.7 FEUDALISM IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the concept of feudalism was adopted by European historians
and applied to the pre-modern history of different regions of the world, such as China, West Asia, Japan and
India. In India Col. James Tod visualized the development of classic European feudalism in his own day, in
the 1820 is in Rajasthan. The application of this concept became possible partly, because of the European
conquest of or contact with these regions and therefore, the analysis of their history and society in terms of
European categories; and partly also because 'feudalism' was a convenient concept that could explain an
entire range of situations. From European historians the concept was taken over by Indian historians, and its
meaning somewhat enlarged.
In India the term 'Indian feudalism' portrayed the picture of an economy where trade had declined and thus a
shortage of currency resulted. This obliged the State to give land to Brahmins in charity and to a lesser
extent to officials. These land and assignees subjected the peasants to their own control and thus established
feudalism. By the eleventh century trade began to revive; the peasants labour was subjected to 'commutation'
and feudalism declined.
Debate on Indian Feudalism

The concept of 'Indian feudalism' has been criticized in recent historiography. It has been argued that this
concept implies a dichotomy between trade and feudalism; the concept also uses terms and categories of
analysis derived from the European context, such as manor, serf, commutation etc. The criticism follows the
argument that Indian ecology, technology and the social systems are fundamentally different form those of
Europe and therefore the attempt to understand the pre-modern history of India as of other regions must be
on its own terms rather than on terms derived from Europe.
However, the term feudalism continues to be used in popular as well as scholarly literature. This is partly
due to its vague meaning so that it can be bent to cover many situations, as stated above. Some other variants
of the term such as semifeudalism, proto-feudalism or "feudalism" (within quotation marks) have also
appeared.

1) The fourteenth century Europe was affected by numerous famines because of

(Check one of the following for correct answer):
i) poor technology
ii) poor motivation of peasants
iii) climatic failure
iv) increase in population
2) What were the reasons for the rebellions of peasant in the late 14th and 15th centuries
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Colonel James Todd believed that classical European feudalism existed in India in the state of (Check one of
the following for correct answer)
i) Uttar Pradesh
ii) Gujarat
iii) Bihar
iv) Rajasthan
6.8 LET US SUM UP
Slavery existed in ancient societies and in some it took the form of "mode of production". But the kind of
slavery that existed in India was very different from the slavery of classical societies of Rome and Greece.
The transition from "Slave Society" to "Feudal Society" has been explained by several historians. Henry
Pirenne attributed the origin of feudalism to specific economic changes in Europe that contributed to decline
of trade and increase in ruralization. A more comprehensive explanation of feudalism came from Marc
Bloch who associated the origin of feudalism to a number of social, economic and cultural changes that took
place in Western European society during the fifth century. Its susceptibility increased due to successive
invasions, insecurity of economy, and poor subsistence levels which necessitated emergence of a new set of
'ties of interdependence' among social classes, lords, vassals and serts. Feudalism responded well to
challenges of economy and innovations were made in agricultural technology and cropping patterns. A new
labour class of 'serfs' came into being who enjoyed an intermediate position between the 'slaves' of antiquity
and 'free wage labour' of industrial capitalism. The dynamism of feudal mode of production increased
wealth, food production and population. It generated demand for more labour.
Feudal mode of agricultural production was capital-intensive and not labour-intensive as was the case before
it. New technologies of seeds, ploughs and crop-rotation made increased yield possible on smaller tracts of
land. Peasants and lords who could not afford new capital intensive agriculture were displaced from land and
went in search of new land reclamation. It led to deforestation and ecological destruction which caused great
famines of the fourteenth century. Peasant revolts broke out and thus, emerged a crisis in feudalism which
ultimately led to its decay.
The historical debate on feudalism in India has been initially based on Western method of historiography. It
is associated with decline in trade and paucity of currency which motivated state to parcel out land to
Brahmins to generate land revenue. These higher caste feudal lords engaged peasant-serf for cultivation.
Thus, feudalism emerged. But this theory is still being debated.
6.9 KEY WORDS

Black Death: a deadly epidemic of bubonic plague in England in 1348
Commutation: charges or fee for freeing the serfs from bondage
Demeane: a manor house with land adjacent to it (whose produce went to feudal lord)
Feudum: land held in consideration of military service
Harness: tackle, equipment or gear for drought animals
Legume: pulses
Manor: a landed estate belonging to noble men
Tenement: a holding whose produce belonged to the serf
Wasteland: the landed estate of feudal lord that was not cultivated
Yoke: frame of wood joining oxen at the neck
Deforestation: the phenomenon of decline in total land under forests.
EXERCISES
1) Read section 6.2 and write your own answer.
2) Find out from sub-section 6.2.2
1) c
2) d
3) Red sub-section 6.4.2 and write in your own language.
1) Find out from sub-section 6.4.3.

2) Read sub-section 6.5.2
3) Read sub-section 6.5.3 and write your own answer.
1) (iii)
2) Find out from sub-sections 6.6B and 6.6.2
3) (iv)
UNIT 7 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Social and Economic Background
7.3 Renaissance
7.3.1 Humanism
7.3.2 Secularism
7.4 Renaissance Literature

7.5 Art and Architecture
7.6 Philosophy
7.7 Beginning of the Scientific Revolution
7.8 Political Theory
7.9 Reformation
7.9.1 Doctrinal Debates in the Church

7 9.2 The Protestant Revolution
7.9.3 Economic and Political Changer
7.10 Rise of Nation States
7.11 Geographical Discoveries Colonisation
7.12 Let Us Sum Up
7.13 Key Words
7.14 Answers to Check Your Progress/Exercises
7.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit deals with a very momentous period of European history which initiated major changes not only in
economy, society and polity but in overall outlook towards human beings and nature. After reading this Unit
you should be able to learn about:
the economic and social factors which contributed to the processes of

Renaissance and Reformation.
the ideas, values and institutions associated with Renaissance and Reformation,
the art and culture of this period,
the process which led to the rise of modern-state in Europe, and
the expansion of European powers to other regions of the world which led to
colonisation.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we introduce the study of a very crucial period in human history in which the foundations of the
modern world were laid. A number of inter-related developments took place in the period from about the
fourteenth to the seventeenth century A.D. There were certain major developments in Europe which had
their impact on the entire world. In certain aspects, the impact was felt more or less immediately, while in
others it took a much longer time.
The terms 'Renaissance' and 'Reformation' are generally used to describe this period of transformation. The
word 'Renaissance' means rebirth, and it was used to refer to the revival or interest in the learning of ancient
Greece and Rome. But it was much more than the revival of ancient learning. It embraced ideas and
achievements in philosophy, religion, art, literature, politics and science which had little in common with the
ancient heritage. At times, they were also against the Catholic Church and the authority of the Pope which
led to the rise of Protestantism in the early sixteenth century as well as to the Catholic Reformation known
as 'Counter-Reformation' in the later sixteenth century.
The Reformation had a profound impact on the history of Europe which extended beyond the sphere of
religion. Both Renaissance and Reformation had common social and economic causes. In their impact, they
coincided, and together, they brought about the collapse of the feudal order and laid the foundations of a
new social order. A series of inter-related developments accompanied these changes in society and
economy. There were fundamental changes in the thinking of human beings about the world and their place
in it, and in the content and style of art and literature. There was a decisive shift away from divine matters to
the study of human matters and an invincible faith in the tremendous creative potential of human beings.
The foundations of modern science were laid in this period. The period also saw the emergence of nation-
states with new forms of political system and new political theories. This period was also the age of
discovery when the voyages of exploration brought for the first time in history, all parts of the world into
contact with one another
14. Ships of that age
All these developments must be seen in their mutual inter-relationship. It may be useful to first have a look
at the general and economic background of the period in which these changes and development took place.
7.2 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

You have already studied about feudalism which characterised European societies in the Middle Ages and
the factors which caused their decline. The revival of trade was accompanied by the growth of towns. Old
towns became larger and many new towns emerged, mainly as centres of manufacture and trade. Towns,
often walled, gradually freed themselves from feudal control. They had their own governments and the
townsmen elected their officials. They had their own militia and their own courts. Unlike the serfs in feudal
estates, there were no restrictions on the movements of citizens in the towns. They could come and go as
they pleased and buy and sell property. "Town air makes a man free", is an old medieval proverb. Towns
provided asylum to serfs who escaped from feudal oppression. The towns encouraged the cultivation of cash
crops needed for manufacturers, and peasants received their payments in money. The Peasant could now pay
his dues to the lord in cash rather than by labour Money had little use in feudal societies. A feudal manor
was more or less self-sufficient for its needs. There was very little of buying and selling and whatever there
was, was done through barter. With the growth of trade, there was increasing use of money. The use of
money indicated far-reaching changes in economy.
The Capitalist Economy

The privileged people did have money, in the form of gold and silver, but it was idle money. It could not be
used to make more money. With the growth of trade and manufacture, this changed, marking the beginning
of the transition from a feudal economy to a capitalist economy in which wealth, generally in the form of
money, could be used to make a profit. This was done by investing money in business, trade and industry.
The profits made were reinvested to make further profits. Such wealth or money is called Capital. Money
increasingly became the measure of a man's wealth. In feudal societies, other than the feudal lords, there
were three classes of people, the prayers-the clergy who prayed, the soldiers-the knights who fought and
workers-the peasants who worked for both the clergy and the soldiers. With the growth of trade, a new class
emerged, the middle class comprising mainly the merchants. Even though small in number, they began to
play an important role in society because of the wealth they possessed.
15. A Market Scene
Initially, international trade was largely in luxury goods from the East and was controlled by merchants in
the Italian cities of Venice, Genoa and Pies, and towns in southern Germany. With the great geographical
discoveries of the last decade of the fifteenth century-the discovery of a sea route to the East and the
discovery of the Americas-the pattern of trade changed. It was dominated by Portugal and Spain and later by
Holland and Britain.
16. Resistance of American Indians to Columbus
Simultaneously, with these developments, changes took place in the system of manufacture goods. In the
early medieval period, most of the non-agricultural products required by the peasant were produced in the
household of the peasant and for the serfs who were skilled in particular crafts and had organised
themselves guilds. There were for example guilds of bakers of weavers and of and of dyers. Each craft guild
had a master of craftsmen, apprentices and journey-men. To learn a craft, a person joined a master as an
apprentice or learner. After having learn a craft, he worked as a journey-man with the master on a wage or,
if he had mastered the craft, would himself become a master craftsman.
The units of production were small, consisting of three or four people and each unit had a shop to sell its
produce. There were no inequalities within a unit or between units of the same guild. The guild prevented
any competitors from practising the craft but it ensured the quality of the produce as well as fair business
practices and stable prices.
The guild system was not suited to the requirements of large scale production necessitate by an expanding
demand for goods, and the system began to decline giving place to a capitalist system. Inequities appeared
within the system, with masters refusing to let journey-men become masters and paying them low wages.
With the introduction of the Putting Out system, their independence declined. The merchant, under this
system, would bring the master craftsmen the raw materials, the craftsmen would work with their tools as
before in their homes, and the produce would be taken away by the merchant who had supplied them with
the raw materials. Thus, in effect, unlike before, the craftsmen did not own what they produced. They were
increasingly reduced to the position of wage-eaners, except that they still owned the tools used by them and
worked at home.
Subsequently, this system gave way to the factory system under which production was carried out in
buildings owned by the capitalist with the help of machines owned by the capitalist. The workers, owning
nothing, worked only for wages. In industries which required large investments such as mining and metal-
working, the capitalist system in which some people owned the raw materials, the tools and machines and
the products and the workers worked only for a wage came into being early. This period saw a tremendous
expansion of manufacturers. It was accompanied by a growing social differentiation in towns and the
emergence of the working class. Just as there were peasant revolts in different parts of Europe towards the
decline of feudalism, there were also uprisings by the city poor in this age of rising capitalism.
7.3 RENAISSANCE
The term 'Renaissance' literally means rebirth, and is, in a narrow sense, used to describe the revival of
interest in the classical civilisations of Greece and Rome. This deeply influenced Europeans. The
Renaissance, however, was not a mere revival of ancient learning. It was marked by a series of new
developments in the fields of art, literature, religion, philosophy, science and politics.
The intellectual and cultural life of Europe for centuries had been dominated by the Catholic Church. The
Renaissance undermined this domination. The revival of pre-Christian Classical learning and of interest in
the cultural achievements of ancient Greece and Rome was, in itself, an important factor in undermining the
domination of the Church. The Renaissance, of course, went beyond mere revival and gave rise to a new
way of thinking.
17. A royal letter authorizing Columbus to undertake voyage to India
7.3.1 Humanism
The chief characteristic of the Renaissance way of thinking was humanism. Basically, it meant a decisive
shift in concern for human as distinct from divine matters. Humanism controlled man, stressed his essential
worth and dignity , expressed invincible faith in his tremendous creative potential, and proclaimed freedom
of the individual and his inalienable rights. It was centered on a notion of man that did not reject earthly
joys, recognised the beauty and dignity of the human body, opposed religious asceticism, and defended
man's right to pleasure and satisfaction of earthly desires and requirements. It meant the glorification of the
human and the natural disposition and rejected the other-worldliness of Catholic belief that human existence
has its origin in sin: therefore, it is tainted. The humanists rejected or even ridiculed religious mortification
of the flesh and withdrawal from the world. They urged man to seek joy on this earth rather than, an after-
life which the church advocated. Their works were permeated with the faith that a man with an active mind
and body was capable of knowing and controlling the world, and fashioning his own happiness. These ideas
increasingly narrowed the domain of the divine and extended the domain of man.
Pico della Mirandola, an Italian humanist of the fifteenth century who had travelled widely and had studied
various systems of philosophy, published a list of nine hundred theses. The Renaissance belief in the
limitless potentialities of man may be seen in the following excerpts from his writings:
'There is nothing more wonderful than man." This is what I have read in some record of the Arabians. A
famous Greek said, "A great miracle a man is. What is the reason behind these sayings"? Human beings are
Kings of all beings below God and the angels because of the ability of their reason and the light of their
reason and the light of their intelligence. But these reasons are not enough.
"Man is the most fortunate of creatures." Why ? Because of all creatures, God did not limit the potential of
man. Only humans have freedom of choice and can fashion themselves in whatever shape they prefer They
have the power to degenerate into a brutish form of life, like the animals. Secondly, physical strength or
instinct helps them to survive. Or, they have the power to use their intelligence to turn themselves into a
higher form of life that is god-like.
'The ancient Babylonians said, Man is a being that has a varied nature". Why do we stress this? Because we
say that we human beings can become what we will".
"Know thyself'. By this rule we are encouraged to investigate all of nature. The person who knows himself
or herself knows all things."
7.3.2 Secularism
If we compare the contemporary view of the world with the medieval view, we will recognize the great
transformation of though that had taken place from religious 'other-worldliness' to humanistic 'this-
worldliness'. The humanist is more interested in the material world around, in the contents of the physical
universe than in gods, angels or demons, whereas the medieval men of religion were more interested in god,
angels or demons. The humanist is concerned to make the most of his brief life, whereas the medieval men
regarded life as a painful preparation for a happier life which, they thought, would come after death. This
transformation which the Renaissance inaugurated may be termed as marking the passage from religion to
secularism. The new intellectual and cultural climate which the Renaissance created influenced even the
Church hierarchy, particularly its upper levels, who were wealthy. For example, Leo X who was the Pope
from 1513 to 1521 said on becoming the Pope, "Let us enjoy this Papacy which God has given us".

1) Discuss in brief the factors which helped in the introduction of capitalist economy in Europe.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Find out whether the following statements are True or False. ( Mark T or F )
i) Severe restrictions were imposed on the citizens in Europe during the
Renaissance period
ii) The feudal society was a class-less society.
iii) 'Humanism' was a great contribution of Renaissance.
iv) Renaissance contributed to the development of secular ideas.
2) Write in about five lines what you understand by humanism'.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.4 RENAISSANCE LITERATURE

The humanist ideas of the Renaissance found artistic expression in literature, painting, architecture, and
sculpture. Some of the greatest writers, poets, and dramatists of the Renaissance were Patriarch and
Boccaccio in Italy, Rabelais in France, Erasmus in Holland, Von Hutten in Germany, Cervantes in Spain and
Shakespeare in England. The themes of their writings had little to do with religion or piety or asceticism and
were often refold and anti-clerical.
The most significant feature of the literary output of the Renaissance, and since, has been the use of
vernacular languages, or the languages spoken by the people of a region or country. Until about the
fourteenth century, there were hardly any writings in any of the languages spoken by the people of different
countries of Europe- Italian, Spanish, French, German. English, etc. The language of scholarship and
literature for centuries had been Latin which only the educated, who constituted a very small part of the
population, could understand. The Renaissance marks the emergence of modern European languages as
languages of literature and the beginning of the development of these languages. In a short period, these
languages almost completely replaced Latin as the language of poetry, drama and fiction. Latin continued,
however, to be the language of philosophy and science for some more time.
18. An early printing press

It may also be remembered that the total number of books available in Europe till the late fifteenth century
was very small. The first printed book, the Gutenberg's Bible, was brought out in 1456. Until the invention
of printing, books were hand-written (manuscripts). They were copied in hand by scribes and were mostly
available in libraries of the monasteries. Even people who could read had thus very little access to books.
But most people could neither read nor write. It has been estimated that during the first half of the fifteenth
century, there were only about 100,000 manuscripts in Europe. In fifty years' time, after the introduction of
the printing press, there were nine million books. This was a significant development, but its impact took a
long time to be felt. The printed books were also expensive and only the moneyed people could afford to
buy them. Although the number of people who could read was limited yet printing opened up immense
possibilities for the future. This inevitably had an impact on society.
The Renaissance literature in modern European languages was marked by significant changes in style and
theme. Initially, the tendency was towards copying the Latin literary style. Its first impact was felt in poetry
where the imitation of court poets was given up and new rhymes were adopted with themes which were
increasingly secular. There were significant developments in drama, and increasing use of satire. A major
development was in the field of prose writings. Earlier prose was a medium only for scholarly writing.
Stories were told through poems. Now, the prose-story emerged as an extremely important literary form.
Boccaccio's 'Decameron', basically a collection of stories in Italian, was a pioneering work and influenced
the Renaissance prose writings all over Europe.
7.5 ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Some of the greatest achievements of the Renaissance were made in the realm of painting, sculpture and
architecture. The humanism of Renaissance found brilliant expression in these art forms. The Renaissance
artists made use of biblical subjects but the interpretation that they gave of these subjects had little to do with
the traditional religious attitude. An as an independent activity assumed a status which was unknown in the
medieval times. The purpose of medieval art was to express moral values and impart religious teachings.
The people portrayed were not men and women of flesh and blood. The artists, mostly anonymous, had a
low position in society. They worked in groups as craftsmen and had no individuality. The Renaissance
marked the rise of artists, each with his unique individuality and style, who enjoyed great prestige in society.
The wealthy merchant, the princes and the Church competed for their patronage. Art was freed from
religious or ritualistic overtones. Now artistic creations were admitted for their intrinsic aesthetic value, and
were seen as evidence of achievements of the individual artists.
19 (a) Monalisa by Leonardo de Vinci 19(b) Raphael's Madonna
19 (c) Michelangelo's frescoes on the Sistine Chapel
Of all the art forms, Renaissance's supreme achievement was in painting. The Renaissance artists looked
upon art as an imitation of life. This required close observation of nature and of man, of mountains, trees,
and animals and of the anatomy of man. The artists studied optics and geometry and used their knowledge to
develop perspectives, including aerial perspectives, in their paintings. They studied human anatomy to find
the mechanism underlying gestures and expressions. Leonardo da Vinci, for example, studied not only the
anatomical structure of the human body, but also in order to represent movement, the way different parts of
the body shaped when in a state of movement. Leonardo considered painting a science.
For an appreciation of the significance of the Renaissance art and the departure it marked from the medieval
art, it is necessary to see the reproductions of paintings of the two periods in illustrated volumes of art
history. No detailed reference has been made to any particular artist or work of art of the period. The reader
may try to know about and see the reproductions of some of the following paintings of the Renaissance:
Botticelli's Allegory of Spring and Birth of Venus, Leonardo da Vinci's Virgin of the Rocks, Last Supper and
Monalisa, Raphael's School of Athens, Sistine and Madonna and Michelangelo's series of frescoes on the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome.
The sculpture of the Renaissance period developed along the same lines as the painting. The medieval
sculpture used images of saints and depicted religious themes as part of architecture. One of the
20. The Battle of Ute Centaur by Mtebel0gelo, 1492, on Marble relief is

an excellent expression of humanism in sculpture
significant developments now was the emergence of the free-standing sculpture. Architecture emerged as an
art itself ankle ceased to, be a religious medium. As in the case of painting, the growing knowledge of
anatomy and the new standards of beauty also influenced the developments of sculpture.
The Renaissance period thus, also marks the beginning of the decline of Gothic architecture which had
dominated the architecture of cathedrals and churches from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The basic
features of this architecture were rib vaults, sharply pointed arches and huntresses. The Gothic structures had
lofty spires. They had stained glass windows and carved facades and were decorated with representations of
mythical creatures. The Renaissance architects considered Gothic architecture as ascetic and other worldly
and used the world 'Gothic' to disparage it as barbarian New styles of architecture began to be developed,
first in Italy and later in other parts of Europe. These were based on the study of the ancient Roman
architecture. The finest specimen of the new style was St. Peter's Church in Rome. The buildings in the new
style, many of which were churches, have been described as expressing ideals which were purely secular,
joy in this life and pride in human achievement.
21 (a) Cathedral Dome Florence (1420-36) 21 (b) A diagram showing the construction of the
Cathedral Dome, Florence
7.6 PHILOSOPHY
The dominant philosophical system of the pre-renaissance medieval Europe was scholasticism. It was an
attempt to harmonize reason and faith, basically to serve the interests of theology. It was based on logic and
rejected experimental science and experience. The sense perceptions, according to this philosophy, could
lead to a knowledge of the appearance of things but not of the reality which could be discovered by reason
alone without reference to sensory perceptions. It's purpose was to give a systematic account of the Christian
doctrine and to free it of any internal contradictions. For this, reason alone was not enough. Another
criterion was the authority of the scriptures. The acceptance of the doctrine was not based on its
correspondence with facts, but on its legitimation by the scriptures or by an authoritative person. Some
scholastics of course, stressed the importance of doubt and ceaseless interrogation for perceiving the truth
and laid emphasis on reason more than on faith, but their number was limited. The Renaissance thinkers
attacked scholasticism saying that it fed on itself, with its circular reasoning within a close system in which
the basic premises bore no relation to reality. They asserted that knowledge could be gained by going out
and studying mentally and manually the Book of Nature. Leonardo da Vinci, to whom reference has already
been made, condemned the reliance on authority as a source of knowledge and advocated the use of the
inductive method. Empiricism arose as a reaction to scholasticism and its speculative methods. Empiricism
may be defined as an approach which holds that the sensory experience is the only source of knowledge. It
affirms that all knowledge is founded on experience and is obtained through it. Francis Bacon, one of the
pioneers of empiricism, emphasized the inductive method against the speculative method of the scholastic.
This method relied for knowledge on observation, experimentation, collection of data and their classification
for discovery of general laws. For such purposes, preconceived notions, personal prejudices and rhetorical
inaccuracies should be discarded and no ideas, however time-honoured they may be, held as eternal truths.
The founding of the best effective scientific society, the Royal Society in England, was directly the result of
his ideas. Empiricism, despite some limitations, marked a break with the past and paved the way for the
advancement of modern science. It was held that the physical universe was subject to natural laws which
could be discovered and used for the benefit of mankind. The empiricists also held that human affairs could
be similarly understood.
Another system of philosophy which helped in ending the domination of scholasticism (and of the church) in
intellectual life and aided the growth of science is associated with the name of Descartes. Descartes
advocated that with clarity of thought it was possible to discover everything that was rationally knowable.
He emphasized the importance of deductive thought and experiment as an aid to it. Deductive method begins
with logical formulation of premises, their internal rational connections, and then proceeds to observation
and experiments with facts to establish the validity of those premises. Inductive method begins with
observation of facts to arrive at such logical sets of premises as a final result of inquiry. The purpose of his
philosophy was, however, similar to that of Bacon's. Referring to his conclusions, he wrote:
"They showed me that it is possible to arrive at knowledge very useful to life: and that instead of this
speculative philosophy that is taught in the schools, one can find a practical philosophy by which
knowing the force and action of fire, water, air, the stars, the heavens. and all other bodies that
surround us as distinctly as we know the different trades of our craftsmen, we could employ them in
the same way to all uses for which they are appropriate and thus, become the masters and possessors
of Nature".
7.7 BEGINNING OF THE SCIENTIFIC

REVOLUTION
The Renaissance marked the beginning of modern science. One of the first achievements was in astronomy.
This was an exposition by Copernicus of the rotation of the earth on its axis and its motion around the sun.
This marked an important break with the ancient system of thought. For, over a thousand years, it was
believed that the earth was the centre of the universe. It was a cardinal dogma of scholastic philosophers,
and its refutation meant an attack on the theological conception of the universe. It was therefore, to be
condemned as a heresy and punished. Copernicus's book, On the Revolution of the Celestial Orbs was
published in 1543, the year in which he died. He had hesitated from publishing it for fear of the hostility of
the Church. While the theory awaited final confirmation by Galileo later, the very idea of an open universe
of which the earth was but a small part was shattering to the theological view of a close universe, created
and maintained in motion by God. About half a century after the publication of Copernicus's book, in 1606,
Gioardano Bruno was burnt for heresy which the vision of an infinite universe had inspired.
The decisive proof of the new conception of the universe was made possible by the invention of the
telescope which has been called the greatest scientific instrument of the age. Galileo, born eleven years after
the death of Copernicus, used this instrument in his study of the heavenly bodies and the Copernicus theory
was confirmed by Galileo's observations. Galileo was tried in his old age and was condemned and forced to
to recant his views. He was awarded nominal imprisonment and allowed to carry on his scientific work
which was not directly connected with astronomy. Galileo's trial marked the end of a period in the history of
science. 'Hie condemnation of Galileo was not a popular one, and attempts to enforce the acceptance of the
old conception of universe were quietly dropped.
Significant discoveries were made in the study of the human body and circulation of blood which helped to
combat many superstitions. We have already referred work of the Renaissance artists relating to the study of
anatomy. In 1543, the year in which Copernicus's book was published, Versailles, a Belgian, published his
profusely illustrated De Hunan Carporis Fabrica. Based on the study of the dissections
22 (a) A group of geographers from the school of Athens. 22 (b) A group of Astronomers from the
school of Athens. 22 (c) A navigation book where copernicus's views have been blackened due to
Churches censorship.
of the human body, this book provided the first complete description of the anatomy
of the human body. Servetus, a Spaniard, published a book explaining the circulation
23 (a) Study of bones & Tendons, a drawing by Leonardo Da vinci
of blood. He was condemned to death for questioning the Church belief in Trinity. A complete account of
the constant process of circulation of blood, from the heart to all parts of the body and hack again was given
by Harvey, an Englishman, in about 1610 in his Dissertation upon the 'Movement of the Heart'. The period
produced many other giants in science and great discoveries and inventions were made.

1) Write in about 100 words the impact of humanism on art and architecture during the Renaissance.
Discuss this theme with your Counsellor at the Study Centre.
2) Which of the following statements are correct? (Mark √ or X)

i) The use of vernacular languages became popular during the Renaissance.
ii) During the Renaissance art was only a method to express religious ideas.
iii) Empiricism paved the way for advances in modern science.
iv) Galileo was honoured by the Church for his invention.
3) Give a list of the advances made in the field of modern science during the Renaissance.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.8 POLITICAL THEORY

In the early medieval period, a view supported by the Church was that the state was established by God and
therefore, people must render faithful obedience to the ruler even if he was a tyrant. Later, the question of
the right to kill a tyrant was debated by philosophers. A number of popular uprisings had broken out in the
fourteenth century, and later. These had created a revolutionary spirit in Europe. Many leaders of these
uprisings were fired by a religious zeal and through their activities and ideas expressed a longing for a better
world. The question of the rights of the people against depotic rule or against social and economic
exploitation long remained a live issue. The view that Christians must obey their rulers absolutely, because
they were the representatives of God on earth, was strong. Medieval philosophers also generally held the
view that all of Western Europe should be under one supreme ruler or overlord, while there may be other
kings and princes under him. This overlord may either be the Pope or the Holy Roman Emperor.
The medieval political theorists believed that the authority of every ruler was limited. There was no
conception of state sovereignty. The ruler did not make the laws according to his will; he only implemented
the laws. There was no conception of democracy or popular sovereignty. With the rise of despotism, theories
of state divorced from 'moral' or religious considerations began to grow. The most outstanding political
philosopher of this period was the Italian Nicolo Machiavelli who gave a realistic, original and bold
exposition of political theory, totally shorn of the prevailing hypocrisy. The term 'Machiavellianism' has
come to mean "the view that politics is normal and that any means, however, unscrupulous can justifiably be
used m achieving political power" Machiavelli's views reflected his 'hard-headed reaction' to the political
realities of the day. In the dedication of his book The Prince, he proposed to do for politics what the painter
of the day was doing for landscape art i.e. examine the scene from a good vantage so as to depict the nature
of his subject appropriately. Machiavelli held the view that the state was an end it itself. He favoured
absolutism as necessary to solidify and strengthen the state. He was completely opposed to any limitations
on the authority of the ruler. It was the supreme obligation of the ruler to maintain the power and safety of
the state, and it was his duty to use all possible means to fulfil that obligation.
A Period of Growing Absolutism

It was a period of growing absolutism and there was much opposition to this from those who were affected.
The middle class, while supporting the ruler against the feudal lords, also resisted the power of the ruler
Wherever parliamentary institutions existed, the upper classes represented in them, were able to claim and
exert special rights. A theory of popular sovereignty was advocated by Marsilium of Padua in early
fourteenth century. He contended that sovereignty extended from God to the people and from them to their
government and therefore, the government should remain responsible to the people. By 'people' what was
meant was the upper classes, and if at all any limitations were imposed on the authority of the ruler, they
were for and by the upper classes. 'Popular sovereignty' was rarely used to denote democracy and
republicanism. There were a number of republican city-states in Italy, Germany, Holland and Switzerland,
but none had a popularly elected government. Only in Bohemia (Czechoslovakia), for a short while, the
followers of John Huss established a republic. The theory and practice of popular sovereignty belongs to a
later period of history.
7.9 REFORMATION
The term Reformation implies two major developments in the history of Europe towards the latter part of
Renaissance. First, the Protestant Revolution which resulted in a split in Christiandom and secondly, the
secession of a large number of countries from the Roman Catholic Church by establishing separate Churches
in those countries, generally along national lines. This triggered reforms within the Roman Catholic Church,
generally referred to as the Catholic Reformation or Counter Reformation. But Reformation was not merely
a religious movement. It was intimately connected with, and was in fact, a part of the social and political
movements of the period which brought about the end of the medieval period and the emergence of the
modern world. As in the case of Renaissance, Reformation must be seen in the context of the social,
economic and political changes in Europe.
The Catholic Church, during the early medieval period, had become a vast hierarchical organisation headed
by the Pope in Rome. The Pope was the supreme authority over the entire hierarchy, and he exercised this
authority directly. The position of the Pope is often described as 'Papal Monarchy'. Systematic efforts were
made to extend the authority of the Church over everyone, high or low. Making an oral confession of his
sins to a priest at least once a year and suffer punishment imposed, was made obligatory for everyone. The
recalcitrance were ex-communicated. A person who was ex-communicated was supposed to have been
temporarily consigned to hell. If he died, his body could not be buried with the prescribed rituals. Other
Christians were forbidden from associating with him.
7.9.1 Doctrinal Debates in the Church

Almost from the beginning of the establishment of the Church, there were differences among Christian
scholars on questions of doctrine. These differences persisted over the centuries. By the thirteenth century,
some of the questions of the Christian doctrine were taken out of the purview of philosophical discussions.
They had to be accepted as faith. An important feature of the Catholic Church was the 'Theory of
Sacrament'. A sacrament was defined its an instrument by which divine grace is communicated to man
Seven sacraments were accepted -- baptism, confirmation, penance, the Eucharist or Lord's Supper,
marriage, ordination and extreme unction. These sacraments were regarded indispensable for securing
God's grace and there was no salvation without them Associated with the theory of sacraments was the
theory of Priesthood. It was held that the priest who was ordained by a bishop (who was confirmed by the
pope), was the inheritor a part of the authority conferred by Christian Saint Peter (Popes derived their
authority from Saint Peter). For the laymen, the three most important sacraments were baptism, penance and
the Eucharist. The priest, according to this theory, had the power to cooperate with God in performing
certain miracles and in releasing sinners from the consequences of their sins. There were also the veneration
of the relics of Christ and saints and these were often faked. The rule of celibacy of' the priests and the belief
in purgatory was also implemented. By the thirteenth century, the Church, which had been founded for the
purpose of saving ,souls had become a vast and efficient engineer of control and exploitation. Protestant
Revolution is often .described as a revolt against abuses which had grown in the Catholic Catholic Church.
Some of 'the priests and higher-ups in the Church hierarchy received their appointment through corrupt
means. Many such appointees were utterly ignorant. They led lives opulence and immorality, running
gambling houses and keeping mistresses. Religious offices were sold LU the highest bidder and those who
bought positions after spending money made good by charging high fees for the services they performed.
Dispensations which exempted people from certain laws of the Church such as with regards' marriage and
imposition of penance were sold. The Popes and the higher clergy lived like princess. A relatively new abuse
was the sale of indulgences which remitted punishments in this life and in purgatory for sins. The sale of
indulgences which began to be considered as passports to heaven became one of the major immediate issues
which provoked the Protestant Revolution.
No. 24 (a) sate of Indulgences 24 (b) Sale Or Indulgences
Any opinion or doctrine contrary to the Church dogma was considered heretical and was punished. The
Church had established a vast machine to suppress heresy. Inquisition or a tribunal had been instituted for
the discovery and punishment of heresy. All deviation and dissent from dogma and protest against the
abuses of the Church was sought to be suppressed and heretics began to be burnt at the stake. Two orders of
nuns, the Franciscan and the Dominican, had been founded in the early thirteenth century. The wandering
monks of these orders soon degenerated into a system of espionage and blackmail. The inquisitor, who wore
black garments and a black cowl over the head, would enter a village or town with his staff and summon the
inhabitants to report any heretics or any person they suspected of heresy. Some people settled old scores and
made false accusations.
From the fourteenth century, opposition to some of the Church doctrines and protests against the abuses
began to grow. There was also an advocacy of the return to the Scriptures and early Christianity instead of
relying on the Catholic Church as an organization. John Wycliffe in England advocated the supreme
authority of the Scriptures. The language of the Catholic Church was Latin, which, the common people did
not understand. The Scriptures then were not available in any of the modern European languages. Latin,
Hebrew and Greek were considered the three sacred languages. Translation of the Scriptures into other
languages was believed to destroy the sanctity of the sole repository of the faith; of true Christianity, which
offered the sole criterion of righteousness. Then the salvation of people lay in their knowing what the
Scriptures said. For this it was necessary that the Scriptures were translated into the languages of the people.
Wycliffe inspired the first English translation of the Bible. He condemned the Pope as the leader of the army
of the devil. He denounced the elergy, condemned the indulgences and denied certain doctrines such as the
Eucharist. He recruited what were known as Poor Preachers to spread the knowledge of the Scriptures
among the common people. After his death in 1384, some of his followers went even beyond his ideas and
condemned many doctrines and practices.
7.9.2 The Protestant Revolution

The Protestant Revolution can be said to have begun in 1517 when Martin Luther, a Monk of the Order of
St. Augustine, nailed his ninety-five theses or statements attacking the sale of the indulgences, on the door of
Church in Wittemberg in Germany. He challenged people to come and hold disputations with him on his
theses and sent copies of his theses to his friends in a number of cities. Among the theses were the
following: "Thus those preachers of indulgences are in error who say that, by the indulgences of the pope, a
man is loosened and saved from all punishment... They preach man, who say that the soul flies out of the
purgatory as soon as the money thrown in the chest rattles. It is certain that, when the money rattles in the
chest, avarice and gain may be increased, but the suffrage of the Church depends on the will of God alone...
Christians should be taught that, as it would be the duty, so it would be the wish of the Pope, even to sell, if
necessary the Basilica of St. Peter, and to give of his own money to very many of those from whom the
preachers of pardons extract money".
During the next two years, Luther wrote a scares of pamphlets expounding his doctrines and came to the
conclusion that his doctrines could not be reconciled with those of the Catholic Church and that he had no
alternative but to break with the Catholic Church. In 1520, the Pope ordered him to recant within sixty days
or be condemned as a heretic. He burnt the proclamation of the Pope in public. During all this period, he was
protected by the ruler of Saxony who was his friend. Many rulers in Germany were hostile to the Church and
when Luther was ex-communicated, he remained unharmed. During the next 25 years, he occupied himself
with the talk of building an independent German Church-and in expounding his doctrine. He rejected the
entire system of the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, introduced German as the language of Church
services, abolished monasticism and insisted on the right of priests to marry, abolished the special status of
priests as representatives of God on earth, eliminated most of the Sacraments except baptism and the
Eucharist, and emphasized faith rather than good works including pilgrimages and veneration of relics. The
highest priority was given to the doctrine of predestination and the supreme authority of the scriptures.
Another important change was to abandon the view that the Catholic Church was supreme over the state.
The break with the Catholic Church was soon followed by revolts, first by the knights and then by lower
classes, mainly peasants. These revolts, on the one hand, helped in eliminating opposition to Luther; on the
other, they showed the limitation of Luther"s movement as a movement of radical, social and economic
reform. Luther sided with the rulers and the lords in suppressing the peasant revolt. He advocated the
hunting down of rebels like "mad dogs". Among the rebels were people belonging to a sect called the
Anabaptists who were considered the most radical reformers of the time. They advocated complete
separation of the Church and state, denied the necessity of the priests, denounced the accumulation of wealth
and distinctions of rank, and considered it the duty of a Christian to share their things with each other.
Luther, denouncing them, said:
"There are heretics who hold that one should tolerate no authority... that one should own no
possessions... Ieave house and home or should hold and keep all things common. Such are not only
heretics but rebels, and therefore without doubt should be punished".
7.9.3 Economic and Political Changes

In addition to the doctrinal disputes and decadence of the Church, the Protestant Revolution was also
influenced by economic and political changes in society. This was a period when, in different countries of
Europe, there was a rise of national consciousness among the people, that they were one people distinct from
the other nationalities and must not be ruled over by foreigners. They should have their own governments
and rulers, independent of any outside (church) control. Unlike the medieval period, nation-states were
beginning to be formed in accordance with this consciousness.
The social and economic changes leading to the rise in importance of the merchants, had strengthened this
process. The Roman Catholic Church asserted its supremacy over all nationalities in all matters, including in
the matter of appointments and deposition of kings. There emerged thus, a basic antagonism between the
growing national consciousness and the Church. There could be no growth in nationalism without
diminishing the powers of the Church.
While discussing the political theories in the period of the Renaissance, we have referred to the rise of
absolutism or despotism. The rulers of states claimed total supremacy within their realms. They even
claimed that their right to rule was a divine right. These rulers wanted complete authority not only over
temporal affairs (which right the Pope also claimed) but also control over the churches and the priesthood
within their kingdoms. Then there were various economic factors. The Church had a vast economic empire.
The churches and the monasteries under the control of the Pope had enormous wealth and owned vast lands.
The Church imposed various kinds of taxes, for example, the Peter's Pence and Tithe. Much of this wealth
drained from different countries was sent to Rome. Similarly, the proceeds from the sale of indulgences
were sent to Rome.
While the general population, disliked a large portion of their wealth being sent to Rome, the rulers saw vast
prospects of increasing their resources by confiscating Church properties. It offered the resources they
needed for their standing armies and for other purposes. The Church properties were exempted from taxes
and, the burden of taxation within a state fell on the merchants and the new class of rising capitalists. While
religious differences perhaps could be sorted out, these fundamental antagonisms could not. The Protestant
Revolution did not, nor was it meant to, lead to the establishment of a universal Protestant Church under a
single authority like the Catholic Church was under the Pope. It led to the establishment of separate national
churches under the control of the state.
After the success of Luther in Germany, the Protestant Revolution spread to many other countries. The
doctrines of the Protestants everywhere were not the same. In Switzerland, the Protestant Revolution was led
by Zwingli and Calvin. In fact, Calvin's ideas gained much more support in different parts of Europe than
those of Luther. In England, King Henry Vlll was made the head of the Church of England which was
declared to be an independent national unit subject only to the authority of the king.
The Protestant Revolution was followed by a realization by the Catholics, including the Popes, the clergy
and Catholic rulers and scholars, that the spread of Protestantism could not be checked by persecution or by
political and military means. What was needed was a moral regeneration of the Churches and Papacy. A
series of measures were taken in the sixteenth century itself to introduce various reforms.
The Reformation brought about a split in Western Christendom and, along with it, for a long time an
increase in religious conflicts and wars. In a period of about twentyfive years (from 1560s) eight religious
wars ravaged France. The revival of evangelicalism, the religious crusading zeal of the rival Churches, led to
the diminishing of some of the gains of Renaissance, particularly in shifting the focus from religious affairs
to human affairs. The period from 1560 to 1630 was the worst period in the history of witch-hunting. It
assumed the proportion of a craze.

1) Which of the following statements are correct or wrong (Mark or X)
i) Democracy was the leading political system of medieval times

ii) Marsilius of Padua advocated a theory of popular sovereignty.
iii) Baptism, penance and the Eucharist were important sacraments.
iv) Luther supported the peasant revolt.
v) National churches emerged as a result of Reformation.
2) Write in about ten lines the methods adopted by the Church, dominate social and political life of the
people in Europe.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3) What do you understand by the term "Protestant Revolution" ? Answer in about five lines.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4) List in about five lines some major consequences of Reformation.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.10 RISE OF NATION STATES

If we look at the political map of thirteenth century Europe, we will recognize few of the nations of modern
Europe which was ruled by thousands of feudal lords, and the political entities that characterize modern
Europe did not exist. We have read about the power and position of the feudal lords. There were kings but
they had little power. To fight wars against other kings, they depended entirely on the levies provided by the
feudal lords. The boundaries of the estates of the lords and of kingdoms had no rational basis and were
fluctuating. There was nothing like a sense of common nationality which distinguished the people of one
state from those of another.
In the twelfth century, there came into being the Holy Roman Empire. It claimed to be a universal empire (in
the same way in which the Catholic Church claimed to be the universal Church). Though it included mainly
Germany and Italy, but the Emperors' control even in these areas was limited. The process of political
development, the culmination of which we see in the present day world in the form of independent and
sovereign national states, started in the period of the Renaissance and the Reformation. This process started
with the rise of national consciousness. It was the consciousness among people inhabiting a more or less
defined territory that as people they were distinct. It began with the emergence of national monarchies, two
of the earliest being in England and France.
The Kings tried to establish their supremacy over the feudal lords and the conflicts between the two lasted
over a long period of time. The Kings were helped in their designs by merchants and other urban population.
The rise of trade and the middle class in cities had taken place already. To free themselves from interference
by feudal lords and to Further promote their interests, the cities needed a strong central authority which the
kings by curbing the power of the feudal lords, were trying to establish. The interests of the merchants could
be promoted by strong kings who would put an end to the feudal anarchy and local disorders, remove
restriction on trade which resulted from political fragmentation, build roads. and canals, and enforce law and
order. They could, thus, facilitate trade by protecting traders in their countries from the competition of
merchants from other countries, and support them with their armed power against their rivals. The Kings
found in the merchants their allies who provided the money they needed for building their own independent
armies totally under their command, for creating their administrative system, i.e. the courts and other
paraphernalia of the state. Earlier, as we discussed, the kings were powerless against the feudal lords on
whom they depended even for their soldiers. Now, a process of the disintegration of the power of the feudal
lords started. This process was aided by the introduction in Europe of gunpowder against which the feudal
castles and fortresses provided no defense.
The rise of national languages also helped the process of the emergence of strong national states by
strengthening national consciousness. The process of central expansion which started with the discovery of
new sea-routes and new lands was also connected with these developments.
The rise of nation-states which started in this period brought about the end of the political system of the
middle ages which was characterized by decentralization of political power. In its place, emerged the nation-
states which were characterized by despotic governments. In the following centuries, while the emergence of
cohesive states on the basis of nationalism and strong government was to continue, the new feature in
political development was the struggle against the absolutism of the rulers and the growth of political
democracy.
To comprehend the nature of political developments in this period, we should study the political
developments in a few selected countries, e.g. in England and France. We must remember that the process of
the formation of nation-states took a long time to complete and some European nations became independent
states only in the twentieth century.
7.11 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES AND

COLONISATION
We have mentioned earlier that the growth of trade and of cities helped undermine the feudal order and
provided the background for new intellectual, artistic, religious and political developments. The lucrative
trade with the East was controlled by the Italians, mainly the Venetians. The desire to have a share in this
trade, first in Portugal and Spain, and later in England, France and Holland, led from the late fifteenth
century onwards to great geographical discoveries, important changes within Europe, and the establishment
of new patterns of international relationships.
Until the later part of the fifteenth century, a large part of the world was unknown to the people living in any
area of the world. The existence of the Americas. Australia, New Zealand and large parts of Africa and Asia
was unknown to people living outside these areas. The vast Atlantic Ocean had remained uncharted and the
possibility of the existence of a vast land-mass on the other side of the Atlantic was rarely imagined. It was
not known that one could circumnavigate or sail around Africa. Though many people had come to believe
that the earth was a sphere, still most people did not rule out the possibility that the sailors who went far into
the ocean might sail on forever in an endless ocean or might fall down from the earth when they reached its
end.
25 (a) Columbus leaving for his voyage
25 (b) Adventurous fleet that Columbus assembled
The first great steps in the exploration of the earth were taken by the sailors under the patronage of
Portuguese and Spanish rulers. The initial motive was to find a sea-route to the East and to have a share in
the lucrative trade which was monopolized by the traders from Venice. The compass and the astrolab,
essential navigational instruments for long Journeys across the oceans, had become known, and astronomical
tables and the art of mapping, essential for sailors, had been developing fast.
Bartholomew Diaz sailed, in 1487-88 across west Africa. crossed the Cape of good Hope and reached the
eastern coast of Africa. In 1492 Columbus, sailing West to fine a new route to the East reached the
Americas, though he himself, even after three more successful voyages died ignorant of his great discovery.
In 1497- 98 Masco da Gamma finally discovered these out to India.
Magellan (1519-22) was the first to successfully circumnavigate the world. His ships crossed the Atlantic
ocean, sailed across the Pacific Ocean and the survivors reached Spain after crossing the Indian Ocean.
Though much of the worried still remained unexplored, including large parts of Africa and Australia, these
voyages laid the foundations for almost the complete geographical knowledge of the world. Following these
discoveries, almost all areas of the world were for the first time brought into regular physical contact with
one another.
The new geographical discoveries had far-reaching consequences for the entire world. The discovery of the
sea-route to India led to the end of Venetian control and the establishment of the Portuguese monopoly over
European trade with Asia. The Portuguese were, however subsequently supplanted by the British, the Dutch
and the French. There was a tremendous increase in the volume of trade as well as in the articles of trade. It
marked also the beginning of the colonisation of Asia, which in the following centuries was almost entirely
subjugated by the European countries.
26. An Old Map
The colonisation of Africa also began, though it was confined to the coastal areas. The large scale conquest
of Africa by the imperialist countries of Europe took place only in the nineteenth century. In the Americas,
the geographical discoveries were followed in a period of few decades with the destruction of the
civilizations of the Incas and the Aztecs and the subjugation of the large indigenous population by a small
number of Europeans. The Europeans plundered the gold and silver of the Incas and the Aztecs and
exploited the mines in Peru, Mexico and Bolivia for precious metals. Vast supplies of gold and silver
reached Europe.
Commodities totally unknown or unavailable in Europe such as potatoes, tobacco and maize became
available there and vast resources of the Americas for the production of sugar, coffee, nice and cotton began
to be exploited for the benefit of the Europeans. One of thc significant developments following the conquest
of the Americas by the Europeans was the introduction of the plantation system in North America, West
Indies and Brazil, mainly for the production of sugar-cane, tobacco and cotton. These plantations were
worked by slave labour drawn from Africa. The continents of Africa and the Americas were brought
together by a brutal system of exploitation. While the indigenous population of the Americas (the American
Indians as they are called) were reduced to the status of serfs who worked on the estates of the European
colonists, the plantations were worked by slaves.
Slave trade was started in the late fifteenth century by individual merchants, sailors and pirates but by the
end of the sixteenth century, it passed into the hands of regular slave-trading companies officially approved
by the governments of the European countries. For about 300 years, people of Africa were hunted, first in
the coastal areas and then further in the interior, by slave traders and their agents, captured, transported
across the Atlantic Ocean and sold to work in the plantations. Millions of Africans were captured and
exported.
27. Merchants at a harbour tn America

Hundreds of thousands died during the journey because of the extremely unhygienic conditions in the ships.
It is estimated that in the British colonies in the West Indies alone, more than two million slaves were
imported in a period of about a hundred years. The prosperity of the European colonizers in the Americas
was based on the serf and slave labour of the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas and African slaves
respectively.
This had a great impact on the development of Europe, particularly of those countries which were in the
forefront in establishing their colonies and control over other parts of the world and in international trade.
These developments furthered the process of the growth of capitalism.
We have said before that as a result of the geographical discoveries, the entire world for the first time
became known and, also, that for the first time all areas of the world were brought into regular physical
contact with one another. However, as we have seen, this regular physical contact was accompanied by
brutal exploitation of the people of some parts of the world.

1) Which of the following statements are correct or wrong (Mark or X)
i) Nation-states emerged in a very short time in Europe.

ii) Bartholomew Diaz sailed to America in 1492.
iii) People from America were as old as slave in America.
iv) Compass is used to measure distance.
2) Discuss in about ten lines some of the major consequences of geographical

discoveries.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.12 LET US SUM UP

Renaissance and Reformation set into motion a process that revolutionised the outlook of human beings on
religion, society, political systems and culture. This process was the product of several socio-economic
changes, such as the emergence of civic freedom in towns and cities, formation of occupational guilds,
development of sea borne trade, geographical discoveries, etc. The Renaissance marked the rise of
humanism which shifted the focus from divine principles to human beings. The human body was no more
treated as a symbol of sin. It was now considered a thing of beauty, dignity and pleasure. This outlook
generated new writings and literature, art and architecture where the emphasis was on beauty and aesthetic
standards in relation to human conditions.
With the promotion of secular ideas and rational thinking, the doors for the development of modern science
were thrown open. The conflict between Church and science ultimately resulted in favour of science. The
sanction of the Church was no more required for the promotion and recognition of scientific discoveries. The
forces of Reformation challenged the abuse of authority by the Church. This not only resulted in the
emergence of national churches, but also compelled the Church hierarchy to introduce reforms, i.e. the
Counter Reformation.
This was also a period which marked the emergence of nation-states in Europe alongwith new political
theories. Merchants and other professional groups supported political consolidation under monarchies. They
played a vital role in colonisation and ultimately in the establishment of colonial regimes.
7.13 KEY WORDS

Absolutism: despotism, a government in which the ruler has absolute power.
Ambaptist: a 16th century Swiss Sect of reformation.
Baptism: rite for admitting a person into Christian faith (by dipping him into water or sprinkling sacred
water over him).
Capitalism: an economic system of production of commodines for profit.
Deductive: to infer by logical reasoning.
Empiricism: method of proof based on observations.
Fresco: a method of painting in water-colour on wall before plaster is dry.
Gothic: a style of architecture of flying buttresses and pointed arches, etc.
Gudd: union of craftsmen in medieval times.
Heretic: holding belief opposed to the church, especially by its members.
Humanism: a system of thought holding man to be ethical, giving dignity to man.
Journey-men: skilled workers qualified by apprentices to work in his trade.
Sacrament: a set of rites observed by Christians as ordained by Jesus
Scholasticism: a system of thought based on Aristotelian logic.
Tithe: One-tenth of annual produce from land paid as contribution to Church.

EXERCISES
1) See Sec. 7.2

2) i) X ii) X iii) iv)
3) See Sub-sec. 7.3.1
1) See Sec. 7.5

2) i) ii) iii) iv) X
3) See Sec. 7.7
i) X ii) iii) iv) X v)

1) i)Xii)Xiii) iv)X v)
2) See Sec. 7.11
UNIT 8 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Industrial Revolution
8.2.1 Merchant Capitalism

8.2.2 Emergence of wage Labour
8.2.3 Putting-Out system
8.2.4 The Enclosure Movement
8.3 Market and Commodity Production in Agriculture
8 3.1 Agricultural Revolution

8 3.2 Capitalist Relations in Agriculture
8.4 Factory and Machine
8.4.1 The New Technology

8 4.2 Factory system, Labour and Legislation
8.5 Capital Accumulation and Profit Motive

8.5.1 Changes in the Composition of Capital
8.5.2 Cyclical Pattern of Growth
8.6 Expansion of Capitalism

8.7 Rise in Individualism
8.8 Division of the World and the Colonies
8.9 Let Us Sum Up
8.10 Key Words
8.0 OBJECTIVES
Industrial revolution played a very important role in shaping the political, economic and social conditions in
the modern world. After reading this unit you should be able to
explain how the foundation for industrial revolution, was being laid,
explain how increase and expansion of agricultural production contributed to the emergence of industrial revolution,
describe the role of new technology and labour in industrial revolution,
analyse how it affected the political structure, and
analyse how industrial revolution sowed the seeds of colonialism.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
If we travel in India, the contrast between the region which have factories and mills and mines located in
them and other parts which have remained agricultural will be obvious to us. Likewise, when we travel
abroad, we see the difference between the advanced industrial countries and countries where industries
remain backward and contribute only a small portion of the nation's income. The countries of the first kind
am mostly located around the Atlantic in the northern parts of Europe and America; the USSR and Japan are
late comers who have also joined this group of industrially developed countries in course of the 20th
century.
On the other hand, we have in Asia, Africa and Latin America a large number of countries which belong to
the second group that are industrially backward, primarily agricultural, dependent in various degrees for
technological knowledge on the first group of countries. Many of these industrially backward countries were
in the recent past colonies or semi-colonies of Britain, France, Holland or other European powers. Some of
these ex-colonies are still in a state of economic dependence and all of them are relatively poor which is why
they are often known as underdeveloped countries.
8.2 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

This present day contrast between the developed and the underdeveloped countries, or the division of the
world into rich countries and poor countries, has been the outcome of the process that began with the
industrial Revolution. In the modern world, the, first industrial nation that emerged was England and the
process was called 'Revolution' because of several reasons. Slow changes in the technique of making things
or the method of organising business happen almost all the time. But in the 19th century, the pace of change
was so rapid that the term revolution seems more appropriate, so as to distinguish it from the normal course
of change through evolution.
Moreover, this form of industrial growth represented climax of the transition from medieval feudalism to
modern capitalism. Here, we can list prominent features related to the industrial revolution. Industrial
capitalism meant:
a revolutionary change in class relations, the growth of a class of capitalists and a class of wage labourers,
the increased productivity of the new machines and factories,
the growth of a domestic and foreign market towards which production was now directed,
the culture of a new bourgeoisie that developed in Europe,
the marriage of science with technology, the impact of a new class structure on political ideology, and the emergence of
a bourgeois democratic order.
All these aspects brought about a tremendous change in England and that is why the term industrial
Revolution was coined. These impulses towards change slowly spread, in various degrees, to other European
countries in course of the 19th century. However, England was the model and in discussing the industrial
Revolution, we shall pay special attention to the history of England.
8.2.1 Merchant Capitalism

In the couple of centuries preceding the beginning of the industrial Revolution in England, under merchant
capitalism, primary accumulation of capital had begun. The trade opened up with countries such as India and
other Asian countries and sheer plunder 'from some of these non-European countries also brought wealth
into Europe. The classic instance of this plunder is the hoard of gold and silver brought into Europe from the
country of the Aztecs and Incas in central and southern America. The inflow of these precious metals played
a part in the accumulation of mercantile wealth. Moreover, the new trade oriented economy (economics of
Mercantilism) inspired the rules of new nation-states like the Tudors in England, and the Bourbons in
France, to encourage the flow of precious metals into their own country and to discourage the outflow of
bullion. Perhaps, Protestant Reformation also helped create a mental make up or world view that was
appropriate to the acquisition of capital by the rising middle class burgher in towns. In some small countries,
this class acquired a dominating position and even in England where the landed aristocracy continued to be
fairly important politically, side by side the merchants and middle order people also began to acquire a say
in political affairs.
8.2.2 Emergence of Wage Labour

The traditional artisan in feudal times was no doubt also an industrial worker, but he was not a wage
labourer. The medieval artisan usually owned the tools with which he used to produce industrial goods. He
did not go to a factory but worked in his own house or in a workshop with some other artisans of his guild,
and he was, as a rule, paid a price for goods or a piece rate payment according to what he produced. He was
not paid wages according to the number of hours or days be worked but the situation gradually changed. In
the 16th and 17th centuries, a transition is noticeable from this type of independent production to a new
system.
8.2.3 Putting-Out System

In the putting-out system, an intermediary merchant acted as a link man between various artisans supplying
raw materials and passing on the material worked upon by one artisan to another artisan, who took care of
the next stage of the industrial processing. Thus, for example, a putting-out merchant became a link between
the spinner, the weaver, the dyer etc. in textile production. This made sense in terms of economic efficiency:
the artisan now had a ready supplier of raw material and a ready buyer; division of labour or specialisation in
a particular process or stage of production was more feasible and thus, greater skills developed.
Specialisation and better organisation also brought about economics of large scale production and
advantages of localisation in regions specially suited for a particular line of manufacture. In some respects,
the artisan's produce did not go to a factory, he did not receive wages but got only a piece rate. But in one
way the difference was great: under the putting-out system the artisan's independence was reduced since he
relied for the supply of inputs and marketing of output on the putting-out merchant, and the scope of profit-
making by this essential middleman was much greater now. This middleman could be a merchant or a
master artisan who had the resources to set up as a putting-out merchant; some people believe that the latter
phenomenon had a greater potential for pushing the system towards Industrial Revolution.
Some of these artisans under putting-out system flourished in special trades as small industrial units even
during the Industrial Revolution, while many others suffered a transition to being more and more dependent
on a capitalist who extended control from marketing of commodities to the production of the commodities.
From the mid-18th century the introduction of new machines often made it easier for the capitalist to sub-
ordinate the erstwhile artisan, for only someone with enough capital could own the new expensive machines
that replaced medieval tools. However, in the recruitment of workers to man the new machines, the capitalist
did not have to depend on the skilled artisans. The industrialist could create a new work-force and for this
there were many reasons, like the Enclosure Movement in England.
8.2.4 The Enclosure Movement

The Enclosure Movement in England created a class of ready recruits for industrial wage work. In the
enclosure movement peasants were evicted from the fields and land was enclosed. Now, a group of people
were crowding into the towns seeking work- they were from the lower strata of peasantry who were being
pushed out of agricultural employment due to the enclosure process. The Enclosure Movement came in two
waves:
i) The first wave came in the 16th and 17th centuries, when small peasants and tenants were evicted
from landlords, who enclosed or fenced in large plots of land for breeding sheep to get wool for the
expanding woollen market.
ii) The second save came in the 18th andl9th centuries, when enclosures began to be made for a
different purpose, to improve and cultivate lands as a business proposition.
In the latter development, peasants were evicted by a special license from the king or the private Acts of
Parliament (there were 2700 such Acts in 1970-1844) and other methods. By 1883, land distribution in
England and Wales became highly concentrated in a few hands: 1.4 per cent of private landowners owned
73.9 per cent of land. This helped in growth of technically advanced and more productive capitalist farming.
At the same time, it created a land less proletariat, a class of people who could get a living by selling the
only thing they possessed, labour power.
Till recently, it was believed that a large number of such people moved to towns to become industrial wage
workers. Recently, doubt has been cast on such a theory . it has been argued that the Agricultural Revolution
on capitalist lines itself required the services of this proletariat. It is probable that both farming and factory
work employed this new class as wage labourers.

Note: i) Use thc space given below for your answer.
1) Discuss in brief some of the prominent features of the Industrial Revolution.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) Which were the Two Waves Enclosure Movement?
i) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii)----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3) Mark the right answer in the following questions:

i) In the 16th and 17th centuries in England landlords enclosed large plots of land
a) to cultivate corn
b) to build factories
c) to breed sheep
d) to grow forest
ii) During 1700-1844 in England large numbers of people from rural areas migrated to towns
because
a) life was more comfortable there

b) there were droughts in England.
c) there were constant wars.
d) they were dispossessed from land
8.3 MARKET AND COMMODITY PRODUCTION

IN AGRICULTURE
Before we go further into the question of wage work and what is called 'Capitalist Relations (between the
worker who contributes labour and the capitalist who owns thc means of production), we should pay
attention to what we have just mentioned: the Agricultural revolution preceding and accompanying the
Industrial Revolution. It meant a qualitative change in the technology and productivity of agriculture on the
one hand and on the other, a change in the production relations bringing agriculture within the ambit of
capitalism.
It is no exaggeration to say that the Industrial Revolution could not have come about without an Agricultural
Revolution. Why? Industrialisation meant a massive shift of manpower from the agricultural to the industrial
sector. We find a typical pre-industrial distribution of manpower in England in 1688 when Geogory King
made an estimate that about 80 per cent people were in agriculture and only 20 per cent in the
nonagricultural sector. In 1800 the share of agricultural sector was probably about 40 per cent and in 1901, it
was 8.5 per cent of the labour force. That shows how big was the shift from agricultural occupations and,
therefore, only a much higher per capita rate of productivity in agriculture could avert serious shortfall in
agricultural commodities production.
Until 1850's Britain was, we may note, almost self-sufficient in terms of foodgrains. Also, industrial growth
meant urbanisation. The growth of the city's demand on the country side, especially for corn increased.
Shortage of corn would cause problems in the city, especially with its unstable proletariat and the population
that was employed occasionally or at regular intervals. What is more important, in the development of the
home market an interdependence between agriculture and industry emerged: some of the capital invested in
industry came from rural or country banks (district from what the English called 'City banks' which serviced
foreign trade, bill of exchange transactions etc). Excess of agricultural labour was absorbed by industry.
They were also in demand in technically advanced capitalist farms, and of course farm products had an ever
expanding demand in the burgeoning industrial towns.
8.3.1 Agricultural Revolution

Let us analyse the changes brought about in agriculture that could be termed as revolutionary. They included
a series of changes in the technology of production in agriculture and in the relations of people involved in
production processes. These two sets of changes were closely inter-related, and only for the purpose of our
discussion, we could treat them separately. For example, the use of large machines or industrially produced
fertilizers on a large scale involved high investments. Only large plots of farms could make the use of big
machines economical, and the technique of cultivation demanded larger units of land under cultivation to
make them viable. Therefore, small peasants, each owning small plots, gave way to capitalist farmers who
were able to make investments in the new techniques on their large-size farms.
The technological changes in agriculture were wide-ranging. The following changes were more important:
i) Land reclamation expanded the area under cultivation By draining swamps and marshes with
modern pumps, England added 750,000 acres to farming land between 1800-1900.
ii) Intensive farming and new methods of crop rotation improved per acre productivity.
iii) There was some degree of modernisation, e.g. in 1870 a small country like England had 40,000
reaping machines which was more than what England and Germany possessed jointly.
The overall result was a striking increase in agricultural production in England. If we take 1700 as the base
year (100), the index number stood at 111 in 1750 and 143 in 1800: from then on to 1850's production
increased at an annual compound rate of 1.5 per cent.
8.3.2 Capitalist Relations in Agriculture

The other aspect of change in this agricultural revolution was the growth of capitalist relations in agriculture.
This trend was general in Europe but took different forms in different countries. One pattern led to the
eviction of small peasants and consolidation of holdings of land by bigger landowners often with the help of
state power. We have already seen that the Enclosure Movement in England in the 18th and 19th centuries
was precisely of this kind. It also involved appropriation of common lands which were used by all villagers
for grazing farm animals, exchange of small strips of land towards consolidation, and takeover of wasteland.
In Scandinavia, similar consolidation took place through voluntary exchange (Act of 1749) and later through
a sort of compulsory redistribution (Acts of 1783, 1807, 1827). A different pattern emerged in France where
there was, after the Revolution of 1789, the predominance of small peasant landowners and share-croppers
under the metayage system. The western part of Germany was also the land of small landed peasantry,
though in the eastern part, big landlords known as Junkers dominated the rural scene.
In Russia, since the Emancipation of Serfs (by laws made in 1861 and 1863), there developed a highly
stratified peasantry. Lenin in his book on the development of capitalism in Russia identified three such
strata. These were; i) the Kulaks, with large farms directed towards commercial agriculture of which some
of the profit went into usury or money lending business; ii) the middle peasants, who could not make a
success of commercialised agriculture on their small farms and depended heavily on loans from
moneylenders and kulaks; and, iii) the rural proletariat, who constituted at least half of the peasant
households at the beginning of the 20th century. They were the people with no land at all or very small plots
of land which forced them to depend on income from the sale of labour, i.e. various forms of wage labour.
In the kind of situation described above, the crucial thing was the amassing of resources in the hands of the
rich peasantry which led to "de-peasanting" or the erstwhile land-owning peasants becoming wage workers.
Thus, the final outcome was again, as in the first pattem, producing commodities for the market.
8.4 FACTORY AND MACHINE
Just as there emerged in agriculture a capitalistic relationship between two classes, the owners of means of
agricultural production, primarily land, and also agricultural capital like ploughs, machines and livestock
and, the workers who had little or no means of production and depended mainly on selling their labour, in
industry too, there developed a similar capitalistic relationship. Here, it was the relation between the owners
of factories, its tools and machines on the one hand and the totally dependent working class or the proletariat
on the other. But it should be noted here that simply owning these means of production is of no use to the
capitalist; he needs workers to work upon them to produce commodities or goods for the market.
The means of production, we can say, become capital by virtue of the role they play in the social relationship
that develops between the owners and the workers, they are the process of production. For example, a
machine if lying idle is just an asset but when workers with the help of machine produce goods, it becomes
capital. In the process of creation of the surplus value of commodities, owners appropriate profit leaving to
the worker their wages. Thus, the new factory system was not merely a place for bigger and better machines
representing a certain amount of investment. It must be understood in the context of the historically
conditioned system of social relationships in which two classes, the capitalist and the industrial workers,
came into existence.
8.4.1 The New Technology

The new factories certainly had bigger and better machines: this was the achievement of science applied to
technology from the middle 18th century. Some of these achievements were:
the invention of the rolling machine in iron and steel industry (1754) and Hargeave's "Spinning Jenny" which spun 8 to
120 yarns simultaneously (1769)
the application of stem power in cotton mills (1785)
Cartwright's power loom (1787)
the collaborative work of Boulton and Watts that produced the first steam locomotive and the steam paddle ship (1800-
2) and
more generally, a cluster of inventions that revolutionised the textiles, iron and steel and engineering industries which
lay at the basis of England's early industrialisation.
However, the point to bear in mind is that an invention or a discovery by itself may not historically be as
significant as its application in production, which is why the socio-economic milieu we mentioned earlier
was so important for the 'industrial revolution'. One aspect of this milieu was the ethos or mental make-up
appropriate for the development and application of science, an ethos that can be traced in Europe back to the
Renaissance.
8.4.2 Factory System, Labour and Legislation

What did the factory system in the new machine age mean to the working class or the wage worker? This
becomes clear if we recall the condition of the artisans in the medieval times or in the proto-industrial
putting-out system. The latter system had already curtailed the artisan's independence, as we have seen. With
the growth of the factory system, the subjection of the industrial worker to capital became more pronounced
because of following reasons:
i) The capitalist or his agents were the planners, organisers and supervisors of labour in the process of
production (while the putting-out merchant was external to production process).
ii) The use of steam and later electric power to run the factory machinery marked a new stage. In the
19th century factory system, the rhythm of work was set by machines and the workmen had to work
accordingly, almost as parts of the machinery.
iii) The factories meant a transition from dispersed to concentrated production where many workers
worked under one shed, giving the production process a collective character. But it also brought
together large numbers of workmen in the industrial cities. This promoted the awareness of the
industrial wage-workers of their common interests as a class.
Thus, we see that though the advance in technology under the factory system increased productivity, it also
initiated the process of subjection of the capitalist system. In the early stage of industrialisation, it also led to
degeneration of quality of life in the cities, particularly for the workmen and lower classes. We get an insight
into this through the literary works of Charles Dickens. In his novels, the social sketches he portrays express
this dark picture from his personal expenses and observations. Likewise, many other poets and scholars
reacted strongly against the ugly aspects of the 19th century industrialism, "the dark satanic mills".
The deplorable state of the lower classes in the cities, and the excesses of capitalist exploitation of wage
workers drew the attention of philanthropists. Moreover, those who had a stake in the capitalist industrial
system and were anxious to maintain stability against the threat of discontent of the masses, were keen to
introduce reformative legislation to check excessive exploitation. Hence, the government introduced the
Factory Acts to control conditions of work in factories, to prevent employment of children, to reduce dhe
hours of work for women and later also for men: the early laws (e.g., Robert Peel's Factory Act of 1802)
were ineffective, but the later ones (Act of 1833, 1844 and 1847) did achieve some of these objectives. One
result of the Factory Acts was the compilation of reports on the condition of the working class in England by
Factory inspectors. These reports were used by Karl Max and Frederick Engels in their analysis of the
condition of the working class under industrial capitalism.
The standard of living of the workers, between 1740 and 1850, constantly suffered a deterioration; from
1850 onwards it seems that the wage levels and standards of consumption gradually improved. According to
one estimate, the gain in the real wages of average urban workers between 1860 and 1970 was of about 60
per cent. There developed a section among the working class, in the more skilled jobs and supervisory
functions, which enjoyed a substantially higher standard of living than the average workers: this better off
fraction is sometimes referred to as "the labour aristocracy".

Note: i) Use the space provided below each question to write your answers
1) Write 3 main techniques which helped in bringing agricultural revolution in England.
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………....................................................
ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………....................................................
iii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………...................................................
2) Identify from the following three categories which Lenin identified as the social strata in Russia in
the course of development of capitalism
i) merchants ii) Kulaks

iii) artisans iv) middle pcasants
v) share croppers vi) proletariat
vii) intellectuals viii) rich peasants
3) List three main technological inventions used in industry in 18th century England,
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4) List two main areas where the Factory Acts helped to improve the working conditions in factories in
19th century England.
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8.5 CAPITAL ACCUMULATION AND PROFIT

MOTIVE
We have already mentioned about the primary accumulation of capital and how a surplus or profit in
industrial production augments the stock of capital. The rate at which capital is formed is an index of the
growth potential of the economy. In the 17th century, the rate of capital formation as a proportion of national
income in England is estimated to be only about 3 to 4 per cent and rose to about 10 per cent in the 1860's
and veered around 7 to 8 per cent in the last half of the 19th century. Other countries which industrialised,
such as Germany and the U.S.A., showed an even higher rate of capital formation in the initial period of
growth (usually of about 12 to 15 per cent). Perhaps, England actually was able to industrialise with a rather
low rate compared to other countries which joined the race to industrialise later.
8.5.1 Changes in the Composition Capital

The important thing to notice is, not just that capital was formed at such and such a rate, but the change that
took place in the composition of capital. With the kind of technological change that the new machine age
witnessed, the share of 'fixed' capital e.g. machines and the factory) increased in relation to the variable
capital (other investments including the man power needed to keep factory running). This was a feature of
industrial capitalism. At the same time as capital shifted to manufacturers, labour shifted in the same
direction. This explains the reduction of the working in agriculture from a share of about 80 per cent at the
end of the 17th century in England, to about 40 per cent at the beginning of the 19th century (to 8.5 per cent
in 1901).
During this period of the English industrialisation, the decreasing importance of agriculture is also reflected
in the contribution of agricultural sector to the national income. It was about 40 to 45 per cent in 1750, about
20 per cent in 1851, and declined to about 10 per cent in 1881. Yet another feature of the growth of
industrial capitalism was the closer integration of the industrialising countries with the international
economy through foreign trade. During the 1680's in England the value of English exports was 5 to 6 per
cent of the national income. According to rough estimates, this ratio stood at 14 per cent in 1790 and 36 per
cent in 1880. This income was a major means of capital accumulation. When the industrial Revolution
approached its climax in England, the rate of growth became spectacular. This is reflected in the Net
National income Per Capita (at constant prices: 1900) rising from 13.3 in 1855 to 37.8 in 1890 and 41.9 in
1910.
8.5.2 Cyclical Patterns of Growth

However, an important historical feature of the growth of capitalism in England and elsewhere is that it
happened in spurts punctuated by depressions or periods of stagnation. The periods of high demand for
industrial commodities, high investment in commodity production and high project profits (industrial boom)
was followed by penods of low demands, decline in investment and project profits (depression). This
happened in recurrent periodic cycles of varying durations. This cyclical pattern bas been studied by many
historians and economists who have identified short-term cycles, medium-term (8 to 10 years) cycles and
long-term (50 years) cycles.
In Western European industrialisation, the three periods of growth were: i) 1789-1815-the years dominated
by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, ii)l845-1873, when Germany and France joined the race to
industrialise and, iii) 1895-1919, the years dominated by preparations for and the occurrence of World War
1. The periods of acute depression were the years of 1873-1895, known as the 'Great Depression', and the
years 1929-35, which saw a bigger depression involving almost the entire world economy.
8.6 EXPANSION OF CAPITALISM

We may note that the form of industrial capitalism that originated in England in the late 18th century, began
to spread out to other European countries only from the middle of the 19th century. Why did the industrial
revolution fail to spread to the neighboring countries such as France or Germany immediately? Various
reasons have been suggested for this. One factor was the fragmentation of these countries. For example in
Germany due to lack of political unity till 1871, and in France due to the existence of the trade zones and
various internal customs duties. Also due to the revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars during 1789-1815,
continental Europe was, by and large, cut off from England where new inventions of machines and
technology were transforming industry. The social and economic status and strength of the bourgeoisie in
the continent since 1789 was perhaps, also lower than that of the English bourgeois class.
From 1789, and particularly during Napoleon's regime, better prospects for the continental bourgeoisie
opened up. Many feudal restrictions on capital and labour mobility were abolished, first in France and then
like wise in other European countries. The internal market of the Germans was united in a spectacular
fashion first, through customs agreements (the Zollverein, 1834), and later through political unification (an
achievement of Bismarck in l871). The French Revolution brought in the spirit of Ecole Polytechnique to
promote technical excellence. The commercial and corporate laws were revised on the new French and
English models to provide a legal institutional structure suitable for capitalist enterprises. Two other
developments during 1850-70 period aided the process:
i) the growth of railway lines from about 15 thousand miles to 50 thousand miles in 1870, and
ii) the mild inflationary conditions and expansion of credit due to the gold rush of California and
Australia in 1850.
Consequently, Germany and France began to catch up with England in the industrialisation race. Products
from these countries reached the world markets. At the turn of the century, the English were beginning to
feel threatened.

Note: i) Write your answers in the space provided below each question.
1) From 17th century to 1901 in England, the work force in Agriculture declined
from 80 per cent 8.5 per cent of the population. Why?
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2) What are the three main periods of growth in Western European industrialisation?
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3) Why did Industrial Revolution reach Germany and France much after England? Give two reasons.
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8.7 RISE OF INDIVIDUALISM

From the times of Hobbs the rise of individualism is associated with the growth of the English bourgeois
class. It is during the period of the industrial revolution, in the late 18th and 19th centuries, that the whole
ramge of associated political ideas developed and found fruition in the political and cultural sphere. It was
also the period which witnessed a staunch conservative offensive against radicalism emanating from the
ranks of the English working classes and from across the channel, from Revolutionary France. The middle
class was liberal yet they considered it to be prudent to draw the line somewhere, otherwise the status quo
would be upset. Thus, we see two contrary tendencies. This is often neglected in the praise of the democratic
liberal traditions of 19th century England.
Nineteenth century liberalism (and here we are not talking of the Liberal Party as opposed to the
Tory/Conservative Party in England) emanated basically from economic individualism, ideas of free
enterprise and non-interference by the state, the free trade i.e., minimisation of taxes on foreign trade and
unrestricted competition in business. Politically, this meant an ideal of minimum of governance by the state,
protection of private property and civil liberties of the individual. Behind these programmes was an ideology
which tended to promote secular and scientific outlook free from ostentation and a disregard for the church.
Freedom of thought was encouraged unless such freedom threatened the stability of the society. Generally,
am abstract kind of sympathy was promoted for oppressed nationalities, slaves and colonised people who
belonged to the empires of other European powers. While propensity of the middle class was towards
liberalism, it did not find corresponding expression and support from the intelligentsia to push it beyond the
limits of class interests.
Parliamentary Form of Government

The greatest achievement of this liberalism was to ensure a parliamentary, representative constitutional form
of government for England. It extended the franchise and reformed the representation system in such a
manner that terminated once for all the rule of the oligarchy, of landed aristocracy and a small section of
commercial magnates. The pressure for parliamentary reform by the new industrialists and middle class was
reinforced by the intellectual support of school of scholars like Jeremy Bentham and James Mill. The
outcome was the Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867 which gradually extended franchise from the property
Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867 which gradually extended franchise from the property owners to the majonty
of workingmen. This gave more political importance to the new industrial cities in England.
At the same time, trade unionism of socialistic leanings among workingmen was firmly discouraged by
English public men, liberal or conservative. Great care was taken to expel the influence of French
revolutionary ideas. A famous instance of suppression of workers' protest was the "Peterlook Massacre", the
result of police attack on a workers meeting in 1819. About this time, the Combination Act was used to
prosecute trade unionists on the charge of conspiracy. The movement of lower orders during 1830-39, to
obtain a franchise called the 'Chartist Movement', met with strong resistance from the government. Not until
1859 was the right to peaceful picketing legally established, and full legal recognition of trade unions came
as late as 1875 (although the history of trade unionism in various forms goes back to the early 19th century).
From the middle of the 19th century, the need to institutionalise trade union activity and to bring the
working classes within the amount of parliamentary representative system were recognised in England.
However, the failure to recognise this need in Continental Europe might have caused the kind of
revolutionary upsurge witnessed there in 1848 (in 1848 a large number of European countries witnessed
revolutions.)
8.8 DIVISION OF THE WORLD AND THE

COLONIES
As we have seen earlier, in the process of the first stage (primary) of the accumulation of capital in Europe.
the plunder of Asian and American trading profits of merchant capitalism played a major role. With the
growth of industrial capitalism, the advanced European countries began to look for (a) cheap raw materials
(b) markets for the industrial consumer products and, (c) suitable avenues of investment of surplus capital in
the Asian, South American and African continents.
V.I. Lenin regarded this new exploitative relationship as an inevitable outcome of capitalism. The unequal
distribution of wealth and income meant that "underconsumption" by the poorly paid lower orders of society
decreased the demand for goods, and forced industrialists to look abroad for commodities. As capitalism
reached in advanced stage, monopolistic control over industries acquired by its finance capital, represented
by big banks, pushed it towards more profitable investments abroad. preferable in the colonies. As industrial
capitalism spread in other countries like France, Germany and USA, they began to protect their own home
industries with tariff walls. The best places where surplus capital could be invested and industrial
commodities sold and high profits made were the colonies belonging to each industrial power. Generally, as
the European countries advanced industrially, the capitalist class and the government over which that class
acquired hegemony, developed intense competition with other nations. Thus, the European Powers divided
the world into colonies, and semi-colonies and spheres of influence. The last continent to be subjected to this
process was Africa, from 1870 onwards.
We can use Britain again as a typical example. She imported raw materials from her colonies, like cotton
from India, Egypt etc., sugar from the West Indies, tin and rubber from Malaya, palm oil from Nigeria,
diamond and gold from South Africa, etc. It also imported from the semi-colonised countries, e.g. wheat and
beef from Argentina, tea from China, nitrates and copper from Chile, coffee from Brazil and so on. The
colonies were vitally important as markets for industrial produce. To give one example, in 1840 China and
India put together bought 22 per cent of British textiles exported, and by 1893 India alone purchased 40 per
cent of these exports. As regards the British investments abroad, about 39 per cent of it was in the colonies;
the colonial and semi-colonial countries of Asia accounted for 14 per cent of these investments and Africa's
share was 11 per cent (1870-1914). On the whole, the colonies were less important to Britain than to the
other European countries as areas of capital investment. They were much more important as sources of raw
material and markets for the processed industrial commodities.
While Lenin analysed this economic imperialism as an outcome of the capitalist system in general, scholars
in India such as Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt and M.G. Ranade analysed the impact of this process on the
indigenous economy of the colonies. These nationalist scholars pointed out that colonialism meant
destruction of local artisan industries in the colonies, handicap to develop modern industry, foreign
exploitation of raw material and mineral resources, and a drain of the wealth from the colony to the
imperialist countries. This penetrating criticism of the nature of imperialism practised by the industrially
advanced European Power in course of time promoted the Nationalist movement in India.

1) It is said that rise of industrial capitalism promoted the growth of individualism

and Liberalism. Illustrate this point on the basis of your study of the text.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2) Write advantages derived by the industrialised countries from colonies.
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3) Write four main consequences of colonialism described by early nationalist thinkers in India.
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iv)………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8.9 LET US SUM UP

The twin processes of agricultural and industrial revolutions can be justifiably credited with having shaped
the nature of the modern world.
With the decline of feudalism some important developments like merchant development capital, emergence
of wage labour, putting-out system and enclosure movement set the stage for industrial revolution. Increased
agricultural production and new technology further contributed to its growth. With the industrial
development, the composition of capital also underwent changes. A new cyclical pattern of growth took
place. Though industrial development was marked by periods of depression, but gradually this problem was
overcome. Soon, the increased industrial production gave rise to capitalism and new social classes. New
political structures also emerged in a number of countries. The increase in production led to the need for new
markets. This resulted in a rivalry between industrialised countries to capture more markets and encouraged
colonialism and imperialism.
8.10 KEY WORDS

Aztecs: a nomadic uibe of Mexico which had settled in Central Mexico.
Bourgeoise: the modern capitalist class, owners of the means of production.
Bullion: gold or silver considered in mass rather than in value.
Burgeoning: something that develops rapidly
Burgher: an inhabitant of a borough, citizen, middle class
Guild: a medieval association of merchants or tradesmen organised to protect the interests of its members.
Hegemony: exercise of domination or control.
Incas: a tribe of Indian origin in South America. They established a militaristic empire which included Peru,
Euador and Chile.
Kulaks: wealthy peasants who employed hired labour.
Metayage system: a type of serfdom prevalent in France in which peasants (metayers) having sold their
holding were bound to the land by new proprietors (merchants) to cultivate it on half shares.
Ostentation: unnecessary show of wealth, knowledge etc.
Paddle wheel: An engine driven wheel for propelling a vessel having a number of horizontal paddle
entering the water more or less perpendicularly.
Proletariat: the industrial working class
Share Cropper: a tenant farmer who pays as rent a share of the crop.
Spinning Jenny: an early spinning machine having more than one spindle and enabling a person to make a
number of yarns simultaneously.

Shapiro, Man, Culture and Society (for Unit 5)
F. Korovkin, 1981, The History of the Ancient World, Progress Publishers. Moscow (for Units 5 & 7)
Arjun Dev, 1986, The Story of Civilisation (Vol. I & 11) N.C.E.R.T, New Delhi (for Units 6,7,8,9)
R.E.M. Wheeler, 1968, The Indus Civilisation, Cambridge (for Unit 6)
D.D. Kosambi, 1987. The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India in it's Historical Outline, Vikas, New
Delhi (for Units 6 and 7)
V. Gordon Childe, 1981, Man Makes Himself, London (for Units 5 and 6)
D.R Agarwal, 1988, The Archaeology of India, Select, New Delhi (for Unit 6)
Perry Anderson, 1974, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism. London (for Unit 7)
Andre Chastel, 1982, The Renaissance, Methuen, London (for Unit 8)
E.J Hobsbawm, 1969, Industry and Empire, Penguin, Middlesex (for Units 8 & 9)
Christopher Hill, 1967, Reformadon to Industrial Revolution, Penguin, Middlesex (for Units 8 & 9)
Leo Huberman, 1976, Man's Worldly Goods, People's Publishing House, New Delhi (for Units 8 and 9)

EXERCISES
1) See Sec. 8.2

2) See Sub-see. 8.2.4
3) i) c. ii) d
Cheek Your Progress 2

2) ii), iv), vi)

3) See Sec. 8.6
1) See Sec.8.7
2) See-See. 8.8
3) See Sec. 8.8
UNIT 9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN
ECONOMY: PRE-COLONIAL AND COLONIAL
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Characteristics of Pre-colonial Economy
9.2.1 Agriculture
9.2.2 Trade
9.2.3 Handicraft Industries
9.3 Aspects of Colonial Rule
9.4 Evolution of Colonial Rule
9.5 Impact of the Colonial Rule: Western View-point
9.6 Impact of the Colonial Rule: Indian View-point
9.6.1 The Drain theory
9.6.2 De- industrialization
9.7 Phases of the Colonial Rule
9.8 Agriculture under the Colonial Rule
9.8.1 The New Land Settlement
9.8.2 Commercialisation of Agriculture
9.8.3 Impact on Agriculture
9.9 Role of the Colonial State
9.10 Let Us Sum Up
9.11 Key Words
9.12 Answers to Check Your Progress/ Exercises
9.0 OBJECTIVES
The British rule in India did not mean political control only. It extended to every sphere of Indian life-social,
economic and cultural. In the economic field the British rule brought about fundamental changes and
transformed the Indian economy. This unit attempts to deal with the economic changes brought about by the
British rule.
After reading this unit you will:
have an idea about the nature of Indian economy just before the British conquest,
know the ideas of the Western Scholars about the impact of the British rule over the Indian economy, ,
learn about the processes of drain of wealth and de-industrialization, and
be able to assess the role that the colonial state played in the impoverishment of India.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
India was a direct colony of the British and the impact of this colonial rule over the economy, society and
polity of India has been quite deep. Many serious consequences of the British Colonial Rule are still
persisting and this makes the study of colonial phase of India very relevant for understanding many
contemporary aspects of the Indian society. It must be stated at the outset that direct colonial rule leaves a
total impact on the colonized society because every aspect of social life is influenced by colonia
policies of the colonizers. A direct colony (as was the case with India) is under the complete control of the
colonizers and colonial policies and interests penetrate every aspect of social life of a colony.
Another important fact about India is that the colonial rule lasted for a very long time and this longevity of
the colonial rule over India affected the vitals of the Indian society. The long period of British rule over
India provided enough time to the British to establish strong and stable institutions for the governance of
India. The journey of British occupation of India was slow and steady and it passed through various stages.
This evolutionary process provided the British an opportunity to evolve their policies and change their
policies on the basis of experience gained through practice. But before we go into that, we should have a
look at the nature of Indian economy prior to British rule.
9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRE-COLONIAL

ECONOMY
India in the pre-colonial period had a stable economy. Self-sufficient agriculture, flourishing trade and rich
handicraft industries-these were some of the features of the Indian economy. Let us look at them separately.
9.2.1 Agriculture
Agricultural operations were carried on in India by subsistence farmers, organised in small village
communities. Village was more or less a self-sufficient economic unit and its business contacts with the
outside world were limited to payment of land revenue (generally in kind) and the purchase of a few
necessary things from the town nearby. The farmer raised only those crops which he needed for his own use
and shared the same with the village artisan who supplied him with simple manufacture that he needed for
his domestic consumption.
Means of communication were of a primitive type. Therefore, trade in agricultural produce, was somewhat
limited. The farmer usually raised enough produce to feed himself and the non-agricultural members of the
village community. If his crop yielded more than the consumption needs, due to favourable climatic
conditions, he stored that surplus for use in the lean years. Storage of food grains was a common practice
among the pre-colonial agriculturists and constituted, under these conditions, the only remedy against
famines.
This pattern of agriculture continued throughout the medieval times. However, towards the end of the 18th
century the village communities began to break up, under pressure from new forces which imparted
dynamism to the Indian rural economy. This happened mainly because of two factors, (1) The change in the
property relations brought by the introduction of new forms of land tenure which you will study a little later
in this unit, and (2) the development of an active export trade in agricultural produce of India. The contact
with the west through the establishment of the British rule was responsible for both these developments.
9.2.2 Trade
In spite of the fact that the Indian villages were largely self-sufficient units and the means of communication
were primitive, India enjoyed extensive trade both within the country and with other countries of Asia and
Europe. A balance of the imports and exports was maintained. The items imported into India were pearls,
wool, dates, dried fruits and rosewater from the Persian gulf; coffee, gold, drugs and honey from Arabia; tea,
sugar and silk from China; gold, musk and woollen cloth; metals like copper, iron and lead, and paper from
Europe. The main items exported from India were cotton textiles. Besides cotton textiles which were famous
the world over, India also exported raw silk, indigo, opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper and other spices,
precious stones and drugs.
The major features of Indian trade in pre-colonial times were (i) a favourable balance of trade and (ii) a
foreign trade most suitable to the level of manufacturing in India. A favourable balance of trade meant an
excess of exports over imports, i.e., India exported more than it needed to import. Since the economy was on
the whole self-sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural products, India did not need foreign imports on a
large scale and continued to enjoy a healthy trade. Secondly, India's foreign trade suited its requirements
very well. In other words, the commodity pattern, so important to any country's foreign trade, was in India's
favour. India exported the items it specialised in; and imported the ones it needed.
One major change that occurred in India's foreign trade from pre-colonial to colonial times was in its
commodity pattern. Although India continued to have an export surplus, the pattern of foreign trade turned
up side down. For instance, from an exporter of cotton textiles, India was converted into an importer of
cotton textiles, thereby ruining India's rich traditional handicrafts.
9.2.3 Handicraft Industries

As discussed above India was a land of extensive manufactures. Indian artisans were famous for their skills
the world over. In fact the reason for India's favourable foreign trade was its excellence in indigenous
production. India indulged in a large scale manufacture of cotton and silk fabrics, sugar, jute, dyestuffs,
mineral and metallic products like arms, metalwares and oil. Towns like Dacca and Murshidabad in Bengal;
Patna in Bihar; Surat and Ahmedabad in Gujarat; Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh; Burhanpur in Maharashtra;
Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow and Agra in U.P.; Multan and Lahore in the Punjab; Masulipatnam,
Aurangabad and Visakhapatnam in Andhra; Bangalore in Mysore and Coimbatore and Madurai in Madras
were flourishing centres of textile industry. Kashmir specialised in woollen manufactures. Maharashtra,
Andhra and Bengal were prominent centres of ship building industry. India's ships were bought by many
European companies for their use.
India, towards the end of the 18th century was, undoubtedly one of the main centres of world trade and
industry. This status of India was completely destroyed under colonial times. Its beginnings can be traced to
the after-math of the industrial Revolution in England. The machine made cloth of England began to replace
the indigenous manufactures. India's artisans were forced out of production. It was this pressure from the
British goods which led to the decline of the traditional India's centres of economic activity listed above. The
number of weavers also declined.
9.3 ASPECTS OF COLONIAL RULE

Two aspects of the gradual expansion of British occupation of India deserve attention. The experiences
gained by the British in one region of India were either extended or modified in other regions and this
learning through practice made them quite powerful in dealing with the problems of a large colony like
India. The changes in British society demanded different approach to satisfy the interests of emerging social
groups in Britain. The essence of British colonial policies in India was determined by the dynamics of
society which witnessed many changes in Britain. The modern British society progressed through stages like
mercantile capitalism to industrial capitalism and from competitive industrial capitalism to monopoly
industrial capitalism. The interests of mercantile British capitalism lay in trade with India. The interests of
industrial capitalism were, on the other hand, market oriented, in which the Indian colony was to provide
raw maternal and buy manufactured goods from Britain. Thus social and economic changes in Britain
directly influenced British colonial policies in India.
9.4 EVOLUTION OF COLONIAL RULE
The British East India Company got a legal charter for trade from the Mughal ruler in 1600, and soon this
trading company started conquering India. The conquests began in 1757 with the defeat of the Nawab of
Bengal by Robert Clive. The East India Company ruled India for a century, i.e., from the decisive Battle of
Plassey in 1757 to 1857 when Indians fought a war of independence. The British defeated the Indians in this
war and in 1858 Queen Victoria assumed the responsibility of direct rule over India. The rule of East India
Company ended and the British Parliament became directly responsible for the governance of India and this
continued till 1947.

1) Read the following statements and mark right (√) or wrong (x).
i) British colonial policies made an impact on every aspect of the Indian society.
ii) British policies in India were influenced by the social and economic changes in Britain.
iii) The performance of indigenous industries improved after the colonial conquest.
iv) Indian agriculture remained unchanged from the pre-colonial to colonial period
2) Write five lines each on the state of agriculture, trade and industries in the pre colonial period.
Agriculture
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Trade
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Industries
……………………………………………………………………………………….……
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9.5 IMPACT OF THE COLONIAL RULE:

WESTERN VIEW-POINT
What was the impact of British rule over India? It must be clearly stated that sharp differences have always
existed, and continue to persist, among the Indian nationalists and the Western Scholars in their evaluation
of the impact of British colonial rule over the economy, society and polity of India.
According to many western writers, the British rule provided political unity and stability of governance to
India. It has been maintained by the Western scholars that the British rescued India from chaos and provided
political stability. As Morris D. Morris, an American Scholar observes:
"Despite a Hindu tradition of imperial expansion, at no time in Indian history over any large region did a
stable political unit survive for more than a century or a century-and-a-half. There was nothing that
compares with the imperial chronologies of Rome, Egypt, or China. A crucial consequence is that no
tradition of continuous administrative institutions and no persistent bureaucracy ever developed."
Indian political unity, according to them, was a myth, an abstract concept which was concretized into a
reality by the British rulers. In the absence of political unity, the eighteenth century India had very low
levels of "commerce and capital accumulation" and its implication was that the British rule in India had to
deal with very low level of economy. This argument of the western writers challenges the nationalist
argument that India was economically very attractive and profitable for the British.
Second, the western writers have suggested that the history of India revealed a very low level of agricultural
productivity because it was based on a 'non-animal powered agriculture'. According to many western
historians, the absence of any worthwhile technology kept a large portion of India 'virgin land as late as
1800'. Tobacco, potato and peanut cultivation was introduced by the British in India.
Third, according to them, India could not claim any great achievements in manufacturing because it lacked
modem technology. Although India had some excellent craftsmen and produced textiles and a few other
manufactured goods but they were the result of hard work and not of any developed technology. The
evidence for this viewpoint is gathered from the seventeenth century records of the English which point out
the inelasticity of textile productivity in India. W.H. Moreland and many other scholars have used the
evidence of early European travellers to prove that Indian technology was poor. On the basis of such
evidence, Morris D. Moms observes that:
"...the Indian subcontinent was a region in which per capita income was relatively low in the centuries
before 1800. Given the lack of political stability, low agricultural and non-agricultural productivity, and
insignificant commerce no other conclusion is supportable."
If the opinions of Morris D. Morris, W.H. Moreland, or European travelers or British factory records are
accepted that India was underdeveloped when the British gradually conquered it, then the implication is that
the British conquest of India was beneficial for the economy, society and polity of this country. In history
whenever two societies interact, the advanced and well organized society succeeds in establishing its control
over the less advanced society and at the same time the less advanced society gains from the technology and
organization of the advanced society. This is the basic premise of the western writers who view the British
colonial rule as a rule of advanced society over an underdeveloped society. In the process, the
underdeveloped society like India achieved benefits from the British rule and they are enumerated by the
Western scholar:
The British provided political unity and stability to India.

The British developed a system of roads and rail transport which had a positive impact on the economic
development of India.
The British developed irrigation and other public works which facilitated the growth of agriculture, commerce and
manufacturing activities in India.
To sum up, the Western writers have made two points regarding the impact of British rule over India. First,
on the eve of colonial expansion, the British found a highly underdeveloped India with low productivity in
agriculture, very low per capita income and absence of any developed technology or tools for
manufacturing. Second, the benevolent policies of the British helped in the establishment of political unity, a
system of governance and it laid the foundations of economic development in India.
9.6 IMPACT OF THE BRITISH RULE: INDIAN

VIEW-POINT
As against this, the Indian nationalist scholars put forward a different hypothesis. Dadabhai Naoroji, Romesh
Chandra Dutt in the 19th century and Rajni Palme Dutt in the 20th century represented the Indian nationalist
perspective. The question they raised was: why did the British East India Company gradually get involved in
local wars of conquest? Why did the British Queen in 1858 take up the direct responsibility of ruling over
India till 1947? How was it that the East India Company which came to India with a trading capital of
68,000, went on to make fortunes? If the Indian economy was really stagnant, how did it sustain the East
Indian Company and its expenditure?
Two important aspects of British colonial rule over India highlighted by the nationalists were the 'drain
theory' and the theory of 'de-industrialisation'.
9.6.1 The Drain Theory

The drain theory, as formulated by the nationalists, referred to the process by which, a significant part of
India's national wealth, was being exported to England for which India got no economic returns. In other
words, India was made to pay an indirect tribute to the English nation. Needless to say, this drain of India's
wealth to England, in the form of salaries to British officers posted in India, home-charges and the profits
made on the British capital invested in India, benefited England and diminished the sources for investment
in India. Amiya Bagchi observes:
Since after acquiring dominion over India, the East India Company and private traders could appropriate
Indian goods or tribute or profits without really paying for them. Britain did not any longer have to send
bullion to India to balance here accounts. Instead bullion was now sent out from India either to China or to
Britain.
Bagchi's estimate is that 'external drain' from Bengal constituted about 3 to 4 per cent of the gross domestic
material product. If expenditure on wars of the East India Company is added in this period, Bagchi maintains
that "at least 5 to 6 per cent of resources of the ruled land were siphoned off from any possibility of
investment."
An elementary principle of economic development is that surplus is generated for investment but if the
surplus is siphoned off from a colony to the colonizers, the colony gets underdeveloped. This was the impact
of external drain on the economy of India under British colonial rule starting with Bengal after the battle of
Plassey in 1757.
External drain, however, was only one element of British exploitation of India, linked, with other sources of
exploitation like heavy taxation and an unfavourable trade. The British benefited immensely from the
plunder and exploitation of India. Lord Curzon wrote:
India is the pivot of our Empire... If the Empire loses any other part of its Dominion we can survive, but if
we lose Indian the sun of our Empire will have set.
The Company obtained Dewani or civil administration rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1765 and this
opened new opportunities for plunder by the Company. The land revenue because of Dewani rights were
remitted by the Company to England. This monopoly plunder and exploitation by the Company continued
till the end of eighteenth century when England moved from mercantile capitalism to industrial revolution
and the emerging industrial capitalists in Britain started demanding the end of Company rule in India.
9.6.2 De-industrialization
Besides the external drain theory, the nationalists argued that British rule led to the deindustrialization of
India. India was an exporter of cotton manufacture and this was how the Company started its trade but
gradually India became an importer of cotton manufacture and thus Indian artisans, craftsmen and important
trading centres collapsed and whatever manufacturing activity existed was destroyed under the impact of
imports of cotton manufacture almost exclusively from Britain. Amiya Bagchi observed: "for more than
seventy-five years up to 1913, India remained the major importer of cotton goods from Britain, often taking
more than forty per cent of the British exports."
Thus the industrialization of England was accompanied by the decline and destruction of Indian cotton
manufacturer. As a result, India witnessed, from the early 19th century onwards, a steady decline in
population dependent on indigenous industries and a consequent over-burdening of agriculture. This proved
injurious to both. its political ramifications have been summed up by Sumit Sarkar:
The sufferings of artisans have to be kept in mind as a significant factor in the understanding of many
movements of our period: both in the way in which de-industrialization stimulated patriotic sentiments
among intellectuals alike in the Moderate, Extremist and Gandhian eras, as well as more directly, in
occasional urban and rural explosions of various types.
The decay of Dacca, Surat, Murshidabad and many other flourishing towns bears testimony to
de-industrialization of India. Sir Charles Trevelyan observed in 1840:
The population of the town of Dacca has fallen from 1,50,00 to 30,000 or 40,000 and the jungle and malaria
are fast encroaching upon the town... Dacca, which was the Manchester of India, has fallen off from a very
flourishing town to a very poor and small one; the distress there has been very great indeed.
9.7 PHASES OF COLONIAL RULE

The twin processes of the drain and the de-industrialization were carried out extensively through the various
stages of colonial rule. The process itself started from 1757 when with the battle of Plassey, the East India
Company, representing the British mercantile class, took over the Indian control. During the same period a
fundamental change was taking place in Britain by a series of inventions leading to the industrial
Revolution: for example, the spinning-Jenny of Hargreaves in 1764, Watt's steam engine in 1765, water
frame of Arkwright in 1769, Crompton's mule in 1779, Cartweight's power-loom in 1785. Before these
inventions, the Bank of England was established in 1694 and plunder of India helped capital accumulation
and inventions helped in generating the industrial Revolution. The transformation in England created new
interests and East India Company became the target of attacks in England and finally its fate was sealed by
the War of Indian independence in 1857.
The impact of the British rule, in the initial stages has been summed up by R.P. Dutt:
While machine-made cotton goods from England ruined the weavers, machine-made twist ruined
the spinners. Between 1818 and 1836, the export of cotton twist from England to Indian rose 5,200
times.
The same process could be traced in respect of silk goods, woollen goods, iron, pottery, glass and
paper.
The effects of this wholes destruction of the Indian manufacturing industries on the economy of the
country can be imagined. In England the ruin of the old handloom weavers was accompanied by the
growth of the new machine industry. But in India, the ruin of the millions of artisans and craftsmen
was not accompanied by any alternative growth of new forms of industry... The old populous
manufacturing towns, Dacca, Murshidabad, ... Surat and the like, were in a few years rendered
desolate under the 'Pan-Brittanica' with a completeness which no ravages of the most destructive
war or foreign conquest could have accomplished.
The merchant capital of the British, found new opportunities in India, when, Company started its conquests,
in which monopolistic buying of Indian material was undertaken by the revenue earned from India, and they
were exported to foreign markets with maximum profits. The pre-industrial British capital, instead of
making so-called "investments", were buying Indian commodities for profitable exports on the basis of
money earned from revenue in India. Thus, the conquest of India by the British East India Company gave it
the 'power to levy and collect land revenue and other taxes', and, on the basis of the gross profits the
Company exploited Indian commodities. This 'semi-bondage' situation of India made the British mercantile
capitalism earn "tribute from conquest". According to Professor Habib, during the later half of eighteenth
century the total British imports from India increased from 12 per cent to 24 per cent, and the British exports
to India increased from 6.4 per cent to only 9 per cent of the total British exports.
The phase of Merchant Capitalism, gave way to the phase of industrial Capitalism towards the beginning of
the 19th century. Now the emphasis shifted from revenue collection and trade to new forms of surplus
appropriation. Indian economy was now geared to serve the interests of industrial England. India was now
used to provide raw material to the industries of England and a market for the readymade British
manufactured industrial goods. Indian resources continued to be drained out to England, although in
different forms. Similarly, the process of de-industrialization also got accelerated.
After 1857, when the British Government took on direct control of India, some British capital also started
pouring into the Indian market, along with the manufactured goods. This was the result of the accumulation
of capital at an unprecedented level in the leading industrial countries. Now England needed India, not only
as a market for their goods, but also as a favourable ground for the investment of their capital. As a result
India started getting industrialized, but only on foreign capital. All the major industries like Railways, Jute,
Iron and Steel (with the exception of cotton textiles) were being run by British capital. Its result was a
further drain of wealth, as all the profits made on British capital were going back to England.
Thus up to the end of nineteenth century India was sucked by the British during both phases of colonialism,
i.e., during mercantile capitalism and industrial revolution in England.

ii) Check your answer with at given at the end of the unit..
1) Read the following statements and mark right (√) or wrong (x)
i) There was a basic agreement between the Indian and Western Scholars
regarding the role of British policy towards Indian economy.
ii) The nationalist Scholars felt that the British rule had provided unity and
stability to India.
iii) The drain theory was put forward by the Western Scholars.
iv) The industrialization of England was largely responsible for the de-industrialization of
India.
2) Write fifty words each on the following themes:
Drain of wealth
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………..............................................
..............................................................................................................................................................................
De-industrialization
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………..............................................
..............................................................................................................................................................................
3) Write 10 lines on the phases of the colonial rule.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………..............................................
..............................................................................................................................................................................
9.8 AGRICULTURE UNDER THE COLONIAL

RULE
Various aspects of a country's economy are interconnected. Agriculture supports industry and industry
develops agriculture. The British agrarian policies in India destroyed prosperous agricultural economy and
brought unparalleled human misery on the people living in the countryside. Even the plantation development
policy of the British in the field of tea, tobacco, jute and indigo did not benefit the Indian people.
What was the basic agrarian policy of the British which led to the destruction of the Indian agricultural
economy?
9.8.1 The New Land Settlement

The disintegration of the Mughal Empire, the gradual conquests of the East India Company and the desire of
the British to extract maximum land revenue in cash made the British evolve a land system in India which
would ensure payment of land revenue and also establish a collaborating class in rural India.
The infamous Permanent land settlement of Lord Cornwallis in 1793 for Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and later
extended to parts of North Madras created a class of zamindars who became "landlords in perpetuity". The
land revenue was fixed on permanent basis, and the zamindars became intermediaries between the rulers and
the peasantry. The amount fixed broke the back of the peasantry. While under this system the peasantry
suffered enormously the landlords and the British rulers benefited. Lord William Bentinck himself observed:
If security was wanting against extensive popular tumult or revolution, I should say that the
Permanent Settlement, though a failure in many other respects and most important essentials, has
this great advantage at least, of having created a vast body of rich landed proprietors deeply
interested in the continuance of the British Dominion and having complete command over the mass
of the people.
Besides the Permanent Settlement, the British evolved the Ryotwari System implemented in Madras
Presidency in 1820 by Sir Thomas Munro. The Ryotwari system had two features. First, the government and
the cultivators would have direct relationship and land revenue will be settled directly between the two
without any intermediary. Second, unlike the system of Lord Cornwallis, Munro's system was based on
periodical re-assessment of land revenue.
Whether the system in some parts of India was Permanent Zamindary settlement, or its minor variant
Temporary Zamindary settlements, or the Ryotwari settlements, landlordism became the system under the
British. It dispossessed the cultivators, moneylenders entered rural India, the tenants were unprotected and
the majority of real cultivators became landless labourers. When real cultivators are dispossessed and
intermediaries and non-cultivating interests emerge powerful, agricultural development suffers and the
majority becomes poor. This happened in India as a result of the policies of the British. The beneficiaries
were landlords and the government and victims were the peasants. In the words of Daniel Thorner:
In no other period of Indian history can be find so large, so well-established, and so secure a group
of landholders as that which grew up and flourished between the 1970s and the 1940s.
The agrarian system as evolved by the British had a built-in system of destruction of agriculture which is
proved by the famines of 1870s and late 1890s and epidemics and slow growth of population.
Agriculture could develop if investments were made in public works either by the government or by the
efforts of the peasants. Naturally poor peasantry could not do it. The British did it in a very limited manner.
Wherever government took initiative in public works, results were encouraging as in the case of the canal
system in Punjab. Since the government and the landlords showed very little interest in public works,
agriculture remained backward. The impoverishment of the peasantry was a glaring fact during the British
rule over India. The agrarian policies pursued by the British increased the number of landless labourers, the
pressure of population on backward village economy and the profitable plantation economy filled the
pockets of the British. The magnitude of rural poverty was graphically described by the saying that the
Indian is born in debt, he lives in debt and he dies in debt. "The vast majority of peasants live to debt to the
moneylender" was stated by the Simon Commission. Even for paying land revenue to the government, the
peasants were obliged to borrow and how could an indebted peasantry develop agriculture?
9.8.2 Commercialisation of Agriculture

The new land settlements, discussed above, brought about a revolution in the property relations. Along with
this, a commercial revolution, know as the commercialization of agriculture, began to take shape in Indian
agriculture around 1860s. Simply put, commercialisation of agriculture meant that the agricultural produce
was oriented towards a market, i.e., agriculture became a marketable commodity. Many factors were
responsible for it:
A rapid development of railway occurred in this period. The length of the railway tracks increased from 288 miles in
1857 to 30576 in 1908. This expansion of the railway facilitated the commercialisation of agriculture.
The opening of Suez canal in 1869 shortened the sea route between England and India by about 3000 miles and brought
the two countries closer to each other for purpose of trade.
Certain technological innovations in England between 1873 and 1886 replaced sailing vessels with modern steam ships.
This brought down the freight rates by half and had a stimulating effect on the export of agricultural produce from
India which grew rapidly both in volume and value.
The Civil war in North America diverted, for the time being, the British demand for raw cotton from the United States
to India. Consequently there was a sudden increase in the export of raw cotton from India after 1862. From 5.6
crore in 1859-60, it rose to 37.5 crore in 1864-65.
The result of all this was a phenomenal increase in the export of agricultural goods from India. The total
value of export went up by more than five hundred per cent from 1859- 60 to 1906-07.
Paradoxically, this increase in foreign demand for Indian agricultural produce did not lead to the
development of Indian agriculture. There were many reasons for this:
the backward agricultural organization in the country.
lack of resources with the farmer for technological improvement,
his unpreparedness for the commercialisation and therefore inability to take till advantage of the opportunities offered,
absence of any increase in the productivity of land, and
the role of colonialism which super-imposed the commercialisation process from the top. It was precisely because of
colonialism that the commercialisation of agriculture emerged as an artificial. forced process which could not lead
to a genuine growth in agriculture. The objective conditions for such a growth had already been destroyed by
colonialism.
However, the impact of the commercialisation was quite far reaching. To begin with, it led to a scarcity of
food. This happened because the increasing demand for cash crops like raw cotton, jute, indigo and opium
etc. was met by substitution of commercial crops for traditional food crops. This was done by the farmers to
increase their profits, as the commercial crops were more paying. But its impact on the food supply of the
country was disastrous. It was reported that one major cause of the famine in 1866 in Bengal and Orissa was
that the best land was cultivating indigo instead of rice.
Yet another impact was a differentiation among the farmers. Although a small section of the farmers, who
had the resources, prospered by shifting completing to the cultivation of commercial crops, the poor farmer
suffered great losses as he had to now depend on a market for his own food requirements.
However, there were some positive aspects also. Regional specialization grew and the village lost its
isolation and got linked with the world market. The farmer, in his choice of crops, came to attach greater
importance to market demands and prices than to his own immediate needs.
9.8.3 Impact on Agriculture

To sum up, agrarian system and policies pursued by the British created stagnant agriculture, indebted
peasantry, galloping landless labouring class, deaths through malnutrition, famines and epidemics. The basic
policy of the British was to extract land revenue whether peasantry could pay it or not. The distress sale of
land to pay land revenue was not discouraged as it was a direct consequence of British land revenue policies.
Professor Irfan Habib aptly describes the situation. He observes:
"The land revenue under the preceding Indian regimes was fixed as a share of the crop, and varied according
to the crop cultivated. The land revenue under the British, whether directly imposed on the ryots or assessed
on the zamindars, was a true tax on land."
Thus revenue collections went up, the prices of foodgrains declined, the rural indebtedness increased and the
rural economy was depressed. The direct appropriation of the agricultural surplus was the sole goal of the
British rule and its direct consequences was impoverishment of the peasantry and stagnation of the rural
economy.
9.9 ROLE OF THE COLONIAL STATE

After 1857 when the British Government directly became responsible for the governance of India, the
foundation of Colonial State was firmly established. The British Colonial state has been characterized as
'benevolent despotism' or a liberal laissez faire state which performed the role of night watchman with
minimal interference in the Indian affairs. This is historical falsehood spread by the western historians. The
powerful colonial state was pro-landlord, pro-moneylender, pro-princess and pro-British economic interests
in India.
The Queen Victoria's Proclamation of 1858 stated:

"We shall respect the rights, dignity and honour of the Native Princess as our own."
Further, the Queen assured:
"We know, and respect the feelings of attachment with which the natives of India regard the land inherited
from the ancestors, and we desire to protect them in all rights connected therewith, subject to the equitable
demands of the State."
While the above promises of the Queen were only to seek social support and collaboration of the native
princess and landlords, the essence of the abolition of the Company's rule in 1858 was to serve the interests
of the British industrial classes in exploiting Indian market. The main goal of the colonial state established in
1858 was to protect and promote the interests of the British industrial capitalists who were occupying a
leading position in the British Parliament.
The British colonial state completely integrated India with the world capitalist economy and as a colony,
India was subjected to exploitation.
The role of colonial state in the economic development of India as a colony cannot be understood by
emphasizing the establishment of railways by the British or other modernizing activities like the spread of
English language and education. These are peripheral facts in evaluating the role of colonial state in India.
The basic goal of colonial state was to promote British capital and its investment in India for profit and to
achieve this goal, India under the colonial state was made a market for raw material for the British industry
and investment of British capital in sectors of Indian economy which brought profits to the British investors.
The promotion of plantation and mines, jute mills, banking, insurance, shipping, export-import concerns,
railways were all under British who were favoured and patronized by the colonial state if on the one hand,
colonial bureaucracy extended facilities and concessions to the British in India, on the other, it discriminated
against the locals through highly biased and discriminatory tariff and excise policies.
Professor Sumit Sarkar observes:
Behind a facade of laissez faire, government policies often actively promoted European enterprise
(railways under the guarantee system, and the allotment of vast tracts of land to Assam tea planters
at nominal prices, would be two obvious examples) while discriminating against Indians. The
railway network and freight-rates encouraged traffic with ports as against that between inland
centres. The organised money-market was largely under white control……. Most significant of all
perhaps was the fact that nineteenth century Indian economic growth was largely geared to export
needs, and the British controlled the bulk of the external trade of the country through
Exchange Banks, export-import firms and shipping concerns.
The main features of colonial state and its economic policies were geared towards ruthless exploitation of
India. The mechanisms of this exploitation were clear. India was structurally integrated with the world
capitalist economy. India was made an export oriented economy. India was to supply raw material to the
British industry, the British in India worked under the protective umbrella of the colonial state which
protected and safeguarded the interests of British investors. Indian capitalists were obstructed by
discriminatory policies of the British colonial bureaucracy. This colonial state was racial and exploitative
and India as a colony was sucked for British interests.
The beginning of twentieth century and specially two World Wars saw a change in this trend and provided
an opportunity for the development of the Indian capitalist class in the fields of textile, sugar, jute, some
chemical factories and steel plant. The World Wars had an impact on the British economy and the pre-war
situation, in which India was profitable for export of British manufactures and a secure market for profitable
investment, was changing, and, the economy and requirements of second world war, compelled the British
to induce development of indigenous industries under the indigenous capitalists in India.

1) Write about the various land settlement introduced by the British, and their characteristics.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2) Read the following statements and mark right (9) or wrong (x).
i) The British colonial state has been rightly characterized as a laissez faire state.
ii) The British colonial state integrated Indian economy with the world capitalist economy.
iii) Indian capitalists were protected by the colonial policies.
iv) The two world wars brought about constraints on colonialism.
9.10 LET US SUM UP

While summing up two facts need an emphasis. First, the colonial state was a powerful system of
exploitation of India for the British industrial capital. Second, the pressures of the two world wars and the
situations created by it helped the development of Indian capitalist class and industries in the fields of sugar,
jute, textile, iron and steel and chemicals.
When the British left India, they left a stagnant economy. The development of industries as mentioned above
does not mean that India was an industrial nation on the eve of independence in 1947. An industrial nation
can develop if proper infrastructure is developed along with basic industries like heavy machine tools, steel
and capital goods industries are established to support industrialization. The result of British economic
policies was that India had industries without industrialization, because the colonial state was not interested
in this aspect of economy. Further, Indian agriculture was stagnant. In terms of raw material for industry, the
situation was pretty bad. The direct consequence of British rule over India was low per capita income, low
agricultural output, low level of savings, underdeveloped infrastructure and low level of human skills. Thus
the claim that the British motorized Indian economy is quite hollow in the light of the above description.
9.11 KEY WORDS

Capital Accumulation: The process by which resources of land, labour and entrepreneurship are put
together for industrial development.
De-industrialization: The phenomenon under the Colonial rule under whose impact a large number of
traditional industries declined.
Foreign Capital: Money or resources acquired from outside a nation either from another nation or a
transnational firm.
Gross Profits: Total profits before deductions are made for taxes, depreciation etc.
Laissez Faire: The philosophy in 19th century British which said free trade or trade without restriction was
solution to all economic problems.
Monopolistic: A tendency of capital, resources or industries to come under individual control.
Per Capita income: Money earned per head.
Productivity of Land: Producing capacity of land.
Underdeveloped Society: A society in which development is retarded because of factors like colonial rule
or colonial pressures. This is different from a non-developed or developing societies, where the colonial
factor does not play a strictly significant role, since a direct colonial rule is not there.

EXERCISES
1) i) 9 ii) 9 iii) x iv) x

2) Read Section 9.2 and write your own answers.
1) i) X ii) X iii) X iv) 9

Read section 9.6
Read section 9 7
1) Read section 9.8

2) i) x ii) 9 iii) x iv) 9
UNIT 12 VALUES OF THE INDIAN
NATIONAL MOVEMENT
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Secularism
12.2.1 What is Secularism?
12.2.2 Practice of Secularism
12.2.3 Gandhi and Nehru
12.3 Socialism and Planned Economic Development
12.4 Democracy and Civil Liberties
12.4.1 Nature of the Colonial state
12.4.2 Nationalist struggle for Democratic Rights
12.5 Humanism
12.5.1 Sources of Humanism
12.5.2 Struggle for Humanism
12.5.3 The British Role
12.6 Universal Brotherhood and Peace
12.6.1 Some Early Instances
12 6.2 Struggle Against Fascism
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.8 Key Words
12.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will,
have idea of some of the important values which came in and through the national movement,
be able to assess how these values developed, and

pin point the contrasting roles played by the British and the nationalists in the development of these values.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
As you have learnt in Units 11 and 12, the struggle against British imperialism was the central theme of the
national movement. But the basic essence of the movement was not confined only to anti-imperialism it also
upheld and preached universally accepted values of secularism, socialism, democracy and humanism. Not
only that, it also simultaneously practised and thereby popularised these values. A sustained propagation of
these values finally led to their incorporation in the constitution of India. In this Unit you are going to
familarise yourself with the values of the national movement.
12.2 SECULARISM
India is the home of major religions and during the course of history has emerged as a truly plural society.
People in India believe deeply in religion which influences their way of life. In such a situation strong
tolerance of religious differences only can avoid social disharmony and conflicts. A policy of divide and
rule, as followed by the British, could, in this context, engineer feelings of religious conflicts and cleavages.
The nationalist leadership had correctly responded to this challenge by strengthening the value of secularism
in a multi-religious society.
12.2.1 What is Secularism?

Secularism in India meant four things:
i) First, the nationalist leadership preached and tried to promote the spirit of religious tolerance among
the people.
ii) Second many reforms movements were undertaken to remove superstition and blind faith among the
believes.
iii) Third, equality of all religions was emphasised by the nationalist leadership.
iv) Fourth, separation of religion and politics was sought to be emphasised.
12.2.2 Practice of Secularism

Reform movements were started by Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekanand
and Ramakrishna Paramahamsa among the Hindus. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan played and important role in
reforming the Muslims of India. A three fold method was adopted:
i) These reformers did not attack any other religion
ii) They emphasised the rationalist and reformist elements among various religions,
iii) It was emphasised that the various religious identities were within the higher identity of the Indian
nation.
This tradition of religious reform and tolerance was further strengthened by Mahatma Gandhi and Abul
Kalam Azad who were believers in religion but continuously promoted religious reform and tolerance of
each other's religions. Gandhi, e.g., started the 'constructive work' programme which worked for Hindu-
Muslim unity which helped unify the people-a primary task by any reckoning.
The task had to be performed in the face of the British attempt to promote the "Two Nation Theory" and
separate electorate for Hindus and Muslims in India. The Indian nationalists responded to this by assuring
the protection and respect of religious freedom to the minorities and also by promising that they would build
up the Congress as a secular platform. The Indian National Congress fought against separate electorate by
mobilizing all communities irrespective of their religious beliefs, in the struggle for Swadeshi, boycott of
foreign goods and Swaraj.
Further contribution of nationalists to secularism was:

the idea of a system of national secular education.
Iinking the concept of secularism to the struggle for social justice and equality.
12.2.3 Gandhi and Nehru

The struggle for secularism revolved around Gandhi's and Nehru's conceptions of secularism. Their different
conceptions must be brought out to show the two traditions of secularism in India.
Gandhi believed in spiritualisation of politics, but, he was firmly committed to the equality and tolerance of
all religions. Gandhi derived his politics from religion but in struggling against religious divisions and
fanaticism and in emphasising the relationship between national unity and spirit of tolerance, he took the
struggle for secularism forward. He made it clear that state should have nothing to do with religion, which is
a personal affair. He gave the state the responsibility of looking after secular affairs like welfare, health,
communication, foreign relations, currency etc.
Nehru, in contrast, linked the struggle of secularism to complete scientific rationality. Religion for him bred
blind faith and ignorance. For him the essence of science was to doubt and to know. So for him in the fight
for secularism, there was no place for religion at all.
It is with these twin traditions of secularism that the nationalist leadership fought against communal
organisations like the Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League. It also opposed the British practice of religious
discrimination on similar grounds. The strength of values of secularism then, were again in built in the
strength and weakness of the two fights.

1) It can be said from the above that secularism is
a) persecution of one religion by another
b) domination of one religion over other religions
c) a theory and practice where religious tolerance, equality, freedom from blind
faith and superstition and separation of politics from religion is evolved
d) a vigorous combination of religion and politics.
2) It may be said that
a) Nehru believed that religion should be the basis of politics
b) Gandhi believed that politics was derived from religion
c) Nehru believed that basis of politics had to be scientific
d) Gandhi and Nehru shared the same vision of secularism

e) both b) and c are correct
3) List some contributions of the nationalists towards promoting secularism.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………............................................................................................
12.3 SOCIALISM AND PLANNED ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT
The poverty and economic degradation of India was a direct consequence of the British rule. In this context
two interrelated tasks had to be performed by the leadership for patriotic mobilisation, i.e.,
the leadership had to educate the masses against the disastrous policies of the colonisers.
the people had to be concretely made to understand the alternative solutions to the pressing problems of poverty and
deprivation.
The nationalist and the communist leadership went on to define a concrete socialistic programme of
economic planning and development. In this the leaders of the freedom struggle were inspired by the
development and social reconstruction in the Soviet Union.
Two aspects of economic planning were clearly emphasised and propagated:
First, agrarian India will be transformed and absentee landlordism will be abolished.
Second, planned development will not emphasise the production aspect only. Production was to be linked with
distribution.
Nehru further linked up these facets with the national movement. In various annual sessions of the Congress
the meaning and context of socialism was concretised and it was conveyed that Swaraj would include the
principles of socialism.
Practice of Socialism: In 30s and 40s, socialism for the masses assumed great significance. Following
events concretised this:
The Kisan Sabhas and the trade union of the workers were formed to organize the peasantry and industrial workers in
the struggle for freedom of socialism. The All India Trade Union Congress first met in Bombay on 31 October
1920, while the All India Kisan Sabha met first in 1936. Many important leaders came to be associated with the
Kisan Sabhas and trade union movement. Swadeshi, thus meant both self rule and socialism.
The pro-poor orientation and concern in the Congress pronouncements and annual sessions. While Gandhi talked of the
semi-starved millions and tried to identify them with his simple life-style, Nehru distinctly went on to observe that
the Congress represented not only the nationalist urge of India but also 'to a large extent the proletarian urges for
social change'.
In 1938 the Congress appointed a national planning committee to work out programmes for industrialization and
development of rural society. Development of Khadi and village industries was considered integral to
industrialization of India.
In 1931 the Karachi session of the Congress had passed a key resolution on fundamental rights and economic policy.
The resolution declared: "in order to end the exploitation of the masses, political freedom must include real
economic freedom of starving millions". The resolution guaranteed the basic civil rights of the people, i.e.,
a) equality before the law irrespective of cast, creed and sex
b) elections on the basis of universal adult franchise
c) free and compulsory primary education,
and promised further:
a) substantial reduction in rent and revenue.
b) exemption from rent in case of uneconomic holdings.
c) relief of agricultural indebtedness and control of money lending.
d) better conditions for workers, including a living wage, limited hours of work and protection of
women workers.
e) the right to organize and form unions by workers and peasants.
f) state ownership or control of key industries, mines and means of transport.
After Karachi Session the Faizpur Congress in 1936 promised:
a) radical transformation of the agrarian system,
b) abolition of feudal levies,
c) the right to strike for peasant and trade unions.
These events were to consolidate the meaning and value of socialism and planning for the Indian people.
The British opposition to socialism and fears of communist conspiracy, as manifested in the Kanpur and
Meerut conspiracy cases, only highlighted the difficulty faced by the national movement in propagating
socialist values.

1) Socialism came to be identified by the nationalists in the 40s as:
a) a distant, meaningless goal
b) British rule plus planned development
c) Swaraj plus planned economic development
d) Unplanned development
2) By 1936 the Indian National Congress had popularised socialism as:
a) Swaraj plus radical transformation of the agrarian system, abolition of feudal levies, right to
strike for peasant and trade unions and state ownership of key industries, mines and
transport.
b) Swaraj plus agrarian reform only.
c) Swaraj without the right to strike for peasant and trade union.
d) Only right to strike for peasant unions.
3) Write five lines on Socialism and Swaraj.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………….…...................................................................................................
12.4 DEMOCRACY AND CIVIL LIBERTIES

Fight for democracy and civil liberties was to become integral to the fight for Indian freedom. After all the
British rule by nature was oppressive, and, fighting for freedom from its despotism meant fighting for
democratic values. For this the spirit of democratic culture was undoubtedly important.
12.4.1 Nature of the Colonial State

The colonial state was in the main repressive. The legal and the political system it created was
discriminatory and obstructive to people's participation in the governance of the country. Combined with its
police and army might, the legal political system only served the interests of the British rule. In this context,
the suggestion by some British scholars, that, democracy was a gift by the British to the Indians should not
be uncritically accepted. The British did not train the Indians in self- governance through Acts of 1909, 1919
and 1935. Rather at every step Indians struggled for democratic participation. And at every step this attempt
was truncated by limited concessions.
12.4.2 Nationalist Struggle for Democratic Rights

The nationalists compelled the British, in spite of stiff opposition, to concede:
right to vote,
system of elections and representation to Indians.
At the same time Congress conducted elections within its own organizational structure to inculcate the
values of democracy and democratic functioning. Decisions to launch struggles were taken through open
debates and struggles were conducted in open. Democratic right to dissent was granted in the Congress.
When these procedures were taken in the mass struggles of non-violent direct action the foundations of these
procedures were tested. Though at times certain unilateral withdrawals like the 1922 withdrawal of Non-
Cooperation or 1931 withdrawals of the Civil Disobedience Movement pointed to the weakness of these
procedures. Nonetheless a definite beginning had been made.

1) In the colonial state the legal political system
a) served the interests of the people
b) was democratic
c) had no elements of democratic institutions
d) had democratic institutions which were limited and made to serve the colonial state, with the
repressive might of army and police.
2) The nationalists
a) accepted the colonial legal political system
b) accepted the limited concessions of democratic participation
c) fought against limited concessions and for democratic rights.
3) What were democratic concessions extracted by the nationalists?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..…...............................................................................................................
12.5 HUMANISM
The national movement brought to surface a new humanism of the Indian people. Any struggle has its
humanistic dimensions which help mobilize people of different concerns in a common brotherhood.
12.5.1 Source of Humanism

The humanism of national movement drew upon two sources:
i) a scientific rationality, which taught that the backward and obscure institutions like caste, ritualistic
religion and bonded labour, sati, etc. were obstacles to human development.
ii) a sense of cultural identity of India, which meant belonging together the diverse cultural strands of
India into the national mainstream.
12.5.2 Struggle for Humanism

The struggle of humanism started with the efforts of social reformers to directly attack the caste system,
system of untouchability and attacks on various systems of feudal bondages and sati. While Rammohan Roy
had relied on scientific rationality to achieve this, people like Vivekananda or Swami Dayanand invoked the
Indian cultural heritage to attack such practices and pointed out the inconsistencies of such practices with
Indian cultural values. It was pointed out that these practices had made our culture a handmaiden of
exploitation of man by man. Vivekananda particularly stressed this in his little known pamphlet, "Why I am
a Socialist".
We also see the growth of anti-caste movements in this period. Mahatma Phule, e.g., organised the lower
castes against the dominant Brahminical ideology in Maharashtra.
With the national movement we can see three distinct strands drawing their inspiration from above:
i) One strand can be identifies with Nehru. Taking inspiration from the scientific humanism, Nehru
went to the extent of advocating a socio-economically humane system. Accepting Marxism as the
basis for such a society, his humanism drew deeply from the socialist humanism of countries like
Russia. The essential characteristics of this humanistic system were founded on the basis premise of
"each according to his needs to each according to his work" rather than the monetary hierarchies of
the west or the backward system of caste and religious hierarchies of the undeveloped countries.
ii) Gandhi was to stress on our cultural heritage. Rejecting caste and religious distinctions, he used
arguments from his religion to justify a human brotherhood.
This understanding shaped his efforts of Hindu-Muslim unity during Khilafat or the terrible days of
communal riots in the 1920s and the 1940s. Similarly he coined a new phrase Harijans for the
untouchables and actively worked amongst them to promote their well being.
iii) The third main strand was represented by Dr. Ambedkar. He integrated the more militant anti-upper
caste movements into the nationalist struggle and also found them a new identity. Similar role was
played by the 'Justice' movement in Madras or Sri Narayana Guru in the awakening of Ezhavas in
Kerala.
12.5.3 The British Role

The British attitudes to the humanistic trends within the national movement differed over time. In the initial
phases they supported such humane measures as anti-sati campaign of Rammoham Roy etc. But, with the
integration of this humanism with the national movement, there was a complete ruthless suppression. During
the national movement phase, actually, one saw the most brutal manifestation of the inhuman system the
British rule was. The example of killing hundreds of innocent people in the Jallianwala bagh massacre
stands out as the most outstanding instance of their inhumanism. The national movement however gained
with the sacrifice of these martyrs as the people realised that a human alternative in the national movement
was much better than the British rule.

1) National Movement's humanism drew from two sources. They were:
a) Pity and love for the downtrodden
b) Despair and disgust about the British rule
c) Happiness and pleasure about the way the British rule functioned
d) A scientific rationality and a sense of cultural identity which taught that backward and
superstitious values be removed and a national cultural mainstream be founded.
2) Vivekananda said that
a) Casteist and ritualistic religious practices were the best Indian values
b) Caste and rituals were a man-made creation for exploitation of man by man
c) Ritualistic religion was god given and should be followed.
3) Mention the three humanist strands of the Indian national movement. How were
they different from each other?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………….…...............................................................................................
12.6 UNIVERSAL BROTHERHOOD AND PEACE

The national movement was to reach across its boundaries towards internationalism. I this it continued its
anti-imperialist thrust and combined its human and rational values also.
12.6.1 Some Early Instances

From 1885 onwards itself the nationalists opposed the use of Indian army and India's resources to serve British interests
in Africa and Asia.
In February 1927, Nehru, on behalf of the National Congress, attended the Congress of oppressed nationalities at
Brussels organised by political exiles and revolutionaries from the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America
suffering from economic or political imperialism. Nehru was subsequently elected an executive council member of
the League against imperialism, which was born at this Congress.
In 1937 when Japan launched an attack on China, the National Congress passed a resolution calling upon the Indian
people "to refrain from the use of Japanese goods as a mark of their sympathy with China".
12.6.2 Struggle Against Fascism

The 1930s saw the emergence of a major authoritarian tendency in Western Europe. Pressures of labour and
peasant movements combined with the economic depression created an anti-democratic ideology in the
forms of Nazism in the Germany and Fascism in Italy. In 1930s its combination threatened to engulf the
entire developed world and its colonies. Britain was also threatened. In this context the national movement
had to take a stand.
Drawing upon its humanistic and democratic values the Indian National Congress, under Nehru's guidance,
took a stand against fascism. In spite of the fact that the national movement was growing tremendously,
India refused to go with fascism to strengthen its battle against British rule. Correctly giving the growth of
an international democratic order the first priority, the Indian National Congress, though it did not join the
Second World war, refused to give any material or moral support to Germany or Italy.
To conclude, Indian national movement's foreign policy stances were consistent with the democratic and
human values it was propagating. It was this consistency which enabled a non-aligned policy to emerge in
the post independence period.

1) The National Movement's Internationalism
a) was linked to its nationalist values
b) was delinked from its nationalist struggle
c) had no importance are all.
2) The National Movement

a) supported the fascists to gain an advantage over the British
b) supported the British war effort
c) neither supported the British war effort nor did they support the fascists to take advantage
over the British
12.7 LET US SUM UP

.
Following key points emerge from our discussion on the values of the Indian National Movement:
The values of secularism, socialist development, democracy, humanism and internationalism emerged through a
process of struggle and were not a gift of the British.
The British, infact, strongly opposed the development of these values and thereby made the struggle harder.
These values were not limited to national boundaries but made their impact internationally as well.
12.8 KEY WORDS

Absentee Landlordism: In colonial India the phenomenon of owners of large lands remaining absent from
the land living' perhaps in cities or towns and drawing on large rents. This rent was usually a huge
proportion of the produce of the toling tiller.
Agricultural indebtedness: The phenomenon of poorer cultivating sectors of agricultural classes being
forever in debt to the moneylender. The moneylender usually, advanced money on exhorbitant rates to
enable the cultivator to buy seeds and other agricultural equipment. Unable to pay it, the cultivator was
caught in a trap, where he had to go again for money. This way the moneylender kept a tight grip on the
agriculture classes and exploited the situation in many ways. Anti-moneylender riots of 1876 in Maharashtra
were one aspect of protest against this practice.
Constructive Work: Programme for uplifts of downtrodden and promoting Hindu-Muslim unity started by
Gandhi after the withdrawal of the Non-cooperation Movement.
Economic Depression: Phenomenon of extreme economic crisis when there is over production and glut.
Consequence is unemployment and drastic fall in prices.
Linguistic Formations: The recognized social formations in India by the nationalists with language as the
basic criterion for different identities. The nationalists gave scope for cultural diversities to flourish and also
brought them into mainstream of nationalism.
Rationalist: One believing in reason. Historically rationalist thought associated with the beginning of
Renaissance.
Reformist: One believing in positively modifying or amending society to make it better suited to times.
Separate Electorates: The British move to divide Hindus and Muslims as separate voting constituents and
with right to separate representatives through elections.
Two Nation Theory: The theory which says that historically India was composed for two nations: One
Hindu and One Muslim.
Uneconomic Holding: Land holding of small size, usually not even producing bare subsistence for the tiller.

EXERCISES
1) (c) 2 (e) 3 See Sub-sec. 12.3.2
1) (c) 2 (a) 3 See Sub-sec. 12.4.2
1) (d) 2 (c) 3 See Sub-sec. 12.4.2
1) (d) 2 (4) 3 See Sub-sec. 12.5.2
1) (a) 2 (c)
SOME USEFUL BOOKS FOR THE BLOCK
Chandra, Bipan 1971: Modern India, N.C.E.R.T. New Delhi.
Desai, A.R. 1959: Social Background of Indian Nationalism, Bombay.
Dutt, R.P 1947: India Today, Bombay,
Paviov, V.1 1978: Historical Premises for India's Transition to Capitalism, Moscow.
Routhermund and Kulke 1968: History of India. Manohar, New Delhi.
Sarkar, Sumit 1983: Modern India, Macmillan, New Delhi.
Sitarammya, Pattabbi (2 vols. ) 1946-47: History of Indian National Congress, Bombay.
Tara Chand (4 vols.) 1961-72: History of the Freedom Movement in India, Delhi.
UNIT 11 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT-2
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Emergence of Gandhi
11.2.1 Official Response
11.2.2 Non-Cooperation and Khilafat
11.2.3 Aftermath
11.3 Civil Disobedience Movement
11.4 The Revolutionary Movement
11.5 The Socio-Economic Content of Swaraj
11.5.1 Emergence of Communist and Socialist Groups
I1.5.2 Role of Nehru
11.5.3 Impact on Congress
11.6 Peasants, Working Class and State People's Movements
11.6.1 Peasant Movements
11.6.2 Working Class Struggles
11.6.3 Movement in Princely States
11.6.4 Other Movements
11.7 Towards Freedom
11.7.1 Congress Ministries
11.7.2 Second World War and India
11.7.3 Quit India Movement
11.7.4 Independence
11.8 Let Us Sum Up
11.9 Key Words
11.0 OBJECTIVES
The Indian National Movement was gradually developing into a mass movement. After reading this Unit,
you should be able to:
understand the significance of the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi on the Indian political scene,
known about the characteristics of the Non-Cooperation, Khilafat and Civil Disobedience Movements,
grasp the socio-economic content of Swaraj and understand the part played by the leadership and various peasants and
working class movements in achieving it,
know about the development of Indian National Movement during the Second World War, and finally
learn how independence was achieved.

11.1 INTRODUCTION
After the First World War the Indian National Movement entered into a new phase. With the emergence of
Gandhi, the element of mass mobilisation was introduced. Till the coming of independence three major mass
movements were launched; Non-Cooperation (1920-22), Civil disobedience (1930-34) and Quit India
(1942). Besides these mass movements the revolutionary movement, peasants and working class movements
and state people's movements also played a vital role in the struggle for freedom.
In this period sufficient emphasis was laid on the socio-economic content of Swaraj. The Communist Party
of India and the Socialist groups within the Congress pointed out towards economic emancipation of the
masses along with the importance of the struggle for independence.
This Unit, in dealing with the various above mentioned aspects, ultimately introduces you to the various
events which brought about independence.
11.2 THE EMERGENCE OF GANDHI

The third and the last phase of the national movement began in 1919 when the era of popular mass
movements was initiated.
During the First World War the Allies  Britain, France and the U.S.A. had declared that the World War
was being fought in defence of democracy and the right of nations to self-determination. But after their
victory they showed little willingness to end the colonial rule. The Indians had not only cooperated with the
war effort but had considerably suffered also. They hoped of getting due returns. But they were very soon
disenchanted. While the British Government made a half-hearted attempt at constitutional reform, it also
made it clear that it had no intention to part with political power; and a new leader Mohandas Karamchand
Gandhi, took command. The new leader kept in mind the basic weakness of the previous leadership and
sought to remove them. He had evolved a new form of struggle-non-cooperation-and a new technique of
struggle-Satyagraha-which would not remain a mere programme but were capable of being put into practice.
He had already put them to test in South Africa while fighting for the rights of immigrant Indians. Gandhi
also took up the cause of peasants in Champaran (Bihar) and the working class in Ahmedabad (Gujarat).
This was also a period of rising prices and epidemics in various parts of the country. In many regions the
peasants had been subjected to extortions in the name of war effort. Gandhi responded to the growing anger
and militancy of the Indian people after the end of the World War and created the organisation and
techniques that would give the movement a mass base.
11.2.1 Official Response

Throughout the war, the Government had carried on repression of militant nationalists. It now decided to
acquire further powers to meet the nationalist challenge. In March 1919 it passed the Rowlatt Act (the
Indians called it a Black Act) which authorised the Government to imprison any person without trial. The
Indian sentiment was outraged. In February 1919, Gandhi started a Satyagraha Sabha whose members were
committed to disobeying the Act and thus to court arrest. Thus, Gandhi took the first step towards making
the national movement a movement of mass political action, rather than of mere agitation. Simultaneously,
he urged the Congress to increasingly rely on the peasants and artisans. Symbolic of the new emphasis was
to be the use of Khadi or hand-spun, hand-woven cloth.
10: A Pamphlet Against Rowlatt Act.
Almost the entire country came to life in the next two months. Strikes, hartals, processions and
demonstrations became the order of the day. At this time occurred the notorious Jallianwala Bagh incident in
Amritsar when, on 13 April 1919, a peaceful crowd was trapped in an enclosed garden by a unit of the
British army and fired upon with rifles and machine-guns. Thousands were killed and wounded. A wave of
horror ran through the country. The brutality of colonial rule was exposed once again. Simultaneously, the
British Government broke its war-time pledge of treating Turkey generously after the war and put into
jeopardy the control of the Sultan of Turkey, who was also regarded by many as the Caliph or religious head
of the Muslims thus producing deep resentment among Indian Muslims.
11.2.2 Non-Cooperation and Khilafat

Gandhi and the National Congress decided in September 1920 to launch a non-violent non-cooperation
movement and continue it till the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were removed and Swaraj established. Gandhi
gave the slogan "Swaraj in a year". The people were asked to boycott government affiliated schools and
colleges, law courts and legislatures and foreign cloth and to surrender officially-conferred titles and
honours. Later the programme would be extended to include resignation from government service and mass
civil disobedience including the non-payment of taxes. National schools and colleges were to be set up.
People were asked to practise handspinning and produce khadi, to give up untouchability and promote and
maintain Hindu-Muslim unity. Provincial Congress Committees were now to be organised on a linguistic
basis. The Congress organization was to reach down to the village level and its membership fee was to be
reduced to 4 annas (25 paise of today) per year to enable the rural and urban poor to become members.
This first mass movement assumed during 1920-22 unprecedented proportions.
Lakhs of students left schools and colleges. Hundreds of lawyers gave up their practice. Majority of voters
refused to participate in elections to the legislatures. The boycott of foreign cloth became a mass movement,
with thousands of bonfires of foreign cloth lighting the Indian sky. Picketing of shops selling foreign cloth
and of liquor shops was also very successful. In many regions the factory workers aud peasants were at the
forefront.
Gandhi was, however, not satisfied. On 4 February, 1922 occurred the Chauri Chaura incident when a
Congress procession of 3,000 peasants was fired upon by the police and in retaliation the angry crowd burnt
the police station causing the death of 22 policemen. Gandhi took a very serious view of the incident.
Feeling that the people were not yet properly trained in non-violence, he called off the entire movement on
February 1922.
The movement had, however, far-reaching consequences:
i) It had for the first time brought millions of peasants and urban poor within the sphere of
nationalism. In fact, all sections of Indian society had been politicised: peasant, workers, artisans,
shopkeepers, traders, lawyers, doctors, other professionals and white-collar employees. Women had
been drawn into the movement. The movement had reached the remotest corners of the land. In fact,
Gandhi based his entire politics on the militancy and self-sacrificing spirit of the masses. He brought
them to the forefront of the national struggle. He transformed it into a mass movement.
ii) The people of India were imbued with fearlessness. They were no longer afraid of the might of
British imperialism. As Nehru was to comment later that Gandhi made a man of him. This was true
of the entire nation.
It must be understood in this respect that, for Gandhi, non-violence was not a weapon of the weak and the
cowardly. Only the strong could practise it. Gandhi repeatedly said that he preferred even violence to
cowardice. He wrote in 1920:
Where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advice violence. I would
rather have India resort to arms in order to defend her honour, than that she should, in a cowardly
manner, become or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonour.
The most important consequence of the Non-Cooperation Movement was the tremendous self-confidence
and self-esteem which Indian people gained. Indian people had begun a war against colonial rule. No
temporary retreat in a battle could deflect the people from their march towards the goal. As Gandhi wrote on
23 February 1922, after the withdrawal of the movement:
It is high time that the British people were made to realize that the fight that was commenced in
1920 is a fight to the finish, whether it lasts one month or one year or many months or many years
and whether the representatives of Britain re-enact all the indescribable orgies of the Mutiny days
with redoubled force or whether they do not.
11.2.3 Aftermath
After the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement leaders like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed
the Swarajist Party. The Swarajists believed that they will Fight the British in legislature. The Swarajists
fought elections, gained considerable victories and successfully obstructed work in many provincial
legislatures.
In November 1927 the British declared the formation of Simon Commission to look into the constitutional
aspects. This Commission had exclusively Englishmen as members. The Indians regarded it as a great insult.
The Commission was boycotted when it landed in India. All over the country there were demonstrations
with the slogan "Simon go back".
The scenes of Non-Cooperation days reappeared. The demonstrators were dealt with bullets and batons by
the Government. Lala Lajpat Rai succumbed to the injuries which he received in the police lathi charge at
Lahore.

1) Which of the following statements are right (9) or wrong (X)?
i) Gandhi kept in mind the basic weaknesses of the earlier leadership and tried to remove
them.
ii) Indian masses welcomed the Rowlatt Act.
iii) Khilafat was aimed at removing the wrongs done by the British in Turkey
iv) The Congress did not accept a linguistic basis for organising its provincial
committees.
2) What were the far reaching consequences of the Non-Cooperation Movement'?

Answer in about ten lines.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..…...............................................................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..…...............................................................................
11.3 CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

A new wave of political enthusiasm arose in 1928 and 1929. The youthful Jawaharlal Nehru became the
president of the National Congress at its historic Lahore session of 1929. The Congress passed at this session
a resolution declaring Poorna Swaraj (complete independence) to be its goal. 26 January 1930 was fixed at
the first Independence Day on which tricolour flag would be hoisted and the people would take the pledge
that it was "a crime against man and God to submit any longer" to foreign rule. On 12 March 1930, the
Congress started the second Civil Disobedience Movement with the famous Dandi March by Gandhi.
Consequently, lakhs of Indians broke the salt law by manufacturing and selling illegal salt. Lakhs offered
Satyagraha or non-violent resistance. Millions participated in hartals, demonstrations and boycott of foreign
goods and liquor in many parts of the country, the peasants refused to pay land revenue and rent and had
their land confiscated. A notable feature was the wide participation of women. Another was the extension of
the movement to the Pathans of North-Western Frontier Province and Nagaland and Manipur in North-
Eastern India. The British Government ceased to exist in peshawar from 24 April to 4 May.
A temporary truce was signed through Gandhi-lrwin Pact in March 1931; but the struggle was resumed in
the beginning of 1932. No mass movement could, however, last for ever and the struggle gradually waned
and had to be withdrawn in mid-1934. In the mean time the Round Table Conferences which were called by
the British in London failed to evolve any formula regarding the political situation in India.
11.4 THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT
Revolutionary terrorism as a form of political activity emerged in the 20th century in spurts-first after the
petering out of the Swadeshi Movement and then again after the withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement.
It was pursued by a generation of highly motivated nationalist youth who found themselves disillusioned
with the activities of the dominant political groups. Fired with enthusiasm and devoted to the cause of
independence for India these young people increasingly took to violent action against the Government
offices, property and officials.
One major cause of the emergence of revolutionary terrorism was the creation of political vacuum every
time any major political movement was either exhausted or withdrawn. An organised form was given to the
revolutionary movement with the formation of the Hindustan Republican Association in 1924. The
Government responded with immediate repression. Consequently, a number of Hindustan Republican Army
(HRA) activists were arrested and tried in the famous Kakori Conspiracy case in 1925. In 1928, owing
largely to the influence of socialist ideas the name was changed to Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association (HSRA). Chandra Shekhar Azad, whose name you all must be familiar with, was the leader of
this organisation. Bhagat Singh, Raj Guru, Ramprasad Bismil, Sukhdev and Batukeshwar Dutt were some of
the leading revolutionary activists in the 1920s.
14: Bhagat Singh
One major limitation of revolutionary terrorism was a lack of long-term vision. Although endowed with
unquestionable patriotism and capable of threatening the State apparatus, their movement tended to be short
lived and was suppressed by the Government.
Although defeated and suppressed these revolutionaries contributed to the cause of nationalism in no small
measure. They became a source of inspiration for the youth and the stones of their sacrifices helped in
keeping the flames of nationalism alive and burning.
11.5 THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTENT OF
SWARAJ
From the beginning the national movement had a pro-people or rather pro-poor people orientation. The
entire economic critique of colonialism and agitation on economic questions by the Moderates was
developed around the problem of the poverty of the Indian people. Their programme of industrial
development and taxation reform was designed to tackle this problem. In fact, their programme of economic
reforms was quite radical by contemporary standards. The commitment to the poor was further strengthened
as a result of the emergence of Gandhi as the main leader of the movement and the impact of the Russian
Revolution of 1917. From 1919 onwards, the movement continuously defined itself further and further in a
radical direction, as a strong left wing developed inside the Congress. The left wing did not confine its
politics to the struggle against imperialism. It simultaneously raised the question of internal class oppression.
11.5.1 Emergence of Communist and Socialist Groups

1920s witnessed a general radicalization of Indian youth and the emergence of Communist and Socialist
groups. Students and youth associations were organized all over the country from 1928 onwards. Hundreds
of youth conferences were organized during 1928 and 1929. Moreover, the Indian youth increasingly took to
socialist ideas. The Revolutionary Terrorists led by Chander Shekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh also turned to
socialism and changed the name of their organization from Hindustan Republican Association to Hindustan
Socialist Republican Association. In one of his last letters, Bhagat Singh wrote:
"The peasants have to liberate themselves not only from foreign yoke but also from the yoke of
landlords and capitalists."
Socialist ideas became even more popular during the 1930s as the world was shaken by economic
depression. The Communist Party was reorganized after 1935 under the leadership of P.C. Joshi and the
Congress Socialist Party was founded in 1934 under the leadership of Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai
Prakash Narayan. Subhash Chandra Bose had already emerged as a powerful left-wing leader of the
Congress in the mid-1920s.
11.5.2 Role of Nehru

It was Jawaharlal Nehru who became the symbol of socialism and socialist ideas in India after 1929. The
notion that freedom could not be defined only in political terms but must have a socio-economic content,
began increasingly to be associated with his name.
Nehru became the president of the historic Lahore Congress of 1929. He was elected to the post again in
1936 and 1937. As president of the Congress and as the most popular leader of the national movement after
Gandhi, Nehru repeatedly toured the country, travelling thousands of miles and addressing millions of
people. In his presidential speeches, as also in his popular speeches, Nehru propagated the ideas of socialism
and declared that political freedom would become meaningful only if it led to the. economic emancipation of
the masses and would therefore be followed by the establishment of a socialist society.
At the Lahore session of the Congress in 1929, Nehru had already declared his commitment to
socialism:
I am a socialist and a republican, and I am no believer in kings and princess, or in the order which produces
the modern kings of industry, who have greater power over the lives and fortunes of men than even the kings
of old, and whose methods are as predatory as those of the old feudal aristocracy.
He also said that India's poverty and inequality could be ended only by the adoption of a socialist
programme.
Nehru's commitment to socialism found a clearer and sharper expression during 1933-36. Answering the
question as to which direction India was going in October 1933, he wrote: "Surely to the great human goal
of social and economic equality, to the ending of all exploitation of nation by nation and class by class".
And, in December 1933, he wrote: "The true civic ideal is the socialist ideal, the communist ideal". Nehru
put his commitment to socialism in clear and unequivocal terms in his presidential address to the Lucknow
Congress in 1936:
I am convinced that the only key to the solution of the world's problems and of India's problems lies
in socialism.... That means the ending of private property, except in a restricted sense, and the
replacement of the present profit system by a higher ideal of cooperative service.... I see no way of
ending the poverty, the vast unemployment, the degradation, and the subjection of the Indian people
except through socialism.
16: A Congress procession during Luknow Congress 1936.
11.5.3 Impact on Congress

The growth of the radical forces in the country was soon reflected in the programme and policies of the
Congress. A major point of departure was the resolution of Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy passed
by the Karachi session of the Congress on the urging of Jawaharlal Nehru. The resolution declared: "in order
to end the exploitation of the masses, political freedom must include real economic freedom of starving
millions". The resolution guaranteed the basic civil rights of the people:
15 Jawaharlal Nehru
equality before the law irrespective of caste, creed or sex,

elections on the basis of universal adult franchise, and
free and compulsory primary education.
The resolution further promised:
substantial reduction in rent and revenue,

exemption from rent in case of uneconomic holdings,
relief from agricultural indebtedness and control of moneylending,
better conditions for workers including a living wage, limited hours of work and
protection of women workers,
the right to organise and form unions by workers and peasant, and
state ownership or control of key industries, mines and means of transport.
Radicalism in the Congress was further reflected in Faizpur congress resolutions and the Election Manifesto
of 1936 which promised:
radical transformation of the agrarian system,

substantial reduction in rent and revenue,
scaling down of rural debts and provision of cheap credit,
abolition of feudal levis,
security of tenure for tenants,
a living wage for agricultural labourers, and
the right to form trade unions and peasant unions and the right to strike.
Later in 1945 the Congress Working Committee adopted a resolution recommending abolition of
landlordism.
During 1938, when Subhash Chandra Bose was its president, the congress got committed to economic
development and set up a National Planning Committee under the Chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru. Nehru
and other leftists and Gandhi also argued for the public sector in large-scale industries as means of
preventing concentration of wealth in a few hands. In fact, a major development of the 1930s was the
increasing acceptance of radical economic policies by Gandhi. In 1933, he agreed with Nehru that, "without
a material revision of vested interests the condition of the masses can never be improved. He also accepted
the principle of land to the tiller. He declared in 1942 that "the land belongs to those who will work on it and
to no one else".
The National congress had from its inception in 1885 opposed the use of Indian army for suppressing or
conquering other nations in the interests of British imperialism. It had also gradually developed a policy of
anti-imperialism and extending support to national movements in Asia and Africa. In the 1930s, under the
guidance of Nehru, it adopted a more above foreign policy. It took a strong anti-fascist stand and extended
full support to the people of Ethiopia, Spain, Czechoslovakia, and China in their struggle against aggression
by the three Fascist powers, Italy, Germany and Japan. It recognized that struggle against imperialism and
Fascism were aspects of a common struggle on a world scale.


i) Women took prominent part in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
ii) HRA was converted into HSRA due to the influence of socialist ideas.
iii) Nehru offered socialism as a remedy for the poverty of Indian masses.
iv) The Congress did not oppose the use of Indian army by the British for
conquering other countries.
2) Discuss in about ten lines the basic features of the Karachi Resolution.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………….........................................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….....................................................................................................................................................................
11.6 PEASANTS' WORKING CLASS AND STATE

PEOPLE'S MOVEMENTS
The National Movement deeply influenced the already existent anti-British feelings amongst the peasants
and the workers. They were actively involved in the freedom struggle after 1917. The emergence of socialist
ideas also created a deep impact on the peasants and the working class. They linked their economic and
social grievances with the struggle for freedom. Similarly, there emerged State People's Movements in the
princely states of India.
11.6.1 Peasant Movements

The Indian peasantry had a long history of uprisings against their oppression by the British, landlords and
moneylenders. The National Movement gave an impetus to this movement and brought them in the
mainstream of the freedom struggle.
The agrarian relations varied in different parts of the country. Yet there were certain grievances which could
be listed as prevailing in all the regions:
high land revenue demand

exorbitant rents,
forced labour and supplies,
evictions from holdings and insecurity of tenure,
low wages for agricultural labour,
indebtedness, etc.
The peasants along with their own initiatives now looked upon the Congress for support. We briefly discuss
some of the peasant movements here:
i) Champaran
The peasants in Champaran were forced to cultivate indigo by the European planters. They faced all kinds of
extortions at the hands of the planters. Raj Kumar Sukul, a ruined peasant took up the cause of indigo
peasants. In 1916 he went to Lucknow Congress session and spoke from the Congress platform about the
plight of Champaran peasants. It was Raj Kumar Sukul who brought Gandhi to Champaran (in 1917) to see
for himself the plight of peasants. A movement was launched and ultimately the Government had yield to
certain demands of the peasants.
ii) Awadh
In Awadh there was no security of tenure for the peasants and they had to pay Nazarana (extra premium) to
get and retain their holdings. Forced labour, rasad (forced supplies) and various other forms of illegal ceases
were extorted by the landlords. During 1918 many Kisan Sabhas (Peasant associations) were organised.
Baba Ram Chandra, who had earlier been an indentured labourer in Fiji, started organising the peasants and
built up a strong movement. In June 1920, he marched with about 500 peasant to Allahabad in order to draw
the attention of Gandhi. In December 1920 a massive peasant meeting was held in Ayodhya. Temples and
Mosques were thrown open to the peasants for stay. In January 1921, massive peasant uprising took place in
Awadh. In many villages peasants established Swaraj. The Government crushed the uprising with a heavy
hand. Many peasants lost their lives in police firings. The massacre of peasants at Munshiganj in Rai Bareili
district sent a wave of anger throughout the country. The Government was compelled to pass the
Oudh Rent (Amendment) Act in 1922. An important feature of this movement was that it was during this
period that Jawaharlal Nehru experienced the misery of the peasants and took up their cause.
17: Baba Ram Chandra
iii) Malabar
At about the same time, peasant discontent broke out in the Malabar district (now in Kerala). Here too the
Mappila tenants complained of insecurity of tenure, high rents and illegal dues. The peasant protest
developed in a massive fashion as a result of its becoming a part of the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat
Movements. The protest soon took the form of an armed uprising. The peasants attacked Government
offices, courts and police stations, burnt records, looted the treasuries, and attacked unpopular landlords.
Unfortunately, the Government was successful in giving the uprising a communal turn and succeeded in
suppressing it.
iv) Andhra
As a result of the Forest Laws introduced by the British there was considerable resentment among the tribals
all over the country. Alluri Sitarama Raju, inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movements, started organising
the tribals in the 'Rampa' region in Andhra, Village panchayats were started and a strong anti-liquor
campaign was initiated. Raju held Gandhi in high esteem but he believed that violence was necessary to oust
the British. The movement soon took a violent turn. Raids were carried on police stations. A guerilla type of
war went on between the armed forces and the followers of Raju. Ultimately Raju was captured by the
British and shot dead. Till today Raju remains a legendary figure in the region.
v) Bardoli
In 1928, under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the peasants of the Bardoli taluka of Gujarat
organised a no-tax campaign against the official effort to enhance land tax by nearly 30 per cent. The
peasants demanded that the Government should appoint an independent tribunal to enquire into the
enhancement. The peasants refused to pay the enhanced tax, resisted all official attempts to coerce them,
organised a neartotal boycott of all Government officials and locked up their houses and fled to the
neighbouring Baroda territory along with their cattle. In the end their demand for an enquiry had to be
accepted and the enhancement was reduced to about 6 per cent. There were also tribal and peasant uprisings
in Udaipur and Mewar under the leadership of Motilal Tejawat and in Darbhanga under the leadership of
Swami Vidyanand. In Bihar Swami Sahajanand Saraswati organised the Bihar Kisan Sabha.
A new, nation-wide awakening of the peasantry to their class defence occurred during the 1930s. The
symbol of this awakening was the establishment of the All-lndia Kisan Sabha in 1936. The main demands
around which the peasants mobilised were reduction in rents and land tax, abolition of illegal levies such as
begar or vethi by the zamindars, reduction of debt, ending of oppression by the landlords and moneylenders,
restoration of illegally seized lands, and security of tenure as tenants. The main forms of peasant
mobilisation were through meetings, conferences, demonstrations, peasant marches, formation of kisan
sabhas, non-payment of rent and taxes, and satyagraha.
Peasant movements acquired a fresh thrust after 1945 as freedom approached. The demand for abolition of
the zamindari system now acquired greater urgency all over the country. The most militant of the post-war
struggles was the Tebhaga struggle by the share-croppers of Bengal who said that they would pay not 1/2
but 1/3rd of the crop to the jotedars (intermediary landlords). Similarly, there emerged a very strong peasant
movement in Telangana. Both these movements were directed by the Communist leadership.
Though the peasant struggles before 1947 were organised around immediate demands which would lessen
the rigour of the exploitation and oppression by the state, landlords, and moneylenders, their long term effect
was to prepare the climate for basic transformation of the agrarian structure, system of credit, and peasants
relationship with the state.
11.6.2 Working Class Struggles

There was a rapid growth of working class struggles and trade unionism in the 1920s. There had been a
steady increase in the numerical strength of the workers since the 1860s as modern industry, mining and
railways had developed, though in a stunted manner. From the beginning, workers were subjected to
inhuman and unscrupulous exploitation in the form of low wages, long hours of work and horrible
conditions of work and living. Even so, despite occasional spontaneous protest it took a long time for the
workers to organise themselves in trade unions. The Swadeshi movement inspired the first major struggles,
particularly, by the railway workers of Bengal. There was a wave of spontaneous strikes in almost every
industry during 1918 to 1920 as a result of rise in prices during and after World War I and contemporary
nationalist ferment. The lead was given by railway workers, who were subjected to racial discrimination (the
European staff was given high wages) apart from economic and class oppression. To coordinate working
class struggles, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded in October 1920. Lala Lajpat
Rai, the famous nationalist leader, was its first president. C.R. Das, Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Bose
were some of the other nationalist leaders who presided over the AITUC session.
A fresh upsurge of workers strikes occurred during 1928-29. There was a general strike by jute workers in
Bengal. There was a long strike lasting for two months in railway workshop at Kharagpur. The South Indian
Railway and East Indian Railway workers went on strike. Another strike was organised in the Tata Iron and
Steel Works at Jamshedpur. The most important strike of the period was in Bombay textile mills. Nearly
1,50,000 workers remained on strike for over five months. The strike was conducted by the legendary Girni
Kamgar Union. The last of this wave of strikes occurred on the G.I.P Railway in Bombay.
The Government was unnerved by this strike wave. In 1929 they arrested 31 labour leaders and put them on
trial for conspiring against the King and the Government. Their trial came to be popularly known as the
Meerut Conspiracy Case. Simultaneously, they appointed a Royal Commission (Whitley Commission) to
investigate conditions of workers in India and to make recommendation for their amelioration.
During the Civil Disobedience Movement the working class in Sholapur played a heroic role in opposing the
British.
Major strikes occurred during 1935 and 1936 at Calcutta, Ahmedabad, and Kanpur. The formation of
Congress Ministries in 1937 and the consequent expansion of civil liberties led to another spurt in workers,
organisation and struggles. Trade union membership increased by 50 per cent in 1938 over that in 1937.
Massive strikes occurred in Calcutta, Madras, Bombay and Kanpur during 1937-38.
11.6.3 Movement in Princely States

The British had permitted hundreds of princely states to exist where colonial domination was exercised
indirectly through Indian rulers who were totally subservient to the British but who ruled their states
autocratically. Appalling economic, political and social conditions prevailed in most of them. They spent
most of the state revenue on themselves and their courtiers and official. Since the British Indian Government
was there to defend them against internal protest or revolt, they freely indulged in gross misgovernment.
As the national movement developed in British India, the people of the princely states were also influenced.
All-lndia States people's Conference had already come into existence in 1927 to coordinate political
activities in the states. These activities increased under the impact of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Popular struggles were organised in many states including Kashmir, Jaipur, Rajkot, Hyderabad and
Travancore. Praja Mandals were organised in a large number of states with the development of democratic
and national consciousness.
The National Congress in the beginning kept itself aloof from these movements. But after 1937 it supported
them and opposed the princes efforts to suppress them. It urged the princes to grant civil liberties to their
people and to introduce democratic representative government. In 1938, the Congress defined it goal of
independence so as to include the independence of the states. In order to emphasise the close links between,
and in fact integration of, the freedom struggle in India and struggle for democratic government in the states,
Jawaharlal Nehru became the president of the All-lndia States People's Conference in 1939. The States
People's Movement contributed towards the integration of princely states into the Indian Union.
11.6.4 Other Movements

Note must be taken of two other sets of powerful movements. One was the movement for linguistic
provinces. Initially developed outside the nationalist framework to promote the languages and cultures of
different regions, they were rapidly incorporated into the national movement, and in 1921 the Congress
reorganised its provincial committees on the basis of language. The national movement fully accepted that
India is a country of immense linguistic and cultural diversity and that its unity has to be based on the
principle of "Unity in Diversity".
Similarly, the "lower castes" organised many movements in different parts of the country against upper caste
social and economic domination. There was the Satyashodhak Samaj Movement and the Non-Brahmo
Movement of the Marathas in Maharashtra, and the Self-Respect Movement and Anti-Brahmin movements
in South India, and the movement of the Harijans or Scheduled Castes led by Dr B. R. Ambedkar. Most of
them gradually faded away as the national movement itself included struggle against caste oppression in its
programme.

ii) Check your answer with that given at the end of the unit..
1) In column 'A' some important peasant movement are given and in column 'B' their leaders. Match
'A' with 'B'.;
A B
i) Awadh a) Rajkumar Sukul
ii) Champaran b) Sita Ram Raju
iii) Andhra c) Motilal Tejawat
iv) Darbhanga d) Baba Ram Chandra
v) Udaipur and Mewar e) Swami Viyanand
2) Discuss in about ten lines the growth of working class movement in 1921's and 1930's.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………................................................................................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………................................................................................................
3) Discuss in about five lines the attitude of Congress towards the princely States
People's Movement.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………........................................................................................
11.7 TOWARDS FREEDOM

In this section we discuss in brief the process from 1937 on wards through which India achieved
independence. By this time the national movement was on a firm footing with all sections of the masses
participating in the struggle.
11.7.1 Congress Ministries

In 1935, a new Government of India Act had been passed and elections were to be held in 1937. There was a
debate within the Congress whether it should participate in the elections or not. Ultimately it was decided to
participate in this election and an all out effort was made to achieve success. The Congress leaders toured
vast parts of the country and there was tremendous enthusiasm amongst the masses.
The Congress swept the polls in Madras, Bombay, Central provinces, Orissa, Bihar and United Provinces.
Now the question was whether the Congress should take up office or not? After a lot of debate and thinking
the decision taken was in favour of office acceptance. The Congress formed the Government under the new
system of provincial autonomy in the provinces where it had absolute majority.
Later it succeeded in forming coalition governments in Assam and North-Western Frontier Province. Within
the narrow limits of power conferred on them, the Congress administration in the provinces tried to give
relief to the people and introduced many radical reforms:
political prisoners were released
police powers were curbed
civil liberties were encouraged and expanded
greater attention was paid to education and health
the ministries attempted to give relief to the peasantry through legislation for
debt-relief, restoration of lands lost by the peasants in recent years, and security
of tenure
attempts were made to give relief to workers.
The ministry period had a symbolic achievement as well. It established the Congress's credentials in not only
launching movements, but also running effective administration. It also put the withdrawal of British firmly
on the political agenda. The people were now convinced that independence was now only a matter of time.
11.7.2 Second World War and India

The start of the Second World War in September 1939 confronted the Congress with a difficult choice. As
we have seen earlier, it was in full sympathy with the victims of fascist aggression and it was keen to help
the anti-fascist forces led by the Allies, Britain and France. But how could, it argued, a colony help in other
nations fight for freedom, when it was itself enslaved. It, therefore, demanded that the British give proof of
their devotion to freedom and democracy by putting political power into Indian hands and promising full
freedom after the war. This would enable the Indian people to contribute fully through men and materials to
war effort. The British would not oblige. As Winston Churchill was to put it later, he had not become the
war-time Prime Minister to preside over the liquidation of the British Empire.
The Congress ordered its ministries to resign in protest. But it still did not want to impede the British war
effort by giving a call for a massive anti-British struggle. At the same time, the patience of Congress
leadership and the masses was getting exhausted. Gandhi now decided to initiate a limited Satyagraha on a
individual basis by a few selected individuals in every locality. The individual Satyagraha had two aims: On
the one hand, it gave expression to the Indian people's strong political feelings, on the other hand, it gave the
British Government further opportunity to avoid confrontation and accept Indian demands. By the end of
May 1941, more than 25,000 satyagrahis had been arrested and sentenced.
Two major changes occurred in 1941. Having occupied western Europe, Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet
Union on 22 June 1941. And on 7 December 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on the US fleet at Pearl
Harbour in the Pacific. Advancing rapidly through Philippines, Indo-China (Vietnam), Indonesia, and
Malaya, Japan began to overrun Burma in March 1942, and thus brought the war to India's borders.
The Indian leaders, released from prisons in early December, were worried about India's defence. They were
also concerned about the safety of the Soviet Union and China. They were once again ready to fully
cooperate in the war effort if India was granted the substance of power. The British Government too was
under pressure from its American and Chinese allies.
In March 1942, it sent the Cripps Mission to negotiate with Indian leaders. But negotiations soon broke
down because the British were not willing to accept the demand for the immediate transfer of power. The
Indian people were embittered and felt that time had come for a final assault on imperialism.
11.7.3 Quit India Movement

The All-lndia Congress Committee met in Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous "Quit India"
resolution, proposing to start a final mass struggle for freedom. Addressing the Congress delegates on the
night of 8 August, Gandhi asked the people to "Do or Die", "We shall either free India", he said, "or die in
the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery". The British Government struck before
the movement could be started. Early in the morning of 9 August, it arrested Gandhi and other Congress
leaders and kept them in jail for the duration of the war. A spontaneous popular upsurge arose everywhere.
There were hartals and strikes all over. The Government's reply was large-scale arrests and repeated lathi
charges and firings. The angry people took to violent action and attacked the symbols of British authority-
police stations, post offices, railway stations. They cut telephone and telegraph wires and railway lines. In
several parts of the country. the people set up parallel governments.
18: Gandhi Asking British to Quit India (a cartoon).
19: Congress Bulletin in Kannad (9 August 1942)
The Government now launched full machinery of repression. Over 10,000 persons died in police and
military firings.
In the meanwhile another front for freedom had been opened in South-East Asia. Subhash Bose had escaped
from India in March 1941. In 1943, he went to Japan and South-East Asia where he organized thousands of
Indian army soldiers and officers, who had surrendered to the Japanese, into the Indian National Army. The
INA marched along with the Japanese army towards India's borders to free India from the foreign yoke. But
Japan collapsed in 1944-45 and Subhash Bose, it appears, was killed in an aeroplane accident.
11.7.4 Independence
With the end of the war, India's freedom struggle entered a new phase. The Indian people were in an angry
mood. The new struggle took the form of a massive movement against the trial of the soldiers and officers of
the INA which finally forced the Government to set them free. Throughout 1945-46 there occurred
numerous agitations, strikes, hartals, demonstrations, etc., all over the country. In February 1946, the naval
ratings at Bombay revolted. There was a massive demonstration in Bombay in sympathy which the ratings.
The army shot over 250 persons on the streets of Bombay in an effort to suppress the popular upsurge.
20: Bose Inspecting Andaman Jail.
In any case, despite having won the war, Britain was face with a new situation. The entire world balance of
power had changed. Britain, weakened by the war, was no longer a world power. Its economic and military
power had been shattered. Moreover, the entire colonial system had collapsed. France and Holland had been
occupied and weakened; Germany, Italy and Japan had been defeated. The Soviet Union supported India and
other colonial countries aspiration for freedom; nor was the U.S.A. averse to these aspirations. In any case, it
would not support Britain in any effort at total suppression of the national movement in India.
21: Mahatma Gandhi
Within Britain itself, the political situation did not favour a renewed effort at suppression of the national
movement. The British army, recruited from the citizens, was tired and sick of war and had no stomach left
for waging a virtual war of suppression. The Labour Party, which was more sympathetic to India, defeated
the Conservative Party in elections in mid-1945. In any case, the British people would not support a policy
of colonial reassertion.
Within India, the colonial apparatus of administration and repression was breaking down. The bureaucracy
was no longer 'reliable'. The police was restive. The army was no longer loyal. Even apart from the RIN
Revolt, there had occurred numerous strikes, etc., in the army and airforce. And, above all, as brought out
earlier, there was the determination of the Indian people to no longer agree to be ruled by the alien power.
The Labour Government (of Britain) decided to heed the voice of the times. It decided to withdraw from
India after nearly 200 years of colonial rule. On 15 August 1947, India celebrated with joy its first day of
freedom, though its joy was marred by the fact that not one but two independent states-India and Pakistan-
had come into existence in the sub-continent.

1) Discuss in about five lines the reforms introduced under the Congress ministries
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………….…...........................................................................

i) Fascist aggression was condemned by the Congress.
ii) The slogan of the Quit India Movement was 'do or flee'.
iii) The Indian National Army fought along with the Japanese army against the
British.
iv) Conservative Party won the election in 1945 in England.
11.8 LET US SUM UP

We have been seen in this Unit how the Indian National Movement gradually developed towards its goal of
achieving independence. The shift from moderate means to mass movements was a major achievement for
the movement and this shift was brought about by the efforts of Gandhi. During this period three major mass
movements were launched under the Congress leadership. Along with and within the Congress movement
we find the emergence of Communist and Socialist groups. Their contribution was of much significance not
only in terms of achieving political independence but also for gaining economic and political freedom.
During this period the peasants and workers movements also took an organised form-particularly with the
formation of All India Kisan Sabha and the All India Trade Union Congress. In the princely states, the
people fought for democratic rights and they linked their struggles with the national movement. Ultimately
the struggle of the Indian people and the changing international scenario forced the British to Quit India and
India became a free nation on 15 August 1947.
11.9 KEY WORDS
Adult Franchise: Right of vote to every adult irrespective of caste, sex, income, religion.
Conservative Party: A British political party which was rightist and dominated by the interests of landlords
and merchants.
Exploitation: The historical phenomenon of one class living off the surplus produced by another, e.g., land
lords living off the peasants produce.
Fascist: An extreme right wing political ideology which arose as a reaction to communists, social democrats
and labour movements in 20th century Italy and Germany.
Feudal Levies: Obligations of extra economic nature like that of begar or forced labour.
Indebtedness: The phenomenon of moneylender keeping long term hold over sections of rural or urban
poor.
Labour Party: A British political party distinct from conservatives and communists which argued for
advancing labours interests.
Landlordism: The phenomenon of Zamindars of medieval times being converted into permanent landlords
under the British permanent settlement.
Non-Violence: Basis of Gandhi's philosophy for conducting struggles without hurting the enemy.
Picketing: A peaceful agitational action to prevent routine work and to express protest.
Radicalisation: A sharp or slow swing of a movement, thought or idea towards the left.
Salt Law: The British law imposing a tax on Indians producing salt.
Satyagraha: Struggle against domination, based on validity of truth.
Socialism: The broad philosophy calling for equal socio-economic redistribution of resources and wealth.

1) i) 9ii) X iii) 9 iv) X
Check Your P20gress 2
1) i) 9 ii) 9 iii) 9iv) X

1) i) d ii) a
2) i) 9 ii) X iii) X iv) 9

UNIT 10 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT-1
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 1857: The First War of Independence
10.2.1 Causes
10 2.2 Extent and intensity
10.2.3 Defeat
10.3 EarIy Phase of Nationalism

l0.3.1 Role of the Intellectuals
10.3.2 Role of Colonial state
10.3.3 Emergence of the Indian National Congress
10.4 Moderate and Militant Nationalists

10.4.1 Moderates Aims and Methods
10.4.2 Militants Aims and Methods
10.5 Swadeshi Movement

10.6 Socio-Religious Reform and Cultural Renaissance
10.6.1 Prominent Reformers: Issues and Views
10.6.2 Their Approach
10.6.3 Their Methods
10.7 Let Us Sum Up

10.8 Key Words
10.0 OBJECTIVES
No major development of modern India can be explained and understood without a reference to the Indian
National Movement. The Indian National Movement represented the Indian people's urge to be free from the
foreign yoke. After reading this Unit you will:
understand the upsurge of 1857 in all its dimensions,
be aware of the factors which contributed to the emergence of Indian

Nationalism,
be able to explain the political objectives and the strategies of the early nationalist leadership,
understand the differences of approach between the moderates and militant nationalists,
understand the Swadeshi Movement and its implications for the Indian National
Movement,
be able to identify the process of cultural renaissance, and

know about the various social reform movements during the 19th and early 20th
` centuries.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit we introduce you to the various aspects of Indian National Movement during its earlier phase.
Resistance to British rule had always been there, but it was in 1857 that large sections of Indian people in
various regions made a combined effort to overthrow the British. That is why it is often termed as the first
war of independence. Due to certain weaknesses the uprising was crushed by the British but as far as the
struggle was concerned there was no going back. This inspired a new kind of struggle. The intelligentsia,
which earlier believed in the benevolence of British rule now came forward to expose its brutality. Political
associations were formed and the Indian National Congress played a vital role in directing the freedom
struggle. We discuss in this Unit the role of moderates and militant nationalists and the efforts made during
the Swadeshi Movement to involve the masses into the freedom struggle.
This was also a period of cultural renaissance as far as Indian society was concerned. Many social and
religious reformers took up the battle against the social and religious evils that existed in our society. This
contributed immensely towards the making of a new India.
This Unit attempts to give you a glimpse of the issues that were undertaken by the Indian social reformers.
The scope of this Unit is however confined to the period just before the emergence of Gandhi on the Indian
political scene.
10.2 1857: THE FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

In 1857 occurred the Revolt known as India's First War of independence when millions of soldiers, artisans
and peasants made a combined effort to overthrow foreign rule. The Revolts was, however, no sudden
occurrence. It was the culmination of nearly a century-old discontent with British policies and imperialist
exploitation. The British conquered India and colonized its economy and society through a prolonged
process. This process led to continuous resistance by the people through a series of civil rebellions led by
deposed rulers, impoverished zamindars and poligars (landed military magnates in South India) and ex-
officials of the conquered Indian states. The mass base of these rebellions came from the ruined peasants and
artisans and demobilized soliders. Starting with the Sanyasi rebellion and Chuar uprising in Bengal and
Bihar in the 1760s, there was hardly a year without armed opposition or a decade without a major armed
rebellion in one part of the country or the other. From 1763 to 1856 there were more than 40 major
rebellions apart from hundreds of minor ones. Though massive in their totality, these rebellions were,
however, wholly local in character and effects and were isolated from each other.
The revolt of 1857 was, however, to involve millions in large parts of the country and to shake the British
rule to its very roots.
1: Soldiers of 11th irregular cavalry being disarmed (1 August 1857)
10.2.1 Causes
The Revolts of 1857 started on 10 May when the Company's Indian soldiers (sepoys) at Meerut rebelled,
killed their European officers, marched to Delhi, entered the Red Fort and proclaimed the aged and
powerless Bahadur Shah 11 (who still bore the prestigious name of the Mughals) as the Emperor of India.
The Company's sepoys had many grievances against their employers, ranging from declining material and
other service conditions to religious interference and racial arrogance. But basically they reflected the
general discontent with British rule. They were after all a part of Indian society they were 'peasants in
uniform'. The hopes, desires, despair and discontent of other sections of Indian society  they were
reflected in them. The sepoys' rebellion was a product of the accumulated grievances of the Indian people.
The most important underlying cause of the Revolt was the disruption of the traditional Indian economy and
its subordination to British economy and the intense economic exploitation of the country. Above all, the
colonial policy of intensifying land revenue demand led to a large number of peasants losing their land to
revenue farmers, traders and moneylenders. Destruction of traditional handicrafts ruined and impoverished
millions of artisans. The economic decline of peasantry and artisans was reflected in 12 major and numerous
minor famines from 1770 to 1857.
Thousands of zamindars and poligars lost control over their land and its revenues. Hundred of chieftains lost
their principalities. The interference by the East India Company was disliked by many Indian rulers. The
traditional scholarly and priestly classes lost their patronage from the traditional rulers, chieftains, nobles
and zamindars, and were impoverished.
A major cause of the Revolt was the very foreign character of British rule. The British remained perpetual
foreigners in the land. The Indian people felt humiliated in having to obey the orders of 'foreign
tresspassers'.
2: People and Soldiers in the Battle at Bareilly (5 May 1858)
10.2.2 Extent and Intensity

The Revolt of 1857 swept Northern India like a hurricane. Nearly half of East India Company's Indian
soldiers rebelled. Everywhere in Northern India, the soldiers' rebellion was followed by popular revolts of
the civilian population. According to one estimate, of the total number of about 1,50,000 men who died
fighting the English in Avadh, over 1,00,000 were civilians. The Revolt soon embraced a wide area
engulfing Avadh, Rohilkhand, the Duab, the Bundelkhand, Central India, large parts of Bihar, and East
Punjab. There were uprising in Rajasthan at Nasirabad, Nimach and Kota. In Kolhapur also the sepoys rose
in arms. In many of the princely states of these regions, the rulers remained loyal to the British but the
soldiers and people joined the rebels or refused to fight against them. W.H. Russel, who toured India in 1885
as the correspondent of the London Times, wrote:
"In no instance is a friendly glance directed to the white man's carriage

Oh! that language of the eye! Who can doubt? Who can misinterpret it? It is
by its alone that I have learnt out race is not even feared at times by many and
that by all it is disliked."
3: Times currespondent viewing the sacking of Kaiserbagh at Lucknow.

Great strength was imparted to the Revolt by Hindu-Muslim unity. Both at the level of sepoys and the
people as well as at the level of leaders there was full cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. The Revlot
also threw up some courageous and brilliant leaders Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Tantya Tope, Begum Hazrat
Mahal of Avadh, Kunwar Singh, Khan Bahadur or Bareilly, Maulavi Ahmadullah of Faizabad, and Bakht
Khan, the petty officer in the British army who rose to become a General of the rebel army, are some of the
famous names of the Revolt. Above all, the ordinary sepoys and common people fought with exemplary
courage and unselfish devotion.
4: Begam Hazarat Mahal
10.2.3 Defeat
In the end, British imperialism, at the height of its power the world over, succeeded in ruthlessly
suppressing the Revolt. The reasons were many. Despite its wide reach, the Revolt could not embrace the
entire country or all sections of Indian society. Bengal, South India and large parts of Punjab remained
outside its reach since these areas had already exhausted themselves through prolonged rebellions and
struggle against the British. Most rulers of Indian states and the big zamindars remained loyal to the foreign
rulers. Thus, Scindhia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Rajput rulers of Jodhpur
and many other Rajputana states, the Nawab of Bhopal, the rulers of Patiala and Kashmir, the Ranas of
Nepal, and many other rulers and chieftains gave active support to the British in suppressing the Revolt.
In general, merchants and moneylenders either supported the British or refused to help the rebels. The
modem educated Indians also did not support the Revolt. The leaders of the Revolt fought with courage, but
could neither coordinate their struggle nor evolve a unified high command. Instead, they indulged in
constant petty quarrels. The rebels were short of modern weapons and often had to fight with primitive
weapons such as swords and spikes. They were very poorly organised. The sepoys were brave
but at times there was lack of discipline which affected their military efficiency.
5: Rani Jhansi in Battle field.
Above all the rebels lacked a modern understanding of British colonialism or the nature of the state and
society which was to replace it. They were united by their hatred of the British rule and the desire to restore
pre-British economic, political and social relations, but shared no conception of the political or socio-
economic structure of free India. This was perhaps inevitable. Common all-India feeling and interests were
yet to evolve. Perhaps if the Revolt had lasted a few years, a common modern understanding and national
consciousness would have evolved in the course of the struggle, as it did later; but the rebels were given no
such time- their revolt was crushed by the end of 1858.
This first great struggle of the Indian people to win freedom from British domination was not in
vain. It left an indelible mark on the consciousness of the Indian people and served as a permanent
source of inspiration to the later struggle for freedom.

1) Write in about 100 words the main causes behind the Revolt of 1857.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………....…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2) Which of the following statements are right or wrong ? Mark (9) or (X).
i) The Revolt of 1857 was the first effort at a national level to overthrow British rule.
ii) The revolt of 1857 was only a sepoy mutiny
iii) All the merchants and moneylenders supported the revolt of 1857.
iv) Hindu-Muslim unity gave added strength to the revolt of 1857.
3) i) Give the names of three Indians rulers who supported the British in 1857.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii) Give the names of three Indian leaders who opposed the British in 1857.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
10.3 EARLY PHASE OF THE NATIONAL

MOVEMENT
The defeat of the Revolt of 1857 made it clear that uprisings based on old outlooks and social forces could
not defeat modern imperialism. For that, new social forces, new ideologies, a modern political movement
based on an understanding of modern imperialism and capable of mobilizing the masses for nationwide
political activity were needed. Such a movement was initiated during the second half of the 19th century by
modern nationalist intelligentsia. The new movement had a much narrower social base, but was inspired by
new political ideas, new intellectual perception of reality and new social, economic and political objectives.
It also represented new forces and forms of struggle, new leading classes and new techniques of political
organisation.
Many factors were responsible for the rise of this powerful movement. But the decisive factor was the
gradual emergence of the contradiction between the interests of the Indian people as a whole and the
interests of the British rule, which was leading to the increasing underdevelopment of the Indian economy
and society. It was also hampering India's further economic, social, cultural, intellectual and political
developments. Let us briefly have a look at the factors that contributed towards the emergence of organised
nationalism.
10.3.1 Role of Intellectuals

Initially, this process was grasped only by the modern Indian intellectuals. Paradoxically, during this first
half of the 19th century, they had adopted a very supportive approach towards colonial rule:
They had believed that the restructuring of Indian society could occur under British rule because Britain was the most
advanced country of the time.
They hoped that the British would help India get rid of its past backwardness.
The intellectuals, attracted by modem industry and the prospects of modern economic development, hoped that, Britain
would industrialize India and introduce modern capitalism.
They believed that Britain, guided by the doctrine of democracy, civil liberties, and sovereignty of the people, would
introduce modern science and technology and modern knowledge in India, leading to the cultural and social
regeneration of its people.
The emerging unification of the Indian people was an added attraction. Consequently, they supported British
rule even during the Revolt of 1857 and described it as 'providential' or "ordained by Gods that be".
The second half of the 19th century witnessed the gradual disillusionment of the intellectuals, for experience
increasingly showed that that expectations were misplaced and based on a wrong understanding of the nature
and character of British rule. The intellectuals realised that:
In practice, British colonialism was disrupting Indian economy and preventing the rise of modern industry and
agriculture.
Instead of promoting democracy and self-government, British administrators were arguing for the imposition of
permanent benevolent despotism in India.
They neglected the education of the masses, curbed civil liberties and pursued a policy of divide and rule.
Thus, in such a situation what were the intellectuals supposed to do? Gradually, the intelligentsia created
political associations to spread political education and to initiate political work in the country. Raja Ram
Mohan Roy was the first Indian leader to start an agitation for political reforms in India. The Bengal British
Indian Society and other associations were founded in 1840s and 1850s to promote general public interests.
But these associations were local in character and were dominated by wealthy and aristocratic elements.
However, in 1870s and 1880s more modern, explicitly political, and middle class based organizations like
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha in Maharashtra, the Indian Association in Bengal, Madras Mahajan Sabha, and
Bombay Presidency Association came up all over the country.
10.3.2 Role of Colonial State

The open reactionary character of Lytton's Viceroyalty from 1876 to 1880 quickened the pace of Indian
nationalism. We list some of the reactionary methods adopted by Lytton:
The Arms Act of 1878 disarmed the entired Indian people at one stroke.
The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 sought to suppress the growing Indian criticism of British rule.
The reduction of the maximum age for sitting in the Indian Civil Service Examination from 21 years to 19 further
reduced the chances of Indians entering the Civil Service.
The holding of a lavish imperial Durbar (in 1877) at a time when millions of Indians were dying of famine and the
waging of a costly war against Afghanistan at the cost of the Indian economy.
The removal of import duties on British textile imports threatened the existence of the newly rising Indian textile
industry.
All these were clear manifestations of the colonial character of British rule in India. In 1883, the new
viceroy, Lord Ripon, tried to assuage Indian feelings by removing a glaring instance of racial discrimination
by passing the IIbert Bill which would enable Indian district and session judges to try Europeans in criminal
cases. The Government was compelled to amend the Bill by a vehement, racialist agitation led by the
European in India. These factors created a congenial environment for the growth of Indian nationalism.
10.3.3 Emergence of the Indian National Congress

The time was now ripe for the formation of an all-lndia organization which could organise and coordinate
the political activities of Indians all over the country against foreign rule and exploitation. Various attempts
were made in this direction for several years. Surendra Nath Banerjee took the lead by forming the Indian
Association. The idea finally got a concrete shape when a large group of political workers such as Dadabhai
Naoroji, Justice M.G. Ranade, K.T. Telang and Badruddin Tyabji cooperated with A. O. Hume, a retired
English Civil servant, in holding the first session of the Indian National Congress at Bombay in December
1885. The struggle for India's independence was thus launched though on a rather small scale.
7: The First Indian National Congress 1885.
The early nationalist leaders believed that a direct struggle for freedom was not yet on the agenda of history.
Instead, they had first to lay the foundations of such struggle. Would you like to know what were then the
basic objectives of the early Indian nationalists ?
i) One of the basic objectives of the early nationalists was to promote the feeling of national
unity, to weld India into a nation, to help create an Indian people, to meet the imperialist
charge that Indians were not a people or nation but a mere grouping of hundreds of diverse
races, languages, castes and religions.
ii) The second basic objective was to create a national political platform or programme on
which all Indians could agree and which could serve as the basis for all-lndia political
activity.
iii) The third objective was the politicisation of the people and the creation of public interest in
political questions and the training and organization of pubic opinion in the country.
iv) Another important aim of the time was the creation of an all-lndia political leadership. No
movement without a headquarters, that is, a united leadership. Such a leadership on a
country-wide level did not exist in the 1880s. Allied to this was the need to train a common
band of political workers or cadre to carry on political work.
Thus, the basic objectives of the early nationalists can best be summed up as the creation of a broad-based
anti-colonial, nationalist movement on an all lndia basis.

1) Which of the following statements are right or wrong '? Mark (9) or (X).
i) After 1857 it became clear that new methods were needed to defeat imperialism.
ii) The Indian intellectuals always remained loyal to the British.
iii) The British encouraged civil liberties.
iv) Indian economy flourished under British rule.
2) What were the basic objectives of the early nationalists ? Answer in about 10 lines.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
….............................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
10.4 MODERATE AND MILITANT NATIONALISTS

The most important contribution of the early nationalists, known as Moderate nationalists, was their
economic critique of imperialism and their persistent agitation on economic questions. They analyzed all the
three forms of colonial economic exploitation, that is exploitation through trade, industry and finance. They
clearly grasped that the essence of British colonialism lay in the subordination of the Indian economy to the
British economy. They vehemently opposed the British attempt to develop in India the basic characteristics
of a colonial economy, namely. the transformation of India into a supplier of raw materials, a market for
British manufacturers, and a field of investment for foreign capital.
10.4.1 Moderates: Aims and Methods

The early nationalists constantly agitated for democratic civil rights, a free press, and a democratic and non-
racialist administration. In fact, it was during this period and as a result of political work by the nationalists
that democratic ideas began to take root among the Indian people in general, and the intelligentsia in
particular. The Moderates also agitated for the spread of modern education, science and technology. In the
political field, they demanded reforms that would lead to greater share for Indians in the administration and
the legislative machinery.
The weakness of the early nationalists lay in the narrow social base of the movement. The movement did
not, as yet, have a wide appeal. It did not penetrate down to the masses. The Moderates' political work was
confined to the urban educated middle classes. Their programme and policies, however, were not confined
to the interests of the middle classes. They took up the causes of all sections of the Indian people and
represented the interests of the emerging Indian nation against colonial domination.
The Moderates believed in the methods of constitutional agitation within the tour walls of law. Thus, they
relied on agitation through public meetings and newspapers. They also sent numerous carefully prepared and
argued memorials and petitions to the Government. Though on the surface these memorials, etc., were
addressed to the Government, their real objective was to educate and politicise the Indian people. For
example, Justice Ranade explained to the young G. K. Gokhale in 1891:
You don't realize our place in the history of our country. These memorials are nominally addressed to
Government, in reality they are addressed to the people, so that they may learn how to think in these matters
because politics of this kind is altogether new in this land.
In spite of their political mildness, they aroused intense hostility from the officials. British officials and
statesmen condemned them as disloyal and seditious elements. Lord Curzon, the Viceroy, declared in 1900
that it was his ambition to contribute to the death of the Congress. This was because the Moderate had, on
however small a scale, generated an anti-imperialist awakening in the country. Their powerful economic
critique of imperialism was to serve as the main plank of nationalist agitation in the later years of active
mass struggle against British Colonialism. They had, by their economic agitation, undermined the moral
foundations of British rule by exposing its cruel, exploitative character. Moreover, the political work of the
Moderates was based on a concrete study and analysis of the hard reality of the life of the people rather than
on shallow and narrow appeals to religion and mere emotion. Once a sound basis for a national movement
was laid, mass struggles could come, and did come, in time.
10.4.2 Militant Nationalists: Aims and Methods

The beginning of the 20th century witnessed the development of the Indian National Movement to a new,
higher stage under a new militant nationalist leadership. This was in part the fruition of the earlier nationalist
agitation, and in part the consequence of the reassertion of imperialism at the end of the 19th century. The
symbol of the new imperial assertion, of despotism and 'efficiency', was Lord Curzon the Viceroy since
1899. Political Indians now despaired of getting political concessions from the rulers through political
argument and methods of polite agitation. Indians must, they realized, depend on themselves and take
recourse to mass politics and mass agitation around the goal of independence from Britain.
The social and economic conditions of the country also pointed in the same direction. Economic decay and
stagnation. the fruits of colonial underdevelopment, were beginning to surface by the end of the 19th
century. Symbolic in this respect were the famines that devastated the country from 1987 to 1900, and killed
millions.
Several international events at this time contributed to the growth of militant nationalism. The defeat of the
Italian army by the Ethiopians in 1896 and Russia by Japan in 1905 exploded the myth of European
superiority. Similar was the impact of the revolutionary movements in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Turkey and
China: a united people, who were willing to make sacrifices, were surely capable of overthrowing foreign
despotic rule even if it appeared powerful on the surface.
A new political leadership now emerged on the scene. The most prominent in it were Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
known as the Lokmanya, Aurobindo Ghose, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai. The new leadership
believed and preached that Indians trust rely on their own efforts, on their own political activity and on their
own sacrifices. Their political work and outlook encouraged self-reliance and self-confidence. Moreover,
they possessed deep faith in the strength of the Indian people and mass action. Once the masses took up
politics, they asserted, it would be impossible for the British to suppress the national movement. They,
therefore, pressed for political work among the masses. They also denied that British rule could be reformed
from within. Swaraj or independence was to be the goal of the resurgent national movement.
10.5 SWADESHI MOVEMENT

Thus, conditions were ready for the national Movement to advance to a higher stage. The spark was
provided when the movement announced its decision to partition the province of Bengal on 20 July 1905.
The decision, as the Government claimed, was allegedly based on administrative grounds. But the people of
Bengal saw it as an effort to divide the nationalistically inclined Bengali people and thus stem the rising tide
of militant nationalism in Bengal and India.
Political agitation was inaugurated by a general hartal and a day of fasting on 16 October in Calcutta. Huge
crowds paraded in the streets of Calcutta and a mammoth meeting of 50,000 was held in the evening. Entire
Bengal, from cities to villages, was reverberating with meetings, processions and demonstrations.
Soon a new form of political action was added. All foreign goods were to he boycotted and Swadeshi or
Indian-made goods along were to he used. In many places public burnings of foreign cloth were organized
and shops selling foreign cloth were picketed. The new leadership also gave a call for passive resistance to
the authorities. This was to take the form of non-cooperation with the Government by boycotting schools
and colleges, the courts, and government services. This part of the programme could not, however, be put
into practice on a significant scale. The new leadership also raised the slogan of independence from foreign
rule. One result was that Dadabhai Naoroji declared in his presidential address to the Congress in December
1906 that the goal of the Congress was "self-government or Swaraj".
The militant leadership succeeded in involving large sections of the rural and urban people in the movement.
In particular, students, women and urban workers participated enthusiastically in the movement. The slogans
of Swadeshi and Swaraj were soon taken up by other provinces. Boycott of foreign cloth was organized on
all-lndia scale. The entire country began to be united in a bond of' common sympathy and common politics.
The Government responded with quick repression. Meetings were banned, newspapers suppressed, political
workers jailed, several leaders deported, and students beaten up. Efforts were made to divide the Moderates
from Militants and Hindus from Muslims. At the same time, the new leadership failed to, discover or
implement new forms of organization and struggle which would correspond to their new and advanced
political understanding. For example, it failed to put passive resistance into practice. Consequently, the
Government succeeded to a large extent in suppressing the movement which did not survive the
imprisonment and deportation of Tilak for 6 years, the retirement from active politics of Bipin Chandra Pal
and Aurobindo Ghose and departare from India of Lala Lajpat Rai.
The youth finding no effective outlet in mass political activity and responding emotionally and heroically to
government repression, increasingly adopted revolutionary terrorism and assassination of hated officials as a
style of politics. Anushilan and Jugantar were the two important revolutionary groups of this
period.However, revolutionary terrorists lacked a mass base and could not continue for long.
But they um made a valuable contribution to the growth of the national movement. As a historian has put it,
"they gave us back the pride of our manhood".
8: Annie Besant
The national movement was in a rather dormant state from 1909 to 1916. But it revived during the First
World War when Annie Besant, an English admirer of Indian Culture and the newly released Lokmanya
Tilak started a popular, all-lndia constitutional agitation under the auspices of the two Indian Home Rule
Leagues. Indian revolutionaries abroad were also very active during the War of special importance was the
establishment of a mass Ghadar (Rebellion) Party in U.S.A. and Canada which had branches in East Asia
and South-East Asia and which tried to organize armed uprisings in India.

1) Differentiate between the methods adopted by moderates and militant nationalists Answer in
about 10 lines.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..…..........................................................
2) Why were the moderate nationalists condemned by the British as seditious elements'' Answer in
about 10 lines
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………................................................................................
3) What do you understand by Swadeshi Movement? To what extent was this movement an advance
in terms of methods adopted by earlier nationalists? Answer in about 100 words.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….…...................................................................................
10.6 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM AND

CULTURAL RENAISSANCE
Immense intellectual and cultural stirrings characterized 19th and 10th century India; the intellectual life of
the Indian people began to undergo a radical transformation. Indian intellectuals were aware of the fact that
a vast country like India had been colonized by a handful of foreigners because of the internal weaknesses of
Indian society. They, therefore, launched a critique of the evils existing in the Indian social structure and
culture. In particular, they were aware of India's lag in the fields of science and social knowledge, for along
with colonialism, modern western ideas and culture were also making their entry into India. These were
based on rationalism or belief in science and human reason and humanism or the love of human beings and
confidence in their capacity to progress. Indian intellectuals were powerfully drawn to rationalism and the
humanist conception of society-the conception that every human being is to be respected for his or her own
sake. Their efforts to implement these ideals in different fields have been described by historians as
Renaissance-analogous to the European Renaissance of the 12th-15th centuries.
Even though the forces of religious and social reform and cultural renewal arose at different times and in
different forms and with differing content in different parts of the country, their general perspective was very
similar and they represented more or less a common consciousness and understanding of the ills of Indian
society and their remedies.
10.6.1 Prominent Reformers: Issues and Views

The person who initiated the process of intellectual and cultural awakening was Raja Rammohan Roy. Even
though possessing a great regard for, and learning in, the traditional philosophic systems of the East, he
believed that modern culture, a rational and scientific approach to society and religion based on the
principles of human dignity and equality alone could regenerate Indian society. Rammohan was followed by
a galaxy of intellectuals and religious and social reformers. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshub Chandra
Sen, Sayyed Ahmed Khan, Gopal Hari Deshmukh, Jotiba Phule, Swami Dayanand, Justice Ranade,
Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Viresalingam, Narayana Guru, Vivekananda, E.V Ramaswami Naicker arc some
of the names that readily come to mind.
The religious reformers vigorously opposed religious dogmatism and blind faith, rigidity of caste, and
prevalence of meaningless religious rituals, ceremonies and superstitions. Some of them also opposed the
priesthood where it had become too rigid or corrupt. They stood for the reform of existing Hindusim, Islam
and Sikhism. The social reformers attacked the caste system, especially inequality and oppression based on
the caste system. In particular, they condemned the degraded and unequal position of women in Indian
society and argued that women and men were equal in intellect and moral sense. They fought for the
abolition of the practice of Sati; they attacked polygamy or the system of men having more than one wife;
they advocated widow remarriage and education of women; some of them, like Rammohan, argued that
women should have the right of inheritance and property.
The battle against the caste system was also in time taken up by intellectuals and reformers belonging to the
so called "lower castes". Jotiba Phule, Narayana Guru and Dr. B. R. Ambedkar were three of the most
outstanding fighters against the inequities of the caste system. Gandhi linked the struggle against colonialism
with the struggle against untouchability. He made it mandatory for a member of the Congress to refuse to
practise untouchability and to oppose its practice by others. He founded the All India Harijan Seva Sangh to
work for the social, cultural, economic and educational uplife of the harijans.
While the women's cause was taken up mainly by male social reformers in the 19th century, in the 20th
century the women themselves came forward to fight for their own social liberation. A number of women's
magazines, many of them edited by women, appeared and, in the 1930s the women's movement took an
organised form when the All-lndia Women's Conference was formed. The national movement, trade unions
and Kisan Sabhas too took up the cause of women's rights.
It was a result of these reformist efforts and social struggles that complete equality of sexes and a ban on any
discrimination on the basis of sex or caste were enshrined in the Constitution of free India.
All the reformers tried to apply the rational approach to religion and society. They wanted religious and
social thought and practices to be based not on faith but on human reason and the good of humanity.
Opposing blind adherence to authority, they were willing to modify and even abandon religious principles
and inherited social traditions if they contradicted reason or logic or were harmful to society. Swami
Vivekanand, for example, said:
Is religion to justify itself by the discoveries of reason through which every science justifies itself?
Are the same methods of investigation which apply to the sciences and knowledge outside, to be
applied of the science of religion? In my opinion, this must be so, and I am also of opinion that the
sooner this is done the better.
Similarly, Sayyid Ahmed Khan all his life opposed blind obedience to tradition and dependence on
irrationalism and advocated adoption of a critical approach "So long as freedom of thought is not developed,
there can be no civilized life". Even Swami Dayanand, the most conservative of religious reformers, while
holding that the Vedas were infallible, said that they were to be interpreted by normal human beings and not
by a priestly class. In other words, the Vedas meant what individual reason accepted and indicated. Swami
Dayanand, consequently, led a revolt against Hindu orthodoxy.
10.6.2 Their Approach

The religious and social reformers were willing to appeal to tradition in support of their reforms, and often
claimed that they were reviving pure beliefs and practices of the past. Many appealed to the ancient
scriptures. But, interestingly, the past was evoked essentially to support the new outlook, tradition was used
as an instrument to make reform more palatable. And whenever and wherever tradition conflicted with the
suggested reforms, it was declared to be false or even frontally opposed. As pointed out earlier, the ultimate
appeal was not to the past, but to human reason and social good. Justice Ranade, for example, wrote: "The
dead and the buried or burnt are dead, buried and burnt once for all, and the dead past cannot, therefore, be
revived."
Similarly, Gandhiji's entire campaign for the "root and branch removal of untouchability" was based on
humanism and reason. While arguing that untouchability had no sanctions in the Hindu shastras, he declared
that shastras should be ignored if they went against human dignity. Truth, he said, could not be confined
within the convers of a book.
Apart from gains in the field of religious and social welfare, the reformers' work contributed to the growth of
patriotism. It enhanced their self-confidence and confidence in their own culture. Even while contributing to
the opening of their minds to the winds of change and modern ideas, it prevented blind copying of the West.
It was a part of what historian K.N. Panikkar has described as cultural defence against the colonialization of
the culture and ideology of the Indian people. As Jawaharlal Nehru was to put it:
The rising middle classes were politically inclined and were not so much in search of a religion; but
they wanted some cultural roots to cling on to, something that gave them assurance of their own
worth, something that would reduce the sense of frustration and humiliation that foreign conquest
and rule had produced.
After 1920, many nationalists and reformers applied the techniques of Satyagraha and mass agitation and
mobilization to fight for democratization of society and religious reform. This often brought them into
conflict with the colonial authorities, thus directly linking and even merging the reform movements with the
anti-imperialist struggle. Two prime examples of this were the Akali movement for the reform of
Gurudwaras or Sikh temples in Punjab during the early 1920s and Gandhi's struggle against untouchability
during the 1920s and early 1930s.
10.6.3 Their Methods

Nationalist intellectuals and leaders saw that not only Indian culture had to be renovated and modernized but
also made popular. For this purpose they advocated, on the one hand, the spread of modern education and,
one the other, the development of modern Indian languages.
Though the colonial authorities initially, from 1830s to 1860s, encouraged modern education, they soon
began to drag their feet when they found that many among the newly educated Indians were taking to
nationalism. Indians now took to promoting schools and colleges on their own. During the Swadeshi
agitation and the Non-cooperation Movement (1920-22), the nationalists gave a call for a system of National
Education outside the colonial framework. Hundreds of National Schools and Colleges and several National
Universities came up at that time. But it was, in the main, through the Indian languages press and literature
that cultural renaissance and cultural struggle was carried on:
i) From the beginning of the 19th century nationalist and modern Indians, made Indian languages the
vehicle for the popularization of their reformist and nationalist ideas. To enable Indian languages to
play this role successfully, they undertook such humdrum tasks as preparation of primers, etc. For
example, both Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Rabindranath Tagore wrote Bengali primers
which are being used till this day. From the 1860s, nationalist leaders agitated for inclusion of
Indian languages in the college curriculum and for a bigger role for them in the educational system.
In fact, the spread of modern ideas among the mass of people occurred primarily through Indian
languages. The most important role in this respect was that of the press; and once again pioneering
work was done by Rammohan Roy who brought out journals in Bengali, Persian and Hindi to spread
scientific, literary and political knowledge among the people. In Maharashtra, a similar role was
played by Gopal Hari Deshmukh, popularly known as Lokhitavadi. Hundreds of Indian language
newspapers and journals made their appearance during the 19th century. They were started not as
profit-making business enterprises, but as labour of love and social commitment with a view to
disseminate nationalist and reformist ideas among the people.
There is hardly a major modern Indian political or social figure who did not edit or write for the
popular Indian language press. The Amrit Bazar Patrika, Som Prakash, and Sanjivani in Bengali;
Rast Goftar and Gujarat Samachar in Gujarati; Indu prakash, Dhyan Prakash , Kesari and
Sudharak in Marathi; Swadesmitra in Tamil; Andhra Prakasika, Andhra Patrika in Telugu;
Matrubhoomi in Malayalam; the Hindi Pradeep, Elindustani, Aj and Pratap in Hindi; Azad,
Akbar-i-Am and Koh-i-Noor in Urdu; and Utkal Dipika in Oriya, were some of the major
newspapers of the time.
ii) Modern literature in Indian languages in the form of poetry, novels and short stories, and essays was
the second form though which cultural renaissance and patriotic sentiments were manifested as well
as promoted. From about the middle of he 19th century, powerful literary trends emerged in nearly
all the Indian languages. Already by 1860s, patriotic poems and songs in Bengali and other
languages had made their appearance. These two genre of literature were to become major
instruments of mass political agitation and mobilization in the 20th century. Almost every Indian
language was to throw up major poets during the 10h and 20 the centuries. Rabindranath Tagore and
Kazi Nazrul Islam in Bengali; Bharatendu Harishchandra and Maithili Sharan Gupta in Hindi;
Muhammad Iqbal, Altaf Hussain Hali and Josh Malihabadi in Urdu; Subramaniya Bharati in Tamil;
Kumaran Asan, and Vallathol in Malayalam; Lakshminath Bezbarua in Assamese, were some of the
major poets of 19th and 20th centuries.
Nationalist drama had its beginnings in 1860 with Dinabandbu Mitra's play Nil Darpan which dealt with the
British indigo planters' oppression of the peasants. India also produced powerful novelists and short story
writers who took up nationalist and reformist themes, often dealing with class and caste oppression and the
sorry plight of women in Indian society. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sarat Chandra, Rabindranath Tagore
and Prem Chand were some of the major writers whose novels and short stories were translated and
published in nearly all the Indian languages. Essays were another genre through which Indian nationalists
and reformers spread their ideas. Some of the major essayists of the 19th century were Gopal Hari
Deshmukh, Vishnushastri Chiplunkar and Viresalingam. Cultural renaissance was also manifested in music,
painting and other arts and later in films.
The person who strode the cultural scene for over 60 years was Rabindranath Tagore who left his mark on
almost every aspect of literature-poetry, novel, short story, drama and essays. In his old age he also took to
painting. He was a major inspiring figure of the Swadeshi Movement. In 1919, he renounced the title of a
Knight (sir) in protest against the Jallianwalla massacre. In 1913, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for
literature. He also founded the Vishwabharati University at Shantiniketan to promote Indian culture and to
impart national education.

1) Which of the following statements are right or writing. Mark (9) or (X).
i) Religious reformers supported dogmatism and blind faiths.
ii) Sati and polygamy were attacked by reformers.
iii) Struggle against untouchability was a matter of great importance for Gandhi.
iv) The Indian language newspapers contributed in the growth of nationalist feelings.
v) The play Nil Darpan dealt with the condition of emigrant Indians.
2) Discuss in about five lines the issues taken up by reformers in relation to upliftment of women.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10.7 LET US SUM UP

The first war of independence demonstrated that the Indians were no longer prepared to accept servitude.
However, the failure of the rebellion demonstrated the weaknesses of the struggle. The Indian middle class
came forward to initiate a new form of struggle based on creating an anti-colonial awareness at an all India
level. The repressive policies of the colonial administration helped the task of the early nationalists. They
carried out a campaign through press and petitions. Soon there emerged a section among the nationalist
leaders who wanted to shed away the constitutionalist approach and adopt other methods of struggle. They
came to be known as militant nationalists.
The British continued with their repressive policies, and the partition of Bengal gave a new turn to the
national movement. The Swadeshi Movement, though still not fully a mass movement, was a major step
towards mass mobilization. Another new trend was the emergence of revolutionary terrorism.
There was yet another aspect to the national movement. Many social and religious reformers, guided by
rationalism and humanism fought against the evils that existed in Indian society. The press and literature
contributed immensely towards a new awakening in India.
10.8 KEY WORDS

Dogmatism: Uncritical acceptance of any belief or ideology.
Mass Mobilization: Process of bringing mass of people together for a definite political objective.
National Consciousness: Awareness of belonging to a nation
(a) through a process of struggle and self-realization, and
(b) through education and mobilization by the nationalist leaders.
Nationalism: An ideology which emerged in opposition to colonial domination, secondly it offered itself as
a social, political, economic alternative to colonialism. In contrast to Europe where it arose due to the need
of a united market, in India it arose as a specific need of Indian people to find an alternative to colonial rule.
Patriotism: Feeling of loyalty towards one's own nation.
Zamindars: Permanent holders of land in the countryside whose share of revenue was fixed by the British
Government.
EXERCISES
1) See sub-sec. 10.2.1
2) i) 9ii) X iii) X iv) 9
3) i) For example, Scindhia of Gwalior
Holkar of Indore
Nizam of Hyderabad
ii) Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi
Kunwar Singh
Tantya Tope
1) i) 9 ii) X iii) X iv) X
1) See Sub-sec. 10.4.1 and 10.4.2
3) See section 10.5
1) i) X ii) 9 iii) 9iv)9 v) X

UNIT 13 DEVELOPMENT: GOALS
AND ISSUES
Structure
13. 0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Meaning of Development: Various Related Concepts Distinguished
13.2.1 Economic Growth versus Economic Development

13.2.2 Economic Development A Wider Concept
13.3 Goals of Indian Development: Objectives of Planning in India
13.3.1 Relation among Goal Setting
13.4 Development Goals and Time-Horizon
13.4.1 Development Target, Time-Horizone and Required Resources
13.5 Factors Determining Goal Setting
13. 5.1 Historical Factors and Goal Setting

13. 5.2 Socio-economic Problems and Goal Setting
13. 5.3 Political Process and Goal Setting
13.6 Let Us Sum Up
13.7 Key Words
13.9 Answers and/or Hints to Check Your Progress/ Exercises
13.0 OBJECTIVES
By the time you complete the study of this unit you should be able to do the following:
explain the meaning of the term economic development;

distinguish between "economic development "and "economic growth",
pinpoint the objectives of planned economic development in India;
analyse the nature of relationship among various objectives which is complementary as well as
conflicting,
indicate the necessity of achieving the objectives within a given time horizon; and
describe how the development goals are decided and set and who sets them.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In an earlier unit you learnt about various types of resources a country has. It is on these
natural, capital, energy and human resources that the development of the course economy
depends. Here first we must ask: What is development? This is of course a difficult
question to answer because there is no particular definition of development acceptable to
everybody. Some say development means growth; some others say it means progress;
still others would like to call it modernization Development does involve growth,
progress and modernization but these terms are too broad and may mean different things
to different people.
13.2 MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT:

VARIOUS RELATED CONCEPTS
DISTINGUISHED
Development is not just a descriptive word. It must stand for something that we consider
worthwhile. In order to get some idea let us discuss this proposition in some detail. First,
development defined is as growth and progress. You may have observed a sapling
growing into a tree when it begins to give fruits or a she-caff growing into a heifer and
then into a cow giving milk. Both are examples of growth with such outcome as you and
I desire an everybody else desires. It is this sort of desirable growth that can be called
development. Let us follow on these two examples further. As you raise more and more
cows, output of milk grows. It is this type of output growth that is defined as
development. If, however, the poor mother and her child are priced out of the milk
market, even this kind of growth becomes ambiguous from the development point of
view.
Another example can be given from which you will see that there may be growth, but no
development. Think of yourself as a development planner who has a certain area of land
and other resources Suppose you have two options before you: raising of rabbits for meat
or raising of cows for milk. Which of the two options will you choose? You know that
rabbits breed faster than cows. If you firmly believe that just growth is development and
faster growth means better development, you will apparently choose the first option. It
surely will give you higher growth rate of output (rabbit meat) compared to the output
(milk) growth possible from the second option. But if very few people in the society are
prepared to eat rabbit meat, your achievement of high growth will be of little use. Since
for most people in the society the outcome of this growth is undesirable, it cannot
properly be called development.
13.2.1 Economic Growth versus Economic

Development
Thus, development is that type of growth which has desirable outcome, which is
consistent with the preferences of the people, and which satisfies human wants. This type
of growth also means progress. Indeed it means material progress. In other words,
increasing availability of goods and services needed in the society may indicate
development.
This increasing availability of goods and services must, at the same lime, be seen in
relation to the population growth. If the total population is growing faster than the total
availability of goods and services in the society, you can easily see that availability per
capita will be declining. When such a situation holds, growth or development is
retrogressive. In the second possible situation when the total availability of goods and
services grows at the same rate at which the population is growing, development is
stagnant. And finally, when total availability of goods and services grows faster than the
population we have the case of progressive development.
The availability of goods and services in a society is measured by its national income. So
development as growth is reckoned as growth of income and of per capita income of a
country. Many people, however, argue that this is purely a quantitative and summary way
of measuring development. Instead, development should be judged by the improvement it
makes in the quality of life of the people. Quality of life depends on many things health,
hygiene, nutrition, life-expectancy, education, housing and general living conditions. It is
indeed difficult to measure quality of life. This difficulty apart, it is the improvement in
quality of life that indicates progress rather than the growth of per capita income.
Let us now try to understand development viewed as modernisation. Sociologists use the
word modern as opposed to traditional. Traditional means old, that may have come down
from ancient times. Caste in India, for instance, is an ancient traditional institution.
Similarly, simple bullock drawn wooden plough is a very ancient traditional device for
land cultivation in India. Modernisation means giving up the traditional and adopting the
new and newer ways of methods, techniques, devices and institutions. In short,
modernisation means increasing application of science and technology to the production
of goods and services in the management of the economy. However, modernisation
does not mean just imitating advanced western countries. Even science and technology,
particularly the latter, have to be adapted to the natural and human environment of a
country.
13.2.2 Economic Development: A Wider Concept

Modernisation as defined above promotes growth and development. It promotes growth
by improving the efficiency of production processes. How does it improve efficiency? In
two possible ways. First, new technologies of production incorporating scientific
advances make it possible to produce higher level of output from the same level of
inputs. Second, where new technologies require higher levels of inputs they make it
possible to produce far higher levels of output compared to the old technologies in either
case, you can see, the inputs per unit of output would be lower compared to the old
production process. This is what we mean by improvement in the efficiency of
production. This saving in inputs, in turn helps in achieving higher growth of output of
goods and services in the economy. We may thus conclude by saying that modernisation
is a means of promoting growth of desired goods and services satisfying human wants
and needs. This is indeed what we mean by development.
Development as growth and carried beyond a point thoughtlessly, or by way of imitation

of. Western experience only, begins to produce adverse consequences for human health
and well being. All over the world, and particularly in the developed countries of the
West, it has caused ecological degradation and environmental pollution. You may have
heard about acid rains in Germany destroying forests, flora and fauna. These are
industrial acidic pollutants in the atmosphere which come down with the rains. In India,
far away from the Western levels of development there has been considerable ecological
degradation due to massive deforestation. Due to excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers in
some parts of Central Punjab, there has occurred nitrate pollution of underground water
to a level where it has become unfit for human and animal consumption. Examples of
such adverse consequences of development are numerous and you could try to give a few
yourself.
Such adverse consequences have led ecologists, naturalists, scientists and planners to
point to "limits to growth" and to plead for what is called 'Sustainable Development".
You will agree with me that development viewed as growth and modernisation ultimately
leads to exploitation of nature by man. When this exploitation surpasses the unbearable
limit, nature gives way and begins to affect development itself adversely. If you do too
much of logging, you will be left with little forest for future logging. Your growth of log
production will decline. Besides, deforestation will cause soil erosion, flooding and falI
in the intensity of rainfall, all affecting agricultural production adversely. Similarly, if
you have mined all your oil reserve, there will be nothing left for supporting development
in future. It is this sort of phenomena which lies behind the idea of sustainable
development. It is a process of development which is not destructive of the life cycle of
natural resources Thus, sustainable development is one which conserves and preserves
natural ecology and environment.
Check Your Progress

Note:
Circle the correct answer
1) Economic Growth is:

a) the same as economic development
b) the enhancement of a nation's capacity to produce new kinds of output
c) the expansion of a nation's capacity to produce goods and services
d) maintenance of a standard of living
e) characterised by all of the above.
2) Which of the following does not characterise economic development?

a) a high level of saving
b) an inequitable distribution of income
c) a high per capita income
d) a large middle class.
e) a low rate of population growth.
3) Economic growth is desirable because:

a) it maintains the absolute standard of living.
b) it improves the absolute standard of living for some people but not
necessarily all.
c) it improves the absolute standard of living for everyone.
d) it causes lower rates of saving and hence higher economic growth over
time.
e) it causes lower rates of investment and hence higher economic growth
over time.
4) Which of the following statements about economic development is true?

a) Economic development is the development of new technologies
b) Economic development means maintaining the existing level of wealth
and income in a country
5) From the following list select factors which are among the keys to economic
development.
ecology, population growth a decline in profits, high wages for workers, high
levels of savings and investment, sufficient quantity and quality of labour.
6) Indicate whether the following are true (T) or false (F):

a) An economy can have economic development without economic growth,
but not vice
versa. ( )
b) Slow rates of economic growth allow poverty to increase and continue. (
)
c) income and population growth are inversely related. ( )
d) One of the biggest obstacles to economic development is low levels of
investment.
e) Economic development leads to modernisation in the economy.
7) Write five lines on what you know about economic development.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
13.3 GOALS OF INDIAN

DEVELOPMENT: OBJECTIVES OF
PLANNING IN INDIA
Let us now see what the development goals of a developing country are. Following
independence, India has opted for planning its development. The successive Five Year
Plans starting from the First Plan in 1951 are, in fact, the means through which this
development has so far been carried OUT. And it is in these plans in which you will find
the development goals of India. Briefly stated, these are:
1) Growth of national income;
2) Reduction of income inequality among different classes and regions;
3) Reduction of inequality in the private ownership of the means of production,

including land, so as to prevent concentration of wealth and assets in fewer
hands;
4) Increase in employment,
5) Removal of poverty;
6) Provision of basic minimum needs;
7) Ecology conservation and environment protection;
8) self-reliance of the national economy.
These goals, you will see, recur in every Five Year Plan except the goals No. 5 and 6
which were introduced with particular emphasis in the Fifth Plan (1974-79) and goal No
7, which was introduced in the Seventh Plan (1985-90). All these goals or objectives fall
into four broad categories: (a) growth, (b) distribution or social justice, (c) conservation
protection of natural resources and environment, and (d) self-reliance.
In the preceding section, we discussed in detail development viewed as growth. But

growth by itself does not ensure a fair distribution of benefits of development. On the
other hand, building a just and equitable social order requires that basic minimum needs
of every citizen are fulfilled and benefits of development are so distributed as to reduce
inequality of incomes and assets. Therefore, "growth with social justice" is the dual goal
of Indian development programme. In the list of goals given above goal Nos. 2 to 6 fall
within the broad category of social justice. Environment protection and conservation of
natural resources, as discussed earlier, ensures condition for sustainable growth.
Self-reliance of the national economy has been an important goal since the First Five
Year Plan. It means that the country should export more than is required to pay for its
imports so that it is kept free from external debt and dependence. Looking at it from the
import side, self-reliance also means replacing necessary imports specially of capital
goods, machinery etc., by domestic. This is what is called Import substitution. Thus there
is a two-pronged approach to self-reliance: export promotion as well as important-
substitution.
What about the relevance of these objectives for the future'? There is little doubt that
these will remain relevant for the future development also in fact, the less these
objectives have been realised in course of the actual development in the past, the more is
their relevance for the future.
13.3.1 Relation among Goals: Conflicting and

Complementary Goals
Among the various goals of development there may be either a complementary or a
competitive relationship. Take any two goals. There is a complementary relationship
between them, when a development plan makes a positive contribution to one of the
two objectives, and there occurs simultaneously, a positive contribution to the second
objective also. On the other hand, between any two goals, or objectives, there exists a
competitive relationship when a positive contribution to one objective leads to a
negative or no contribution to the other at the margin in other words, it means that
development may help achieve one objective a little more marginally, sometimes only
at some sacrifice of the other. again marginally
You can easily see that there exists complementary relationship between employment
generation for the poor and poverty removal. As you give employment to the poor,
income of the poor goes up and their poverty is reduced. Thus, you make positive
contributions to both employment generation and poverty removal simultaneously. In
contrast, there may be conflicting relationship between growth and income distribution
objectives A higher growth of income requires higher rate of savings and investment out
of a given income. But a better distribution of this income invariably means more of it
going to the poor, who have less capacity to save leading to a relatively lower overall rate
of saving, investment and growth of income. On the other hand, a better distribution of
income may lead to higher productivity of labour, less of social tensions which may lead
to stabler and higher growth in this case you see that, income distribution may or may not
be in conflict with the objective of growth of income. Depending on circumstances, you
can have a little more of one, only by having a little less of the other. There could
similarly be a conflict between growth and conservation objectives. As for the objectives
of social justice (Goal Nos. 1 to 6 in section 11) these may not always be complementary
such that while fulfilling one goal others are automatically fulfilled. Let us illustrate
this point by considering two such goals: poverty Removal and income Distribution.
Suppose A and B represent the poor and not-so-poor strata at society at the beginning of
a development plan. Suppose further that their initial monthly incomes are Rs.50 and
Rs.200 respectively. The poverty line income given to us is Rs. 76 per month per person
at constant prices. Poverty elimination program me under the plan if A's income is
indicated raised to more than Rs.76 per month. He would cross the poverty line and
become a non-poor like B.
Consider now two possible growth patterns of income. First, when income of both A and
B may have grown at the same rate. Second, when A's income may have grown faster
than that of B's. The table below (13.3.1) gives the initial and final positions in respect of
poverty and income distribution under the conditions described above. The final position
I is obtained when incomes of both A and B have risen at the same rate i.e. both doubled
over the plan period. The final positions II and III are obtained when income of A has
risen faster than that of B, the only difference being that while in the former case A's
income has increased four-fold, it has increased six-fold in the latter case.
Table 13.3.1: Showing Relation between Poverty Removal and Income Distribution
Goals.
Description Initial Position Final Positions I II III

1. A's Income 50 100 200 300
2. B's Income 200 400 400 400
3. Poverty Line Income 76 76 76 76
4. Income Disparity 50 300 200 100
(Difference Between
A's and B's Income)
Now let us analyse the results achieved. You can see from the table that in every case A
has crossed the poverty line. The goal of poverty elimination has thus been achieved.
What about the goal of reducing disparity in incomes? Compared to the initial position,
disparity- in absolute terms has increased in final position I and II but reduced in III. Our
conclusion: poverty may get eliminated while disparity in incomes may increase or
decrease depending on the relative growth of incomes of the poor and not-so-poor. Only
when the incomes of the poor grow very much faster (position III) disparity will get
reduced simultaneously with elimination of poverty. Now a question: Is the relationship
between the goals of poverty removal and reduction in income disparity complementary
or conflicting?. Certainly, it is not conflicting, because for reducing a little more of
poverty you do not have to have a little more of income disparity. But they are not fully
complementary either in the sense that if you try to achieve poverty elimination you will
automatically reduce income disparity. On the other hand, if you try to achieve reduction
of income disparity you may be able, at the same time to reduce poverty (position III). It
is however possible to distribute poverty also if, for instance, incomes of A and B were to
remain constant at their initial positions at say Rs. 50 for A and Rs. 100 for B, we could
achieve absolute removal of income disparity by dividing their total income (As. 150)
equally at Rs.75 each. That would push both A and B below the poverty line, though A
would be a little better off. When such a relationship holds between objectives we call
them 'partially complementary

Note. i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) What are the four basic objectives of planning in India?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
2) Fill in appropriate word or words in the blanks choosing them from the brackets
given below.
i) Growth by itself ----------------------------------- ensures a fair distribution

of development benefits. (does/does not)
ii) Building a just and equitable social order -----------------------------basic

minimum needs of every citizen fulfilled (requires/does not require)
iii) "Growth with social justice" is the -------------------------------goal of

India's development (single/dual)
iv) The objective of self-reliance------------------------------------- import of

goods and services from broad. (includes/does not include)
3) Indicate which of the following statements are true (T) or false (F):
i) A complementary relationship exists between employment generation

and poverty removal objectives
ii) The less the development objectives have been realised in course of the
actual planning in the past, the more is their relevance for the future.
iii) Self-reliance means replacing all imports by domestic manufacture,
iv) Increase in employment does not fall within the broad category of social
justice
4) Are the objectives of planning in India conflicting? Write your answer in about
100 words.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
13.4 DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND TIME

HORIZON
Development goals are set to be achieved, but achieving them requires time. Even a race
runner requires time to reach his goal. You reach your goal in shorter or longer time
depending upon the energy you can put into your running activity. You may fall short
of the goal if your energy fails you, or something unexpected happens on the way. In a
similar manner, development is a race in time, often with time to stay in time same place,
you have to run very fast.
Look back at the list of Indian development goals have in section II. You will notice that
none of the goals is time bound nor are they given in the form of a fixed or definite
target. In contrast to this in the race runner's case the goal is fixed in the form of a
definite target, let us say 800 meters away to be reached in the shortest possible time.
What can we say about these development goals vis-a-vis time? They are general
statements of what the country desires and as such they have figured in every successive
development plan. More so, to the extent they remain unfulfilled, they will continue to be
the goals of future plans also. But in the form in which the goals are stated in the list,
they have no time dimension.
Like in the race runners case, only when a development goal is set up in a definite fixed
form, time enters into the picture. Take for instance, the objective of growth of national
income. Only when the rate of growth of national income is fixed, say at 5 or 6 per cent
per annum the objective takes a definite time bound form. Similarly, poverty removal is
the general goal. And only when the development planner says that the percentage of
poor people in the country will be reduced from 37 per cent as of 1985 to say I per cent
by 1997, this goal or objective takes on a time bound frame .
13.4.1 Development Target, Time-Horizon and

Required Resources
Achieving a given target over a fixed time-horizon implies that adequate or required
amount of resources will be put in or will be forthcoming towards that end. Resources
are like the energy in the race runner's case which takes him to the target. What will
happen if the adequate amount of resources are not forthcoming? Obviously, the target
will not be achieved over its presumed time-horizon. When a development planner
anticipates such a situation he can do the following. He can scale down the target,
keeping the time-horizon fixed. Alternatively, he can keep the target fixed and lengthier,
the time-horizon. To see it concretely, let us go back to the target of poverty reduction
from 37 to 10 per cent over the time horizon of 12 years between 1985 and 1997. If, for
some reason, the resources available are inadequate for meeting this target the planner
can do two things. He can scale down the target: setting for instance 25 or 20 instead of
10 to which the percentage of population below the poverty line will be brought down by
1997. Alternatively, he can keep the target of such reduction to 10 per cent but extend the
time horizon for achieving it to, say, 2000 A.D.
You thus see that development goals, targets, time-horizon and resources are related to
each other. General development goals, when given a definite, fixed form, become
targets. A target has a time-horizon over which it is sought to be achieved. Depending
upon the availability of resources a target and its time-horizon are finally decided.
13.5 FACTORS DETERMINING GOAL

SETTING
How are the development goals of a country decided and set, and who sets them? Who
has, for instance, decided the list of Indian development goals as given in section 13.37.
Is it the government or the planning commissioner or the electorate of the country?
The process of goal setting is not so simple that a single agency or institution does it.
There are three major factors which govern the development goals of a nation: the
historical circumstances of the time, the socio-economic problems, and the political
processes and institutions of the nation. Let us see how each of these factors plays its
role.
13.5.1 Historical Factors and Goal Setting

You know that, following the Second World War most of the third world countries,
specially in Asia and Africa, attained their political independence from Western colonial
rule. This historical circumstance motivated them to adopt economic self-reliance as a
major goal of their development. Why? Because, they feared that, if they did not pursue
economic self-reliance, their economic dependence on ex-colonial powers may
endanger their political independence again. Jawaharlal Nehru, the architect of Indian
developing planning used to say, "political independence is not complete until India
attained economic independence". Economic self-reliance or independence as a
development goal, thus, arose out of the historical circumstances in which the third
world countries found themselves prior to and after their political independence.
Stagnation of their economies during the colonial rule and the drain of their resources to
imperialist countries again turned them to adopt growth as another major goal, now that
they had control on their own resources.
13.5.2 Socio-economic Problems and Goal Setting

Apart from historical circumstances the development goals of a country are determined
by its specific socio-economic problems. In a country like ours where population and
labour force have been growing at a fast rate, employment generation becomes an
obvious goal of development. Similarly, vast number of people being poor, how can a
third world country overlook poverty removal as a goal of development? But once
poverty and unemployment problems are solved, these will no longer remain desirable
goals of development.
13.5.3 Political Process and Goal Setting

Political processes and institutions are the means through which development goals are
articulated and crystallized and finally adopted as national goals. Political processes and
institutions are not the same in every country. In the socialist countries such as the former
Soviet Union and China, with their single party system of government, goals of
development emerge through debate and discussions in the vast net-work of the party
organs. In a multi-party parliamentary democracy like the process begins with elections
to parliament and state legislatures. Party manifestoes and electioneering debates on
these occasions indicate the development goals each party will like to pursue if voted to
power. The goals of that party which actually gets voted to power then become the goals
of the government, but not yet of the nation. To do so the government asks the planning
commission to prepare a development plan for attaining those goals.
This plan is then presented to and approved by the National Development Council (NDC)
with minor adjustments and alterations. The is comprised of the cabinet ministers of the
central government, the chief ministers of the states and the members of the Planning
Commission. The plan is supposed to reflect national consensus. Finally, when this plan
is adopted by the Parliament, it becomes a national document and the development goals
of the plan become national goals.
You have seen in section 11 the Indian development goals. These do not change every
five years, or from plan to plan. Only the relative importance or priority among goals
varies.

Note:
1) For each item, determine whether the statement is true (T) or false (F).
i) Objectives are set to be achieved but achieving them require time

ii) None of the objectives of planning in India is time bound nor is it given
in the form of
a fixed or definite target.
iii) Indian planning objectives are general statements of what the country
desires and as
such they have figured in every successive plan.
iv) To the extent the objectives remain unfulfilled they will not continue to
be the goals
of future plan also.
2) Complete the following. choosing the correct word/ words given in brackets:
i) India is characterised by ---------------- (low/high) per capita income and a more--

------------------- (equitable/ inequitable) distribution of income.
ii) The problems of India stem from ------------- (over-population/under

population)
iii) There are ……………….(a number of/only two) pre-requisites for
setting the objectives of development planning.
3) Write five lines establishing the interrelationship between target, time-horizon

and resources.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
4) Discuss the importance of the political process in goal setting in about 80-100
words.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
13.6 LET US SUM UP

Let us gather together what we learnt in this lesson. We began by noting that to give a
precise definition of development acceptable to all was rather difficult. Growth, progress,
modernisation are all aspects of development. We also saw how sustainable development
depends upon environmental protection and ecological conservation. We listed out the
goals of Indian development and discussed their relevance in the past and for the future.
We then went into the analysis of conflict and complementarity among goals and of the
relationship between a goal and its time-horizon. In doing so we saw the relationship
between general development goals, time bound targets and resources. Finally, we saw
what forces operate in determining the development goals of a nation and the political
processes through which the development goals of our own nation are articulated.
In the next lesson we discuss the need for planned development.
13.7 KEY WORDS

At the Margin: The additional cost or benefits of a specific change in the current
situation, i e., the difference between the existing situation and a proposed change,
measured in terms of the last unit change.
Capital Goods: Goods produced for use in producing other goods over more than one
production period
Capital Resources: Capital resources include durable machinery, buildings, roads, and
other construction, in fact, any durable increase in productive capabilities created with
labour and other resources.
Deforestation: Indiscriminate felling of trees for commercial purposes, large scale

degradation of forests to meet the needs of fuel wood in the neighbourhood.
Economic Development: The process through which an economy achieves long-run

economic growth: it involves capital formation, the development of markets, growth in
productivity and the improvement of entrepreneurial ability and labour skills. It refers to
economic growth and change in a direction desirable for the great majority of a nation.
Economic Growth: A sustained increase in the overall productive capacity of an

economy over time Measurement of economic growth is usually done by the rate of
growth of the Gross National Product (GNP). GNP is a measure of the economy's total
output of goods and services.
Economic Planning: Systematic state intervention in the economy with the objective of
improving coordination, effficiency and growth with social justice. Decisions regarding
production are made by planning, which includes assessment of resources, formulation of
a Plan for the most effective and balanced utilisation of the country's resources and fixing
priorities.
Energy Resources: An essential input for economic development and for improving the
quality of life. Such resources are usually divided into two groups: renewable and
nonrenewable ones. Coal and lignite, oil and gas and uranium are the non-renewable.
Important among renewable energy resources are fuel wood. agricultural wastes, animal
and human wastes, solar and tidal energy.
Equitable Social Order: The way in which society's income or wealth should be divided
among society's members. It refers to the fairness of the division when judged against an
ethical standard.
Important Substitution: Import substitution refers to the development of domestic
sources of supply of goods previously imported.
Income Distribution: A quantitative summary, of how society's total income

(production is divided among the members of society.
Modernisation: A variety of structural and institutional changes in the framework of

economic and cultural activity, consistent with unleashing the creative capabilities of
human beings-individually as well as collectively. A shift in the sectoral composition of
production, diversification of activities, advancement of technology and culture and
institutional innovations have all been part of the drive to change a feudal and colonial
economy into a modern and independent entity.
National Development Council (NDC): An apex institution for arriving at a consensus

among the Union and the States on the various matters relating to planning and
socioeconomic development it was set up in August, 1952 to strengthen and mobilise the
efforts and resources of the nation in support of the Five Year Plan, to promote economic
policies in all vital spheres and to ensure the balanced and rapid development of all part
of the country. The Council is composed of the Prime Minister of India, the Chief
Ministers of all States and the members of the Planning Commission, and it makes
recommendations to the Central and State Governments.
Natural Resources: Anything that can be used as a productive input in its natural state
such as farm land, building sites, forests, mineral deposits, biotic resources like fish,
animals and plants, water resources, and climatic characteristics.
Planning Commission: An advisory body to make recommendations to the Union

Cabinet. It acts in close understanding and consultation with the Ministries of the Central
Government and the Governments of the States. The broad functions of the Planning
Commission include assessment of material, capital and human resources; formulation of
a plan for their most effective and balanced utilisation, determination of priorities and
allocation of resources for completing each stage of the plan; determination of machine
for securing successful implementation of the plan; appraisal of progress and
recommending adjustments in policies and measures during the execution of the Plan,
and making of interim and ancillary recommendations on current development policies,
measures, etc.
Poverty Level of income: is the official figure used to determine whether or not a
particular individual is poor.
Resources: Those material resources which are used to produce goods and services.
These include land, minerals, energy, raw materials etc.; human labour knowledge and
skill a human resources. Resources arc also called factors of production when they are
brought into economic use by agents owning or controlling them .
Self-reliance: implies the ability to acquire all the goods and services that the country
requires without being dependent on others for the resources needed to acquire them.
Self-reliance implies the capacity to generate sufficient income to buy what the country
needs. It allows for imports from rest of the world and emphasizes the existence of the
required capacity to pay for them.
Self-sufficiency: implies the ability to produce all the goods and service that the country
needs without being dependent on the rest of the world through trade. It refers to the
capacity to produce all the goods the country needs and does not allow for imports.
Technology: in general, technology is a resource composed of all know-how, processes,
inventions, and innovations that help us get more from scarce resources. Finer
distinctions also can be made. Technology is knowledge of production methods which
indicate how resources can be combined in productive ways. An improvement in
technology implies that we produce more with a certain amount of inputs. Existing
technology is the outcome of many inventions, some of which were the discovery of new
resources-such as aluminum, radium, petroleum etc. Hybrid plants, electricity and
synthetic chemicals and products like plastics are inventions of man-made new-
resources. All inventions that increase the productivity of labour and capital can be
thought of as improvements hi-technology. Innovation is the application of technology
to the production of goods and services. Technology then is a resource that helps
enhance the efficiency and productivity of other natural and human resources and may
also throw up altogether new resources which are man-made.

Meier, Gerald M (1984), Leading Issues in Economic Development, 4th Ed., Chapter 1,
(pp.5-19) New York, O.U.P.
Nafziger, E. Wayne (1984), The Economics of Developing Countries, Chapter 2,

Belmont, Wadsworth.
Todaro, Michael P. (1987), Economic Development in the Third World, 3rd Ed. Chapter
3 (PP.84-91), New Delhi, Orient Longman Ltd.
13.9 ANSWERS AND/OR HINTS TO

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
1) 'c'
2) 'b"
3) "c'
4) "a"
5) Technology, a high level of savings and investment and a sufficient quantity and
quality of Labour.
6) a) F, b) T, c)'T, d) T, e) T.
7) See section 13.3 and write your answer.
1) Rapid Economic Growth, Modernisation, Self-Reliance and Social Justice are the
four major objectives of our plans.
2) i) does not;
ii) requires;
iii) dual;
iv) includes;
3) i) T
ii) T
iii) F
iv) F
4) Go through Sub-section 13.4 2 and frame your answer.

1 i) T
ii) T
iii) T
iv) F
2) i) low, inequitable
ii) overpopulation
iii) low
iv) a number of
3) Prepare Sub-section your answer on the basis of matter given in Sub- section 13
5.2.
4) See Sub-secton 13.6.2 and try your answer.

UNIT 14 NEED FOR PLANNED ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Planning in Different Economic Systems
14.3 Historical Experience Favouring Planning
14.3.1 Example of the former USSR

14 3.2 The Great Depression and New Deal
14 3.3 The War Economy
14 3.4 The Welfare State
14.4 Market Failure
14.5 Transforming Under-development
14.5.I Structural Features of Under-Development

14.5.2 Relative Factor Endowment
14.5.3 Assets Ownership and Income Distribution Pattern
14.5.4 Saving, Investment and Capital Accumulation
14.5.5 Science and Technology
14.6 Planning and the Role of the State
14.7 Let Us Sum Up
14.8 Key Words
14.10 Answers and or Hints to Check Your Progress/ Exercises
14.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit introduces you to the concepts of development planning for countries which choose the path of
economic development. Having gone through this, you would be in a position to understand and explain
the following:
Planning in Different Economic Systems
Historical Context of Planning
Planning as the Corrective for Failure of the Market Mechanism
Planning as the Means of Overcoming Under-development through State Intervention.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall be concerned with the question as to (i) why the need for planned economic
development arises at all; and (ii) what were the historical circumstances which favoured adoption of
planning as a means for carrying out economic development.
14.2 PLANNING IN DIFFERENT ECONOMIC

SYSTEMS
Economic planning as conscious design of development for any society or nation is invariably an activity or
function of the state. This is because the state is sovereign and above al. individuals, households, firms,
corporations or associations or institutions that there are in society: By virtue of this position the state alone
is supposed to have a comprehensive view of the economy and its problems of development. The role of the
state in economic planning however, differs from country to country. This is because different countries
have different political and economic systems.
You may be aware, for instance, that socialist countries of the world do not have a multiparty parliamentary
democracy unlike many other countries. Furthermore, in the socialist countries most means of production
are under public or state ownership. In such a political and economic system, the role of the state in
economic planning is very comprehensive and direct At the other extreme you have the industrially
advanced capitalist countries of the West and also of Japan, whose economies are based on private
enterprise. There, most means of production are privately owned, and political systems are multiparty based.
The role of the state is limited to what is called indicative planning'. From its comprehensive overview of the
economy, the state, in these countries gives signals about the health of the economy, stimulates private
enterprise and indicates the direction in which ought to move and develop. For example, in 1960 the state in
Japan adopted a 10 year income doubling plan and pen formed precisely this type of role towards achieving
the goal.
Between the above two groups of extreme cases we have the vast majority of the third world developing
countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, which have adopted the course of planned economic
development. They adopted this course in the post-war years when many of these countries became free
from colonial rule and came to have their own national state and government. The scope of economic
planning and the planning system in this group, of course, vary from country to country. But in every one of
them the state plays an active and direct role in planning the development of the national economy. Their
economic system is, what is called, the mixed economy type, where public and private sectors of economic
activity co-exist. Along with planning, the market also plays an important role, specially in the regulation of
the private sector decisions regarding investment and production. Economic development in these countries
is, therefore, both planned as well as induced and directed by the market forces.

1) Mark True (T) or False (F) .

i) Planning is comprehensive only in a socialist state. ()
ii) In indicative planning, the stale stimulates private investment and has an
advisory role as to the direction in which to move for development. ()
iii) A mixed economy has both socialist and capitalist pans ()
iv) Public sector is that area of activity which is owned and controlled by the state. ()
v) Market has little role in a mixed economy ()
2) Write in about five sentences what are the basic differences between planning in a socialist,
capitalist and a mixed economy.
14.3 HISTORICAL EXPERIENCE FAVOURING

PLANNING
During the 19th century and, specially, in the years prior to the Second World War, a number of
developments occurred in the Western World, the experience of which convinced the developing countries
of the need to follow a course of planned economic development in the post-war years. Let us describe these
for you one by one.
14.3.1 Example of the former USSR

The single most important event was the successful adoption of development planning in the Soviet Union
for the first time in the world, following the socialist revolution in Russia in 1917. Private ownership of the
means of production was abolished. With that went away private enterprise and the free market mechanism
as vehicles for economic development. Planning and public enterprise were instituted in its place. The
results were remarkable. The state mobilised high rates of public savings and investment. Capital
accumulation and national income grew at unprecedented rates. By the end of the Second World War, the
Soviet Union emerged as the second big power in the world. In about four decades, from a situation of
under-development and backwardness, Soviet Union became a developed country. This was, thus, a very
successful example of planned economic development for the countries developing later to learn from and
emulate. Developing planning strategy of the third world countries was greatly influenced by the Soviet
experience.
14.3.2 The Great Depression and New Deal

You may have heard about the Great Depression of 1929, also called the "World Economic Crisis". What
happened was that the market system, especially in the industrial countries of the West, grinded to a halt.
There was overproduction; stocks of unsold goods piled up; factories were shut down; share markets
collapsed; unemployment soared up. All this meant a complete mismatch between production and market
demand it had been known earlier that the free market system did not ensure smooth development of an
economy based on private enterprise. But the Great Depression made it crystal clear for every-one to see.
incidentally, one should also note that the Soviet economy, being a planned economy, remained unaffected
by the Great Depression. How was the crisis of the Great Depression met? By state intervention .The states
in the badly affected countries of the West intervened to push up market demand by undertaking public
works and financing them by money creation (printing currency notes; also known as Deficit Financing).
This step generated additional income and employment. Market demands for goods and services gradually
picked up as a result of this policy. In course of time, normalcy was restored and development resumed .This
course of state intervention is also known as the 'Keynesian solution' of the economic crisis, after the name
of the famous English economist, J.M. Keynes, who had provided the economic theory on which this
solution was based. In the United Stated this course of state intervention came to be known as the "New
Deal".
The experience of the Great Depression had, apart from other things, one very major effect .The faith in a
laissez faire state, a fence-sitting state not actively intervening in the economic life to control the functioning
of the market, was shaken Since then, state intervention in the market system, wherever and whenever
necessary, has become a normal feature of the capitalist countries. So far, this was occasionally practised in
a war economy in emergency. Secondly, as noted earlier, the state in these countries oversees the economy
and engages in indicative planning. Finally, it plans for and undertakes public works, specially in the field of
social infrastructure. Such developments in the developed capitalist countries, following the Great
Depression, had a lesson for the developing countries. The lesson was: economic development could not be
left wholly to private enterprise based on the free market and the state had a role to play in it.
14.3.3 The War Economy

Soon after the experience of the Great Depression came the Second World War. This was a long (1939-45)
and total war it necessitated not just state intervention in the capitalist and fascist countries like and
production planning for meeting the war needs. This is what is known as 'Planning of the War-Time
Economies'. After the war, rehabilitation and reconstruction required the active role of the state. This is the
third type of historical experience favouring planning of development.
14.3.4 The Welfare State

Alongside the above developments, there arose the notion of 'welfare state' which finally came to be
accepted in practice in all market economies after the war. Apart from its interventionist role, a welfare state
has also to correct the negative aspects of market based development, and be concerned with the wider issue
of social welfare. In the developed countries of the West, the state takes a sizeable expenditure on old-age
security, unemployment benefits, health, education and such other social services. All these are called
'Social Security', or welfare measures. Provisions for all these requires planning. Lately, a major negative
effect of market based development, which has come to the surface, is environmental pollution, and
ecological degradation. The welfare state is required not only to protect environment and ecology, but also
to conserve and plan for restoration and development of the natural resources. The free market mechanism,
based on the accounting of private profit, does not provide for these. This is another historical experience
justifying the necessity for planned development.

Answer in about five sentences.
1) What in your opinion was the most important event influencing adoption of planned development ?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………............................................................................................................................
2) The New Deal lifted the Western economies from the Great Depression. What was the New Deal
and how did it work?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………........................
3) What does the welfare state mean ?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….............................................
14.4 MARKET FAILURE

The foregoing narrates to you the historical circumstances which favoured adoption of developing
planning. These experiences were there for the third world developing countries to draw upon. Now, let us
go into the weaknesses and distortions from which the market-mechanism suffers and why, therefore,
development cannot be left to be solely guided by it. We discuss this question keeping the third world
countries in mind. The weaknesses and failures of the market mechanism may be summed up as follows:
i) One major problem of development is optimum allocation of society's resources among socially
desirable alternative uses and lines of activity so as to achieve the social goals. Economists in the neo-
classical tradition have argued that, in a free market private enterprises economy, such an allocation is
achieved, provided that markets are competitive. But, in point of fact, experience shows that, markets are
usually non-competitive, be they markets for factors of production, or for goods and services. This being
the case, market mechanism is unable to achieve socially optimum allocation of resources. For this reason,
market-determined prices do not correctly reflect the real social scarcity, or value, of either factors of
production, or of goods and services.
ii) Even when market system is competitive market equilibrium, supply equating demand, may be attained at
a level where society's resources are not fully employed or utilised. During the Great Depression
unemployment soared up and labour remained idle. Even in normal situations, persistent labour
unemployment is a common feature of the market economies. Apart from its social consequences for the
unemployed individuals, this feature of the market system prevents the realization of the potential
contribution to development implicit in the unutilised resources.
iii) Free market mechanism fails to capture and put a price on 'external economies or diseconomies', also
called external effects of economic activities. Such external effects are important and ought to be taken into
account from the social angle External economies are of two types: (a) technological, and (b) pecuniary.
Environmental pollution arising out of industrial effluents (gases, chemicals and other wastes let out from
plants) is an example of technological external diseconomy. The operating cost of irrigation tube wells in
an area goes down when that area becomes a part of the command area of a canal irrigation system. This
happens because, canals bring the underground water-table up. This is an example of external economy
(technological). In the first case, society's health suffers, but the market mechanists fails to charge the
industrialists for this. In the second case, tube wells owing farmers benefit without paying for it.
Let us now illustrate the pecuniary external economies which arise but which individual producers fail to
anticipate in the market system. You are a tea producer and I am a sugar producer. Following an increase in
demand for tea you increase your scale of production. Without your knowing or anticipating it, this decision
of yours will have an effect on me. Since sugar demand will also go up with increase in tea demand, I will
raise the scale of sugar production. My unit cost of sugar production will get reduced and I will, thus, derive
a pecuniary- benefit (external economy of your decision). In the other case of demand decrease I will
obviously suffer a pecuniary loss (external diseconomy). Such pecuniary external effects are widespread in
an economy. But the market mechanism fails to signal the private producers in advance to help them in
making their decisions.
iv) With private ownership of the means of production, income disparity, in fact, vast income differences, is
a common fact of life. Free market for a particular good and service excludes altogether those income-group
people in the society who cannot pay the supply price. And this can happen in respect of essential items of
consumption as well, in a situation of scarcity. In this sense, the free market system operates with a bias
against the lower income groups.
v) Private individuals, depending upon their own welfare considerations, allocate their current income
between consumption and saving. Market system fails to guide them as to what should be their optimal rate
of saving. Take the case of an exhaustible resource, let us say, petroleum, of which a country may have
known, definite amounts of reserves. Market based private exploitation of petroleum, guided as it is by
private profit, has no way by which to decide how much of the reserve should be saved for future in the
interests of society. It would be solely guided by the current consumption demand of petroleum. Ecological
degradation arises from a similar myopic vision of the market forces, endangering the conditions for future
development.
vi) Finally, there are a number of important and essential areas of social life, critical for economic
development, where private enterprise propelled by market forces and motivated by profit, fails to enter A
whole lot of social services-education, health, drinking water supply etc., conservation and development of
natural resources can be given as examples of such failure.
The above list of market failures is not exhaustive if you think, you could add more. What about. for
instance, product advertising and, through it, psychological manipulation of consumer choices'? The
justification for state intervention and planning of development arises, inter alia, from market failures.

1) in your own words define in three sentences what you mean by external economies and
diseconomies ?
2) Mark True(T) or False (F):

i) Free markets discriminate against people with lower incomes.( )
ii) Free markets always imply a perfectly competitive market.( )
iii) Free markets lead to reckless exploitation of resources, which leads to harmful
consequences for future development. ( )
iv) Private enterprises, guided by profit motive can deliver all the goods and services that
society requires.( )
v) The market mechanism can manipulate the market though advertising.( )
14.5 TRANSFORMING UNDER-DEVELOPMENT

Economic development is nothing but changing or transforming the situation of underdevelopment and
backwardness of a country. Faster is this change, faster is economic development. The economic situation of
today's developing countries was initially characterised by under-development What the causes of this
under-development were, is a wider question of history, often colonial history; we are not concerned with
here. Here we discuss the chief characteristics of under-development when a country begins to move on the
path of development. Of course, each country's situation is to some extent unique to itself. But the chief
characteristics of under-development have been found to be common in the third world countries. Let us see
what these are.
14.5.1 Structural Features of Under-development

An underdeveloped economy is predominantly agricultural. Typically, upto 80 per cent of the labour force is
engaged in agriculture. Production in agriculture, based on age old technology, is largely for subsistence and
carried out under feudal relations. Feudal landlords live an ostentatious life and make little or no investment
in agriculture. Within the industrial sector, traditional household crafts preponderate. Modern industry, if it
exists at all, is limited to a few lines for instance, jute and cotton textiles in India prior to the Second World
War. Infrastructural services like transport and communications are extremely poor and limited.
14.5.2 Relative Factor Endowment

As is implicit in the structure of an underdeveloped economy, its relative factor endowment pattern is
dominated by land, or by land and labour together. Relative availability of capital is extremely low. Capital
goods are mainly those which are turned out by the traditional crafts. In countries like India and China
marked by high population pressure, the relative factor proportion between land and labour is itself adverse,
with a low landlabour ratio. Additional labour due to population growth, stays back in agriculture since little
opportunity of other employment exists. As a result, a substantial proportion of labour in agriculture remains
under-employed. Labour, the human capital resource, is thus poor in quality.
14.5.3 Asset Ownership and Income Distribution Pattern

Asset ownership, particularly of the most important factor of production, land, is very unequally distributed
in an underdeveloped economy. It may so happen that a handful of feudal lords own most of the land and the
rest of the rural population worked as tenants or landless labourers, including bonded labourers. Disparity in
incomes follow from disparity in land ownership, with 50 to 70 per cent of the produce going to a small
class of land owners. The rest of the population lives at subsistence level under acute poverty. Furthermore,
in large countries such as India, there also exist disparity of incomes between different regions as the relative
factor endowments as well as the levels of development vary from region to region.
14.5.4 Saving, investment and Capital Accumulation

Since an underdeveloped economy is characterised by stagnation in production and operates at a low level
equilibrium, savings are low, and so is investment. A kind of vicious circle operates: Low income - low
savings - low investment - low income. Low saving and low investment keep capital accumulation at a low
rate. The vast majority of the people, living at subsistence level have no capacity to save Landlords and
renters have the capacity to save but engage in conspicuous consumption. Merchants and traders do
accumulate some money capital. But they lack in enterprise and do not invest it in industry. The other reason
for this failure is the large size of capital required by modern industrial units which individual holders of
money capital are unable to provide.
14.5.5 Science and Technology

Under-development is also characterised by low levels of scientific and technical knowledge. Due to
illiteracy and lack of education, the quality of human capital is poor. On the other hand, an underdeveloped
economy dependent on the traditional means and methods of production, has little scope for technological
innovation.
These are then the chief characteristics of an underdeveloped, backward economy. Development, precisely
requires changing these characteristics. How can this change be effected in the shortest possible time'? And
this is necessary because the common urge is to develop fast, to catch up with the developed countries.
Apart from the market failures noted in the preceding section, you can see from these characteristics that, in
an underdeveloped economy the market system is itself underdeveloped. This is primarily because
production in such an economy is motivated by subsistence and family consumption rather than for sale
and exchange in the market. State initiative in the transformation of under-development, therefore, becomes
necessary. State initiative takes the form of planning development and executing it through successive plans
of medium-term duration.

Answer in five sentences
1) What are the basic characteristics of under-development?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………....................................
2) What is the vicious circle that operates in an underdeveloped economy ? Explain.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………….............................
14.6 PLANNING AND THE ROLE OF THE STATE
The planning process can be viewed as a sequence of formulation, implementation and performance
appraisal of a development plan. The core of a plan is a statement giving the allocation of investment in
various sectors of the national economy during the plan period, its division between the public and the
private sectors and also between the centre and the states, in a federal political system. The allocation of
investment among the sectors of the national economy like agriculture and industry to guided by three
considerations: (1) goals of development, (2) the long-term strategy of development, (3) intersectoral
balance or consistency. We have already learnt about the goals of development. You will learn about the
strategy of Indian development in the next lesson. Here you may simply note that the strategy indicates
which particular sectors should receive relatively more investment so that the economy develops faster.
Inter-sectoral balance is required because output from one sector is used as input in some other sector. For
instance, coal output is required as input in steel production; or for that matter agricultural output (food
grains, cotton, oil seeds) is used as wage-goods or input in industry
The planning process is naturally organised by the state. Plan formulation, as we all know, is done in India,
through the executive wing of the state, the central government ministries and the state governments. The
state is also helped in plan formulation by a technical body like the Planning Commission. The Draft Five
Year Plan, thus prepared, is presented to the National Development Council (NDC) for its approval. After it
has been approved by the NDC it is presented to Parliament, the legislative organ of the state. When finally
voted by the Parliament, it becomes the National Development Plan, ready for implementation. Plan
implementation is the responsibility of the bureaucracy, another organ of the state. Appraisal of the plan
performance is done by the Planning Commission, The Mid-term Appraisal, as it is called, is done after the
plan has been implemented over half its period. This is necessary because the work on the next plan
formulation starts at this time. The final appraisal is done at the end of the plan period and is included, by
way of review of development, in the next plan document.
The state's role in a mixed economy is not limited to the planning process described above. Development
plan requires to be supported by a number of appropriate policies and institutional reforms. These are too
many to be enumerated here. As an example of supporting policies for the plan, take the case of monetary
and fiscal policies. The state designs and executes such monetary and fiscal measures as would help
mobilise private savings and channelise them into investment according to plan priorities. Similarly,
ceilings on land holdings and land redistribution are examples of institutional reforms that support the plan
goal of agricultural growth with equity. Lastly, one must not forget that in a mixed economy of planned
development, market-mechanism plays an important role in guiding the production and investment
decisions in the private sector. Particularly, the plan itself creates conditions for markets to emerge and
develop by building up infrastructural facilities, like transport, communication, power, etc. At the same
time, it tries to overcome the failures of the market-mechanism noted earlier. The resultant outcome of
development is, therefore determined both by the plan and the market in a mixed economy.

1) What is inter-sectoral balance ?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………….................................................................................
2) When is the mid-term appraisal of a plan'?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….................
.................................................................................................................................................................
3) What are some of the appropriate policies required to support the development plan ?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………................................................................................................................................................
14.7 LET US SUM UP

We have seen in this unit why planning for economic development is necessary. The experience of various
countries, especially the success of planned development in the former U.S.S R.. has shown how state
intervention has helped in economic development.
We have also taken up instances where state intervention takes different forms. In this context, we have also
seen what limitations of the market mechanism are and where it has failed.
Finally, we have seen how in the context of under-development, state intervention becomes all the more
necessary, and what form it broadly takes in the Indian context. In the next unit, you will read in broader
details about the strategy of Indian planning.
14.8 KEY WORDS

Feudal Relations: Where the appropriation of surplus generated in the production process takes place
through extra economic coercion on the part of the landowner over the peasant producer, without the having
to undertake any production obligations.
Free Market: A system where the state does not play any role in regulating the market and where private
enterprise is free to produce and sell any quantity at whatever price it finds appropriate.
Indicative Planning: Where the state does not actively play a role in economic development but merely
indicates the direction in which private enterprise is to move.
Laissez Faire: It literally means 'let it be'. in economic theory it is understood to be the system where the
government does not intervene and gives complete freedom to private enterprise.
Mixed Economy: An economy where both public and private sectors co-exist and participate in
development activities.
Rentiers: A class of people whose basic income is derived from holding assets, including such securities,
stocks (shares) and bonds, which do not involve undertaking the risks and costs of enterprise.

Lewis, W. Arthur (1960), Development Planning. The Essential of Economic Policy, George Allen &
Unwin; London.
Streeten, Paul and Michael Lipton (1972), The Crisis of Indian Planning, Oxford University Press, London.
Chakravarty Sukhamoy (1987): Development Planning -- The Indian Experience, Oxford, Claredon.
14.10 ANSWERS AND/OR HINTS TO CHECK

YOUR PROGRESS/EXERCISES

1) i) T
ii) T
iii) F
iv) T
v) F
2) See 14.2
1) Hint: Planning in former Soviet Union see Sub-section 14.3.1

2) See Sub-section 14 3 2
3) See Sub-section 14.3 4

1) See section 14.4 para (iii)
2) i) ii) F iii) T iv) F v) T

1) See Sub-section 14.5.1
2) Hint: Low income - Low savings - Low investment - Low income

1) Inter-sectoral balance implies that the output of each sector which is used as an input in the other
sectors is sufficient to support the targeted level of output of goods in the economy.
2) Mid-tern appraisal of a plan is done after the plan has been implemented over half its period and the
work on the next plan formulation starts.
3) Appropriate monetary and fiscal policies are some of the policies required to support the
development plan.
UNIT 15 PLANNING STRATEGIES - I
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Definition of Planning
15.3 Functions of a Planning Commission
15.4 Formulation of Plans
15.5 Strategy of Indian Plans
15.5.1 Industrial Policy

15.5.2 Policy on Agriculture
15.5.3 Employment Policy
15.6 Financing a Plan
15.7 Experience of Indian Planning
15.8 Let Us Sum Up
15.9 Key Words
15.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this lesson are to introduce you to the concept of economic planning and how this has been
carried out in the Indian context. After this lesson you will understand:
how the planning process has evolved in India

the objectives and strategy of Indian planning
the success and failure of planning
how planning affects us all.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Before we go into the question of planning strategy, it is necessary to understand why planning in the first
case was felt to be necessary. Here, we shall take up only some of the more salient points. For this, we will
have to look at the structure of third world countries. These economies are heavily dependent on imports.
Exports, on the other hand, comprise primarily of agricultural raw materials and minerals. This structure did
not evolve naturally but was designed and manipulated by the colonial powers to suit their own ends. British
and other industrially developing countries imported raw materials from the colonies under their control,
processed them and exported the finished production back. Even the agrarian economies were in a shambles
with a backward agrarian system supporting a large destitute population along with a large number of
intermediaries (like zamindars in India). The surplus of the agricultural sector supported the colonies,
British administration in different countries and also provided the bulk of exports. Given the colonial legacy,
it was difficult for former colonies to transform themselves into modern economies without active state
intervention. They required infrastructural and basic and heavy industries development. The private sector
could not provide a strong industrial base in the areas either due to lack of resources or its unwillingness to
invert in such segments due to the risks and long gestation involved. Therefore, the political leadership of
these countries realised that in the task of reconstruction of national economies, the state would have to play
an active role. The absence of an entrepreneurial class which could initiate rapid industrialization led to the
state having to initially assume the role of an entrepreneur.
It was of against this background that the example of the former Soviet Union's industrialization strategy by
which the state initiated rapid modernisation of the Soviet economy preceded by a comprehensive planning
process, the Gosplan, emerged as an alternative.
15.2 DEFINITION OF PLANNING

Planning, as a term in itself, implies formulation of a strategy for the future. It can be the immediate future
or a distant one in economic parlance, it implies the assessment of one's resources at present and its
allocation among different uses so as to meet some specific goals in the future. For example, an individual
might plan for a secure income in his old age by allocating his income between present consumption and
saving in various schemes like taking an insurance policy- buying units or simply depositing in bank. A
business firm might also undertake planning to double production in, say, three years time in which case it
has to decide how much resources it can raise internally, how much to borrow, what equipment to buy and
so on. When a nation plans its economy, it is more or less a similar exercise, though on a much larger scale.
The national economy has to assess its resources and allocate these resources among different contending
uses, depending on the specific priority of each use. These resources are of three types-- physical, financial
and human. The planning authority has to assess how much of these resources are available and how they
are to be exploited and further developed for meeting the goals it sets for the economy. The planning
authority has also to fix the time-frame by which these goals are to be met. However, planning in an
underdeveloped economy also attempts to fulfill the objective of transformation of the economy from a low
level of production and productivity to a higher level of self--sustained growth. This is done by planning for
a more effective use of existing resources, developing resources for future use and dismantling institutional
and other constraints which hamper the growth of the resource base of the economy.

1) What are the various types of resources in an economy ?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………....................................
2) Briefly define planning in your own words.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….....................................
2) Which of the following statements are true ? Mark (T) for true and (F) for false.
i) Planning is a waste of time and money and, hence, it should be scrapped. ( )

ii) Planning authorities only set out the goals an economy is to achieve and not how it is to be
done. ( )
iii) Planning for an underdeveloped economy is necessary to overcome institutional constraints. ( )
15.3 FUNCTIONS OF A PLANNING COMMISSION

The order establishing the Planning Commission could have its specific functions as follows:
To make an assessment of all material, capital and human resources of the country, including
technical personnel, and investigate the possibilities of augmenting such of those resources as are found
to be deficient in relation to the nation's requirement;
To formulate a plan for the most effective and balanced utilisation of the country's resources;
To define, on determination of priorities, the stages in which the plan should be carried out and propose
the allocation of resources for due completion of each stage,
To indicate the factors which are tending to retard economic development, and determine the
conditions which, in view. of the current social and political situation, should be established for the successful
execution of the plan;
To determine the nature of the machinery which will be necessary for securing the successful
implementation of each stage of the plan in all its aspects;
To appraise from time to time the progress achieved in the execution of each stage of the plan
and recommend the adjustments of policy and measures that such appraisal may show to be
necessary; and
To make such interim or ancillary recommendations as appear to be appropriate either for facilitating
the discharge of duties assigned to it; or in consideration of the prevailing economic conditions, current policies,
measures and development programmes; or on examination of such specific, problems as may be referred to it by
central and state governments.

1) In about five sentences describe what are the factors considered by a planning commission before of
a plan is formulated ?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2) Can a planning commission review its earlier policy ?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
15.4 FORMULATION OF PLANS

The plan formulation process commences much before (3 years in case of India) the ensuing plan actually
comes into operation. First, an approach to the plan is adopted for consideration. This involves an appraisal
of the state of the economy, identification of social, economic and institutional weaknesses and review of
trends in the rate of economic growth. The commission submits its preliminary conclusions on these and
related matters to government. After considering these conclusions, the government indicates the target rate
of growth to be achieved for the plan period as well as the objectives and considerations deserving special
emphasis.
In choosing the targets for growth, the planning process has to ensure that intermediate inputs are adequately
available, from internal and external sources, to support the targets. In case they are not, the planners have to
set aside resources for investing in these intermediate inputs so as to bring about consistency with targeted
outputs of the final products. Finally, the total outlay has to be within the limits set up by the availability of
resources.
15.5 STRATEGY OF INDIAN PLANS

The strategy of plans is based on a number of factors. The first challenge is to modify and change the
institutional factors that constrain growth and development. Among institutional factors are land relations,
concentration of wealth and income on one hand and abject poverty on the other, low level of educational
and technical skills, low level of work-organisations, etc. The second most important factor is the
development of the capital and technological base of the country's productive system. Thirdly, the strategy
has to identify measures to overcome structural bottlenecks which prevent efficient use of resources
including human resources. Finally, an important aspect of the strategy is to identify thrust areas where
direct state intervention through investment and production activities would lead to the economy achieving
self-reliant growth.
Thus, a plan contains the action scheme for industrial and agricultural development. Also it attempts to
provide employment to the manpower in the economy. These three aspects, as can be found in the Five Year
Plans of India, are given below.
15.5.1 Industrial Policy

The Industrial Policy Statements in India announced from time to time broadly define the parameters of
industrial policy. Following the understanding that the state had to play am important role in the
industrialisation process, it was decided to reserve certain industries of basic and strategic importance, or in
the nature of public utility services, for the public sector. The state has a monopolistic control in these types
of industries. The broad categorisation of the industries were as follows:
1) Industries whose future development was the exclusive responsibility of the state;
2) Industries which were to be progressively state-owned, in which case the state was generally to take
initiative in establishing new undertakings, and private enterprise was expected to supplement the
efforts of the state; and
3) All other industries, whose future development was left to the initiative and enterprise of the private
sector.
In addition to the state's monopoly in atomic energy, defense industries, railways and air transport, the first
category included some 13 industries like iron and steel, heavy electrical, coal and lignite, mineral oils,
mining of certain ores and processing of specified metals, aircraft, ship-building, specified communication
equipment, and electricity generation and distribution, etc. However, already approved private units were
permitted to come up and even cooperation with private enterprise was envisaged, subject to official
guidance of their policies and control of their operations. The second category covered some 12 industries,
viz., major minerals and non-ferrous metals not covered above, machine tools, ferro-alloys and tools,
essential drugs, dye-stuffs and plastics, fertilizers, synthetic rubber, chemical pulp, and road and sea
transport. With regard to all other industries, falling in the third category, the role of the state was to
facilitate and encourage their development through the creation and expansion of the requisite
infrastructures, and by appropriate fiscal and other measures. This categorisation was not envisaged to be
water-tight; possibility of overlap between the public and private sector was explicitly recognised. There was
also stress on the role of cottage, village and small scale industries. The aim here was to ensure that the
decentralised sector acquires sufficient vitality to be self-supporting and competitive through improvement
and modernisation of techniques. In this connection, the starting of industrial estates and rural community
workshops was envisaged.
15.5.2 Policy on Agriculture

Agriculture has a major role in the Indian economy, not only in terms of its contribution to the national
economy, but also because of the large proportion of the population it supports. Though the country has
made enormous progress in terms of the volume of agricultural production, its per capita consumption of
food is still one of the lowest in the world.
The government, after independence, passed various legislative measures aimed at bringing about reforms in
the agricultural sector. The foremost was abolition of the zamindari system, whereby, feudal intermediaries
who appropriated a share of the agricultural produce because of the rights conferred on them by the British,
were denied these rights. The second was land reform which aimed at ensuring tenurial rights for cultivators.
Also re-distribution of land among the landless by taking away surplus lands above a ceiling from large land
owners formed a pan of land reform. Another aspect of land reforms was scaling down of rents to one fourth
or one-fifth of the total produce.
The food crisis in the mid-sixties and the subsequent dependence on foreign food aid prompted the
government to go in for a technology-led foodgrains production strategy, leading to the by now well known
Green Revolution. Some selected regions in the country, such as districts in Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and
Tamil Nadu were chosen and a package of inputs consisting of high-yielding variety seeds, dosages of
fertilizers and pesticides and water management was introduced in these areas. This resulted in a significant
increase in food grains production. The country can now claim to be generally self-sufficient at the present
levels of food consumption.
15.5.3 Employment Policy
We have observed on many occasions, able-bodied men and women appearing before us with a begging
bowl pleading for some money or food. These people have no income. They have taken to begging since
they have no employment opportunities. This is the more visible form of unemployment. There are millions
of others who do not beg but remain idle otherwise. In the rural areas, the unemployment problem is
disguised in the sense that far more people are working on the same job than is necessary. There is also a
seasonality aspect to this. Labour finds employment mainly during the ploughing, planting and harvesting
periods while for the rest of the year they may remain without work. In the urban areas, lack of job
opportunities render many unemployed or underemployed. This problem gets compounded by migration
from the rural areas. Unemployment affects the young new entrants to the labour force more severely.
In India unemployment is sought to be tackled by specific employment-oriented schemes, and by rapid

industrialisation, which would directly and indirectly absorb the backlog of unemployed. in the rural areas
some of the employment schemes are the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), the National
Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and the Rural Labour Employment Guarantee Programme
(RLEGP). These schemes seek to build up infrastructure in rural areas in addition to providing employment
for landless labour in addition, the government offers incentives to industries to be located in backward and
rural areas so that they may absorb a part of the unemployed labour force in these areas. In the urban areas,
stress is on self-employment with incentives like bank loans, vocational training, etc. The employment
strategy also gets linked with the industrialisation strategy. The government has sought to encourage small
scale industries, and cottage industries which are labour-intensive.

Answer in 50 words only.

1) State the main factors involved in the strategy of Indian Planning.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………............
................................................................................................................................................................
2) What is the role of the public sector as envisaged by the planning process?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….............
.................................................................................................................................................................
3) What were the various legislative measures taken immediately after Indian independence to bring
about reforms in agriculture?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….............
.................................................................................................................................................................
15.6 FINANCING A PLAN

The planning process involves mobilisation of resources for investment in different sectors of the economy
Attempts to find a solution to the financing problem pass through various stages. Stock-taking or assessing
the physical resources available, both actual and potential, precede plan formulation. Given this physical
resource base, financial resources are mobilised for investment. Financial planning involves the assessment
of total resources available for investment through domestic savings and inflow of capital from abroad. The
volumes of domestic savings that could be mobilized depends on how much savings have been generated in
the past by the government, households and business firms and by how much it is expected to go up in the
future. Overall savings can be increased in the economy by additional tax efforts of the government and
offering incentives for private savings. The budgetary resources, apart from taxation and savings of the
central and state governments, include deficit financing, external resources and foreign exchange. These are
the main components of financial planning. Savings may be from government, deficit financing, external
resources and foreign exchange. These are the main components of financial planning. Savings may also be
from the government and the public sector, or net capital inflow from abroad. Financial planning involves
the mobilisation of resources to match the targeted magnitude of physical investment. It also involves the
allocation of the total available savings among major investment sectors according to their respective
requirements. Total domestic resource availability is arrived at through projections of sectoral savings, i.e.,
savings by households, private corporate sector, government and public sector enterprises. Then, given the
investment targets of the sectors and allowing for inter-sectoral transfers from industry to agriculture or
agriculture to the services sector or vice-versa and the expected inflow of capital from abroad, which may
include a certain amount of commercial borrowing from foreign banks and investment agencies, the balance
between the sources and uses of funds is worked out for each sector. This gives the amount of savings that
need to be mobilised and transferred from the surplus to deficit sectors in estimating the total resources
available for plan investment, apart from the public, private and household sectors, there are other sources of
source mobilisation. These are inflow of foreign capital, contributions from public enterprises like railways,
posts and telegraphs and other central and state enterprises, market borrowing, small savings, state provident
funds and miscellaneous capital receipts. Additional inflow of capital for the plan is generated through direct
and indirect taxes, net inflow of capital from abroad and deficit financing,

1) What do you understand by financial planning? Write in two sentences.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….............
.................................................................................................................................................................
2) What are the various sources of funds for a plan?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….............
.................................................................................................................................................................
3) Decide if True or False. Indicate (T) for true (F) for false.
i) Deficit financing is budgetary resources for the central government. ()

ii) The volume of domestic savings depend on capital inflow from abroad. ()
iii) Additional Taxation can increase the government savings. ()
15.7 EXPERIENCE OF INDIAN PLANNING

Has the economic development in India through planning proved to be a better option? For answers, it will
not be out of place to look into the achievements in respect of the basic objectives on which planning was
initiated. You may recall that Indian planning stressed the need for correcting assets imbalance and
eradicating poverty. Banging about a rapid development of the industrial sector and providing gainful
employment to its labour force have also been set as important targets, Therefore, an assessment of these
problems after execution of eight plans is likely to provide useful information on the performance of Indian
planning.
An examination of Indian situation after 50 years of independence from the British rule gives enough scope
to argue that planning has largely failed to meet the expectations of its proponents. Many countries which
were at the same level of economic development in the early 50s have succeeded in solving their problems
like poverty, unemployment and industrialisation remarkably well in comparison with India. Within the
Asian region, economies of South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Indonesia and Malaysia have become the
important contrasting points to India. All these have overtaken India not only in reducing or eradicating
poverty and achieving a higher level of industrialisation but have also shown remarkable capabilities in
export. The quality of life has improved significantly in all these countries. In contrast, India is still
struggling to tackle some of the basic problems which were identified right at the stage of initial planning.
Some discussion on Indian experience will help drive the point home.
Approximately 30% of the Indian population is still below the poverty line. That means, 30 out of 100
people in India do not have the capability to spend enough for minimum food requirements. The growth of
population continues to exceed the growth of national income. A reflection of this feature is the repudiation
of claims to alleviating poverty. The productivity of labour grows at a low level of 2% only while capital
productivity has been declining. The agricultural sector of the country has failed to witness any major
technological change. Except for a few pockets, such as, Punjab, Haryana and Tamil Nadu, the green
revolution has not been able to spread and transform the agricultural sector into a high productivity
occupation. Moreover, better incentives for raising productivity have not been able to bung about a more
equitable pattern of land holding.
India, in its planning era, has spent significantly more on higher education as compared to that elementary
schooling. Consequently, about half of the population aged 7 and above have remained illiterate upto 1991.
The uneducated labour force available for production could engage itself only in unskilled industrial
activities. More importantly, the lopsided educational policy has led to a cultural divide between a small
group of elite drawn from well-to-do families and the general mass of poor Indians. There is another
discernible trend. The best educated groups leave an impression that they are entitled to all kinds of facilities
from public funds-- from holiday to home, transportation, food rations, children's schooling, health care in
hospitals etc. The semi-literate uneducated mass of people have no effective access to such privileges. A
major building block of Indian planning for industrialisation has been the public sector. It, however, has
failed to register the expected performance. The important segments of the economy such as infrastructure,
capital goods and basic intermediate are under the control of the state. But these do not contribute much to
productivity enhancement. While infrastructure bottlenecks have yet to be overcome, the industrial
undertakings are drawing a large chunk of public funds for their survival. The accumulated loss of public
sector enterprises had already reached the level of Rs. 15,354 crore by 1990-91. Many industries do not run
at full capacity and a large number of them have turned sick. As the sector has failed to keep pace with
technological advancement, Indian goods have lost in terms of competitive advantage. Consequently, India's
share in the world trade is insignificant, at less than one per cent. A related aspect of the Indian way of going
for planned development is the emergence of black markets and corruption. The provision of regulating
economic activities by the state machinery has resulted in providing incentive to enforcement
authorities for indulging in corrupt practices for pecuniary gains. Extra-legal means have been resorted to
supply many commodities which are short in supply. In addition, the public sector enterprises have become
a good channel for distributing favour to friends and relatives of politicians, whose parties are in power. It is
estimated that the public sector is overstaffed to the tune of 25% due to such type of practices. Despite a
massive programme of industrialisation, unemployment in India continues to increase. Even the special
employment generating programmes in rural areas are pointed out to be not very successful.
The service sector has grown more rapidly than industrial and agricultural sectors. However, it is stated that
much of such growth is due to expansion in government service sectors like public administration. The
increased employment of this type has led to an improved purchasing power of a sizeable section of the
population without a corresponding increase in production of agricultural and industrial sectors. A part of
the inflationary pressure in the economy is ascribed to service sector expansion. It is, therefore, apparent that
Indian planning has not been successful in meeting the targets of basic objectives. Poverty, unequal asset
holding, unemployment and inadequate industrialisation persist even after 40 years of planning Realisation
of such a lacuna has prompted India to undertake a massive reform programme in 1991. The emerging
thinking now is on reducing the scope of government interventions in the economic activities. The role of
planning in such a scheme is set to be narrowed down.

Answer in five sentences each

1) What are the failures of Indian industry in the planning period'?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….............
.................................................................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the failures of planning in the agricultural sector.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
15.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to learn about planning and the Indian Planning strategy in particular. We have
seen how planning strategy came to be adopted as a response to the need for rapid development and
dismantling of colonial institutions and structures which hampered development. The success of the former
Soviet Union's planning strategy was the source of inspiration for planning in most of the third world
countries. Planning, we have seen, implies the formulation of a strategy to achieve certain goals in the
future. In an underdeveloped country, planning also attempts to fulfill the objective of transformation of the
economy from a low level of production and productivity to a higher level of self-sustained growth. In many
developing countries, planning can be broadly summed up as being a vehicle for growth with social justice
and raising the standards of living of the population.
Although the perception of developing the backward economies through the process of planning still
remains a major agenda, achievement of expected results cannot be taken satisfactory until now in most of
the third world countries. Prevalence of wide spread poverty, unemployment and unequal income
distribution are commonly found in these countries. In recent years therefore, changes have been
incorporated in the planning process on the basis of experience from the past.
15.9 KEY WORDS

Ancillaries: Those firms which generally produce for and supply to a large industrial unit, which produces
the main marketable product.
Basic Industries: Those industries whose output is used as an input either directly or indirectly by many
other industries, e.g., steel.
Capital Goods: Those goods that are themselves produced to help the production of other goods, but are not
themselves consumed directly as the raw materials of production, e.g. machinery.
Disguised Unemployment: A situation where people are apparently employed, but withdrawing some of
them from that employment will not result in a fall in output.
Egalitarian: Equality of economic, social and political status among all individuals.
Feudal Intermediaries: Those individuals or class of people who appropriate a portion of the surplus
generated in agricultural production by using extra-economic coercion, without actively participating in the
production process, but coming between the state and the tillers of land.
Inflation: A situation where there is a general and steady rising pressure on paces of commodities
accompanied by a diminishing purchasing power of money.
Intermediate Inputs: Those which go into the production of a final product, e.g., steel which goes into the
production of buses, trucks, etc
Land Reforms: The redistribution of titles to property in land by breaking up large holdings and also
ensuring that the actual cultivator is entitled to a larger share of the surplus from land as opposed to the
intermediaries. It also aims at ensuring tenurial rights for cultivators.
Marketable Surplus: That pan of the production, usually of foodgrains, which exceeds the producer's own
direct consumption requirements and which can be sold in the market.
Poverty Line: It is defined as an income level below which people cannot afford to buy a basket of
commodities that are essential to maintain a minimum standard of living. In India, this minimum standard is
taken to be the income necessary to buy the food necessary for an adult to survive and work. The levels and
definition of poverty line vary from country to country.
Resources: Resources are of three kinds-physical, financial and human. Physical resources are land, water,
coal, iron-ore, cattle etc. Financial resources are savings, taxes, borrowings etc. Human resources would
mean various skills and abilities of the human beings, which make them productive and useful to society.
Socialist State: A state where the major pan of the means of production is publicly owned and controlled.
Structural Bottlenecks: When one sector, or a crucial pan of that sector, restricts the growth of other
sectors, then the economy is said to suffer from structural bottlenecks.

Chaudhary, Pramit, 1985. The Indian Economy, Vani Educational Books, Vikas, New Delhi.
Singh, Tarlok, 1974. India's Development Experience, Macmillan, London.
Gadgit, D. R., 1972. Planning and Economic Policy in India, Gokhale Institute, Poona.
15.11 ANSWERS AND/OR HINTS TO CHECK

YOUR PROGRESS

1) There are three types of resources-physical, financial and human. Physical resources are of two
kinds, living and non-living and include land, water, minerals and animal resources etc. Financial
resources include taxation, savings, borrowings etc. Human resources are manpower with skills.
2) Planning means formulating a strategy for the future by assessing one's resources at present and
allocating it between different uses. This is done so as to achieve certain goals in the future. In the
general case, planning in an economy is done to secure a certain rate of growth of national income,
production etc. But in an underdeveloped economy, planning takes m, a broader meaning. It is a
strategy to counter an inherited legacy of backwardness and institutional constrains which hamper
the transformation of the economy from a low-level of production to a higher level of self-sustained
growth.
2) i) F
ii) F
iii) T

1) Read Section 15.4
2) Hint :Yes

1) Hint: Read first paragraph of section 15.6.
2) The public sector was given the exclusive responsibility of investing and developing certain basic
and strategic industries This was to ensure that the public sector would capture the commanding
heights of the economy and thus play an important role in the industrialisation process.
3) Hint: Read Sub-Section 15.5.2.
4) The Green Revolution was a technology-based food grains production strategy. It led to an increase
in the total food grain production and marketable surplus of India. But at the same time it led to an
increase in regional disparities in rural India since the Green Revolution covered only a few districts
in selected states, while the rest of the country remained unaffected.
5) The problem of unemployment in rural India was sought to be tackled through employment oriented
schemes, like the Integrated Rural Development Programme, National Rural Employment
Guarantee Programme in urban India though no such scheme existed, generally, employment was
sought to be increased through self-employment programmes and promotion of labour intensive
industries.

1) Financial planning involves estimation of financial resources required for investment and assessing
its mobilisation domestically through savings, taxation and aid from abroad-either through inter-
government aids or loans or commercial borrowings from investment agencies and foreign banks.
In other words, it involves a balance between the sources and uses of funds for the plan targets.
2) The various sources of funds for plan investment are taxation, savings of the government,
household and private corporate sector and inflow of foreign capital. Apart from these, there are
also contributions from public enterprises like railways, posts and telegraphs, central and state
enterprises, market borrowings, etc. Finally, the government may also resort to deficit financing.
3) i) T
ii) F
iii) T

See Section 15.7 for your answer.
UNIT 16 PLANNING STRATEGIES - II
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Agriculture-Industry Interdependence
16.3 Industries
16.3.1 Small Scale Industries

16.3.2 Capital Goods and Consumer Goods Industries
16.4 Public Distribution System (PDS) and Social Welfare
16.4.I Historical Background

16.4.2 Functions
16.4.3 Suggestions for Improvement
16.5 Multi-Level Planning (MLP)
16.6 Let Us Sum Up
16.7 Key Words
16.9 Answers and/or Hints to Check Your Progress/ Exercises
16.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to relate planning strategies to the main sectors and levels of the economy. On
going through this you will be able to:
Indicate the interdependence between agriculture and industry

Explain the sectoral classification and analysis of India's industrialisation and the role of the public sector
Describe the Public Distribution System (PDS) and Social Welfare
Understand why it is necessary to undertake planning for different levels - Multi-level Planning.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Some of the major aspects of the planning strategies are the sectoral composition of the overall growth
targets, the allocations and linkages across the sectors, such as, agriculture, capital goods and consumer
goods industries, the roles of the public sector and the public distribution system, etc. The planning goals
and allocations have also to be resolved in terms of the various regional levels, from the Centre to the States,
to the Districts and, finally, to the Blocks and Panchayats. These aspects are discussed below.
16.2 AGRICULTURE - INDUSTRY

INTERDEPENDENCE
Agriculture and industry are not two mutually exclusive sectors. There are numerous linkages between them.
The plan strategy recognises this. If you go to the village 'Monday' (or bazar), you can see peasants bringing
loads of rice and wheat to the market. They sell their produce to the traders who in turn may sell them in the
urban areas to the consumers working in the non-agricultural sector, consisting of industrial and services
sectors. In most of the developing countries while about two thirds of the agricultural produce is consumed
within the agricultural sector, one third of it is marketed to the non-agricultural sector. This later amount
constitutes what is called the 'marketed surplus' of the agricultural sector for the non-agricultural sector.
Since the people involved in non-agricultural activities do not produce food, they naturally have to depend
on the agricultural sector for food. Again. there are certain industries, known as agro-based industries,
which buy inputs from the agricultural sector. Thus, cotton-textile industry, requires cotton and sugar
industry requires sugarcane as raw materials.
You may have heard about the Green Revolution of India which sought to usher in a new era in its
agriculture since the mid-60 is by improving agricultural productivity. Such method of crop production
involved increased dependence on pesticides, chemical fertilizers, pump sets, tractors, etc. which are
manufactured by the industrial sector. Thus, we see that agriculture is a supplier of wage-goods (food grains)
and raw materials to the industrial sector. While wage-goods are meant for final consumption by the
workers in the non-agricultural sector, raw materials are intermediate goods in the sense that, they are used
in the production process for the manufacture of final output like refined sugar, vegetable oils, tea, cotton
textiles, gunny bags etc. On the other hand, the industrial sector supplies goods for final consumption to the
agricultural sector (tea, textiles, sugar, transistors, bicycles, soap, etc.) it also supplies inputs (intermediate
goods) like fertilizer, pesticides, etc. to agriculture to facilitate production of grains. We shall now discuss
some other linkages between agriculture and industry .
'You may have noted the stark and grim poverty in the countryside of most of the third world countries and
have asked yourself why it is so One important problem with agriculture is that it suffers from severe
shortage of land. When the rural population increases very rapidly, for a greater part of the year people do
not have any work to do even if they want to work. These people are said to be seasonally unemployed.
Again there are cultivators who are working in their family farm round the year. But, often, the work that 3
persons could have done, is engaging say, 5 people. When five are doing the work of three, we say that two
are under-employed. These unemployed and underemployed people constitute surplus labour. Therefore, a
planning strategy involves steps towards rapid industrialisation involving a shift in the labour force from
agriculture to industry. Thus the agricultural sector can operate as a huge reservoir of surplus manpower to
be employed in industry. Unfortunately, not much success has been attained in this direction. The percentage
of population depending on agriculture has hardly undergone a change in the planning era.
Now we shall discuss the linkages between agriculture and industry from the stand point of mobilisation of
financial resources. Here we shall specifically discuss the issues of savings and taxation. You must have
noted the commercial banks operate with a huge net work of banks in the rural areas to mobilise deposits
from the rural areas. This has resulted, at least partially, in the transformation of 'unproductive' saving (in
general non-financial saving) in the form of land, hoarding of gold, jewellery, and money to 'productive'
financial assets which can be easily channelised for planned investment in industry and infrastructure.
While savings are of a voluntary nature, taxes are not. The government imposes taxes on commodities
individuals to mobilise financial resources for meeting its expenditure which is partly of a developmental
nature. The agricultural sector may be taxed and real resources mobilised for industrialisation.
However, sometimes, as in case of India, agricultural income-taxation has been almost ruled out in practice
on socio-political rather than economic grounds. The share of land revenue which could have been a major
component of state revenues has declined to insignificant levels. On the one hand, agriculture receives
subsidies from the government when it buys fertilizers and uses irrigation-water and electricity. There is an
element of inequity- within the agricultural sector as it is the well-to-do sections among the peasantry and
the comparatively more developed rural areas of a country which appropriated a sizeable chunk of the
subsidies. On the other hand, mass consumption goods constitute the major portion of the budget of the
poor. These goods provide a major tax base. Hence, the indirect tax structure when relied on become
regressive for the agricultural population. However, as far as direct taxes are concerned. the rural-urban
differential is more than for indirect taxes.
Taxation may be regarded as a direct instrument of resource mobilisation. The index of relative prices
between agricultural produce and non-agricultural produce is termed the 'Net Baker Terms' of trade between
agriculture and non-agriculture. Resources can be transferred from agriculture to non-agriculture by turning
the relative prices against agriculture. This resource transfer-occurs as, in order to obtain the same amount
of nonagricultural goods than it had to before. However, if the net barter terms of trade continue to move
against agriculture in the long run, this may operate as a disincentive against agriculture with the consequent
upward pressure on agricultural prices so that the transfer of agricultural resources in real terms may
decline. On the other hand, if the relative prices move in favour of agriculture, real income of non-
agricultural workers will fall as the bulk of the budget of the industrial workers is spent on wage goods,
such as food grains. If the workers are organised and can keep their real wages unchanged, industrial profits
fall with an adverse effect on industrialisation. So, perhaps, it is judicious to strike a balance between
agriculture and industry-in terms of both relative prices and quantities-so that an inflation free and steady
growth of agriculture and industry is possible in other words, it is important to maintain a sectoral balance
between agriculture and industry. A planning strategy must recognise this problem.

ii) Check your answer with that at the end of the unit.
1) In what ways are agriculture and industry mutually interdependent? (in six lines)
2) Why is a sectoral balance between agriculture and industry necessary ? (in six lines)
3) Cite three examples for each of the following: i) agro-based industries, ii) non-agro-based industries.
4) Point out the correct answer:
a) Marketed surplus from agriculture is i) the produce marketed by agriculture to the non-
agricultural sector, ii) the agricultural produce consumed within the agricultural sector, iii) non
agricultural produce marketed to the agricultural sector.
4) Which is voluntary taxes or saving ?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….............
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
Why are certain taxes called 'direct' and certain others indirect? (in six lines)
16.3 INDUSTRIES
The importance of industrialisation as a means for achieving self-sustained growth and development has
been a recognised development strategy in the planning era. The industrialisation strategy in general has had
the following objectives:
i) To increase production and productivity;
ii) To pursue self-reliance through establishing a broad-based industrial production structure;
iii) To encourage small-scale industries with a view to generating employment and fostering
entrepreneurial development. We shall discuss some of these objectives in the context of small
scale industries and capital consumer goods industries.
16.3.1 Small Scale industries

We have noted in the last section that, in the planning era, the percentage of population dependent on
agriculture has remained more or less unchanged in absolute terms, the number of agriculture dependent
population has increased leading to wide-spread unemployment and under-employment, causing mass
poverty.
It has been argued that, small scale industries which can be established even in remote rural areas, can
absorb the surplus manpower from agriculture. Given the structural features of an economy e.g. surplus of
labour, scarcity of capital and underdeveloped infrastructure, village and small scale industries can play a
significant role in the industrialisation endeavour.
16.3.2 Capital Goods and Consumer Goods Industries

A diversified and large-scale capital goods sector often is perceived as a proper route to realise the object of
attaining economic self-reliance. This type of industrialisation is referred to as Ìmport-Substitution Led
Industrialization'. industrial goods manufactured domestically - were to replace their imported counterparts.
Mobilisation of a huge amount of financial and physical resources as well as creation of a large reservoir of
skilled and technical manpower becomes necessary for this purpose. While the ultimate objective presumes
attainment of economic and technological self-reliance, in the initial stages, however, a large volume of
imports of capital goods, raw materials and technology is necessary as these are not available domestically.
The experience of former USSR and India may be remembered in this kind of a plan strategy.
Take the case of India, as an example. The industrial policy announced by the Government of India in 1956
stimulated the expansion of the capital goods sector consisting of iron, steel, chemicals, heavy engineering
and machine building industries, aluminium, cement, etc. Capital goods industry broadly produces
machines for either consumer goods sector or for capital goods sector. Thus a heavy engineering unit may
produce textile machinery (a capital good) which can be used in manufacturing textiles (a consumer good)
Again, an iron and steel industries unit may produce what can be used in a heavy engineering unit to
manufacture machinery to be used as an input in another capital goods industry (say, in a cement industrial
unit). The capital goods sector produces machinery for agricultural development-tractors, harvesters,
threshers as well as inputs for establishing multi-purpose irrigation projects (like cement, steel, etc.) and a
network of transport and communication. Also, it facilitates export of machinery and enables the country, to
earn scarce foreign exchange. Unlike the capital goods sector, which produces intermediate goods to be used
up in the production process, the consumer goods sector produces final goods for consumption. These
include non-durable goods like pulses, edible oil, sugar and salt, semi-durable goods like clothes, soaps and
shoes, and durable goods like passenger cars and houses. While some of these goods are necessaries or
essential consumer goods and satisfy the minimum basic needs of an individual (rice, salt, cheap cloth, low
cost housing, etc. ) some are luxuries (passenger car, airconditioner, cosmetics, etc.) and are non-essential
consumer goods it is imperative to maintain a balance between the production of the capital and consumer
goods sectors. If the balance is not maintained, the principles of equity and equilibrium get affected. This
may have an adverse impact on productivity and, therefore, on growth. An inflationary situation may
develop if the capital goods sector grows at a faster rate than that of the consumer goods sector.

1) How will you distinguish (in one sentence each):
i) capital goods from consumer goods

ii) durable consumer goods from non-durable consumer goods;
iii) luxuries from necessities; and
iv) large scale industries from small scale industries?
2) Cite three examples for each of the following:
i) small scale industries located in urban areas.

ii) capital goods industries
iii) village and handicraft industries.
iv) consumer goods industries.
3) Which is likely to generate more employment in general, given that each of these industries has
identical amount of capital:
i) a capital goods industry or a consumer goods industry?

ii) a large scale industry- or a small scale industry?
16.4 PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (PDS) AND

SOCIAL WELFARE
If you live in a town, you may have come across people in a queue waiting eagerly for the ration in front of
a shop (i.e. fair pace shop as it is called) to open. Each individual can buy a fixed quantity of some of the
essential items one needs for one's basic consumption-rice, wheat, sugar, kerosene, etc. at a fixed price
which is below the price prevailing in the open market i.e. in shops which you do not call ration shops. Now
what is rationing all about? Why do we need it? What are its economic implications?
16.4.1 Historical Background

The Second World War (1939-45) witnessed a massive shortage of food grains because of a thriving black
market, so that prices skyrocketed. This resulted in a famine or near-famine condition as the poor could not
afford to buy from the open market. This implies a failure of the market mechanism (refer to unit 15). The
Government introduced public distribution system through which a minimum amount of essential consumer
goods would be distributed among specific social groups at a fixed price-lower than that prevailing in the
open market. Fair price shops were opened for this purpose. Ever since, the PDS has been strengthened and
its coverage widened. But, the rural areas are covered much less than the urban areas. The PDS was to
ensure economic and social justice by satisfying the basic minimum needs even during the period of
shortages. It was to ensure stabilisation of the variation in agricultural prices--prone to seasonal fluctuations
well as to serve as an effective instrument against hoarding, speculation and black marketing by
unscrupulous traders.
16.4.2 Functions
The PDS is supposed to provide two-sided shield to protect the poor: on the one hand, it protects the
interests of the poor producers by ensuring a certain minimum price for their produce. On the other hand, it
protects the poor consumers by supplying essential commodities at reasonable prices. The Government
announces procurement prices and minimum support prices before the commencement of agricultural
production. These administered prices act as signals to the producers which help them take decision as to
which crop to produce and in what quantity. The minimum support prices operate as a floor below which
the market price - determined by the forces of demand and supply- should not fall. Whenever there is a
tendency for the food price to fall below the minimum support price, the government's agents purchase the
commodities at the specified minimum support price The procurement price is the price at which the
government actually procures food grains from the agricultural sector. This procurement price may be either
equal to or greater than the minimum support price. The government also fixes the issue price at which the
fair price shops sell food grains to the consumers (ration card holders), which is lower than the price
prevailing in the open market. Apart from these price control measures, the government's buffer stock
operation aims at stabilising the quantity of food grains available for consumption. In the year of good
harvests the government's agencies buy food grains or raw jute from the producers and stores them in the
godowns and in years of poor harvest, when prices are running high, the government releases the stocks
through the fair price shops to keep the paces in check. For certain commodities like sugar, the PDS in India
works on a dual pricing mechanism. A certain proportion of, say, sugar is procured by public agencies. This
is distributed by the government through the ration shops at a fixed price in specified quantities per head to
the consumers possessing ration cards. The producers sell the rest in the open market at whatever pace the
market can fetch them. In this way the interests of both producers and the consumers are served: the former
can recover their cost of production of sugar and earn profits; while for the latter, basic minimum needs are
satisfied through the public distribution network.
16.4.3 Suggestions For Improvement

The PDS can play a better role in distributing essential commodities if
i) Interruptions in the supply line which create great hardships for the people can be prevented and
supplies made adequate, regular and of standard quality:
ii) It is revamped, strengthened and expanded further to cover all areas in the country, particularly the
backward, remote and inaccessible pans;
iii) It reaches the deprived social groups especially those living below the poverty line, such as landless
rural labour;
iv) Buffer stocks with the government can be increased;
v) Storage and transport problems, which result in large losses, can be overcome;
vi) Management and distribution of ration cards and malpractices in the operation of the PDS at
procurement, stocking, distribution etc. levels can be done away with; and
vii) It is not used as an instrument of political patronage. Besides, it would be necessary to revamp and
strengthen the existing arrangements. In the states where a strong cooperative movement exists, the
apex Consumer Cooperative and Marketing Societies may take up the responsibility of procurement,
storage, movement and distribution of essential commodities. Civil Supplies Corporations are being
established by the State Governments to make the essential items available to the weaker sections of
the community in remote areas. Further, efficient and socially-oriented marketing techniques should
be utilised to reduce the cost of distribution. Mobile fair price shops need be organised at centres
where development of construction works are in progress. Under the plan projects, in tribal areas,
arrangements may have to be made to supply goods to the tribals on barter. As long as poverty
persists and there are problems of scarcity, the PDS is bound to play a significant role in ensuring
social and economic justice, especially for the weaker sections.

1) Explain, in one sentence, each the following terms:
i) minimum support price

ii) procurement price
iii) issue price.
2) How will your relate the public distribution system with the concept of economic justice?
3) What is dual pricing system? How does it protect the interest of both producers and consumers?
4) Suggest five important measures for further strengthening the public distribution system.
16.5 MULTI-LEVEL PLANNING (MLP)

Planning in many countries in its initial stages was conceptualised on two levels only- (a) National and (b)
State. As a result, though some of the fruits of planning have trickled down to the grass roots level, there
has been no substantial change in the conditions of the masses. Hence, of late, there has been a growing
realisation that there should be multi-level planning or planning at different levels-state, district, block and
down to the village level.
If you are from (or have been to) a village, you may have noted that even neighbouring villages may not
have identical soil, access to water and land-gradient. This may call for different techniques for cultivating
different plots of land. So, if a planner - planning from a far away city and unaware of the differences in the
optimum input requirements- prescribes uniform inputs for all plots of land, actual output will fall short of
its potential resulting in a loss for the producers. Hence, in order to optimise production, it is necessary to
have planning at the grass roots level. This is, however, but only one example which shows the necessity,
of having multi-level planning rather than planning only at National and States level. Decentralised
planning enables a better perception of the needs of all areas, makes better informed decision making
possible, gives people a greater voice in decisions concerning their development and welfare, serves to
achieve better coordination and integration amongst programmes, enables the felt needs of the people to be
taken into account and ensures effective participation of the people. It also serves to build up a measure of
self reliance by mobilising resources of the community in kind or money, making development self-
sustaining, helps in better exploitation of local resources for larger social good and facilitates productivity.
Hence, it is imperative to decentralise planning so that fruits of progress reach all sections of the population.
Microlevel planning in may countries has not received the desired attention and support, although its
importance has been emphasised in various official reports. Planning at the grass-root level in regard to the
programmes for rural development may show useful results. Nevertheless, it should be kept in view that the
planning process is not free from complexities and problems. The important handicaps lacunae in the
implementation of multi-level planning could broadly be grouped as follows: i) the decision making
powers/ functions tend to be concentrated confined to the higher levels of the administration: ii)
involvement of the local people with the activities of the development and welfare could be marginal; iii)
district or block level developmental bodies may have little or no autonomy; iv) broad-basing of the
institutional mechanism with the active involvement of local representatives is often ineffective; v)
provision of effective infrastructure to assist the developmental process at various levels in inadequate; and
vi) the objectives of planning as also the need of the national, state, district and local level are often not
clearly understood by each. They fail to operate within the framework that has been allotted to them.

1) What is multi-level planning ? Do you think that it is superior to centralised planning? Give two
reasons.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….............
.................................................................................................................................................................
2) What are the 'levels' that constitute multi-level planning ? Start from the apex.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….................
.................................................................................................................................................................
16.6 LET US SUM UP

The unit deals with planning strategies in the specific context of agriculture - industry interdependence,
public distribution system, industrialisation strategy and multi-level planning. We have noted that India's
planning strategy recognises the numerous linkages between agriculture and industry and stresses the
importance of balanced sectoral growth and price stability. Problems encountered in Indian planning have
been discussed. The public distribution system operates as an instrument of ensuring economic and social
justice although there is scope for further improvement. We also noted that India's industrialisation strategy
aims at attaining economic self-reliance by establishing a large scale capital goods base. On the other hand,
small scale industries are supposed to provide gainful employment and alleviate poverty. These can also
facilitate rural industrialisation We have noted that by bringing planning closer to the masses, a greater
involvement of the people will result in a greater momentum in the planning process. Hence the rationale
for multi-level planning.
16.7 KEY WORDS

Capital Goods Industries: Industries which manufacture goods facilitating further production of consumer
and capital goods.
Consumer Goods Industries: Industries which manufacture goods for final consumption.
Direct Tax: A tax for which the burden cannot be shifted by an economic unit on whom the tax is imposed,
e.g. income tax, corporation tax, etc.
Dual Pricing System: A system in which a commodity has two prices - one officially set price prevailing in
the fair price shops and the other in the open market.
Foreign Exchange: Currencies of foreign countries, e. g. U. S. dollar, U.K.'s pound-sterling, Japanese yen,
etc.
Green Revolution: A complete change in agricultural production technology to boost agricultural output
with the help of high yielding variety seeds supported by fertilisers, pesticides and controlled irrigation.
Indirect Tax: A tax for which the burden can be shifted by an economic unit on whom the tax is imposed,
e.g. excise duty, sales tax, etc.
Marketed Surplus: The amount of output sold by farming households after allowing for self-consumption
and input requirements.
Multi-level Planning: Planning at different levels ensuring proper integration and co-ordination among
them so that all sections of the population can participate in as well as receive fruits from the planning
process.
Labour Surplus Economy: An economy where the people willing to work are more in proportion to other
factors like land and capital, so that a segment of the labour force remains unemployed/under-employed.
Real Income: Money income corrected for changes in prices indicating an actual command over goods and
services purchased from the market.
Under-employment: A situation between total unemployment (no job at all) and full employment.
Wage-goods: Goods for mass consumption or necessaries like cereals, cheap clothes etc. comprising the
subsistence need of the workers.

Chaudhury, Pramit, 1978, The Indian Economy, Vani Publications, Delhi.
Chakraborty, Sukhomoy, 1987, Development Planning, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Kamta Prasad, 1984, Scope and Functioning of the Public Distribution System in India, in Economic Policy
and Planning in India (ed.) Singh, A N, Papola, T.S., and Mathur, R.S., New Delhi, Sterling Publishers, pp.
207-30
Papola, T.S.. 1982, Rural Industrialisation Approaches and Potential, Himalaya Publishing, Bombay
Government of India, 1985, The Seventh Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, New Delhi.
Government of India, 1969, Multi- Level Planning, Planning Commission, New Delhi.
16.9 ANSWERS AND/ OR HINTS TO CHECK

YOUR PROGRESS
1) Hint: In your answer you have to point out the goods that agriculture supplies to industry and vice-
versa see paragraphs 2-6 of Section 16.2).
1) See the last paragraph of Section 16.2.

2) i) agro-based industries: cotton textiles, sugar industry, natural rubber industry.
ii) non-agro based industries: iron and steel industry, petrochemicals industry and cement industry
4) a) i
b) i
5) Saving is voluntary. .
6) If the burden of a tax cannot be forthwith shifted by an economic unit on whom the tax is imposed,
that tax is called Direct Tax. Thus, an individual has to pay an income tax (a direct tax) if his
income exceeds a minimum stipulated amount. If the tax-burden can be shifted, then that tax is
called indirect Tax.
Examples of direct tax: Wealth Tax, Corporation Tax, Estate Duty.
Examples of indirect tax: Excise duty, Sales Tax, Customs Duty.

1) i) See section 16 3.2
ii) Durable consumer goods are those which can be used again and again over a period
of time e.g. houses, non-durable goods can be used only once, and/or get used up
quickly
iii) Luxuries are those consumer goods which an individual can well do without e g.
cosmetics. Necessities satisfy the basic minimum needs of an individual e.g. rice
cheap clothes, etc.
iv) Hint: The distinction is based on 'scale' or the volume of output manufactured by an industrial
unit, besides the amount of capital and the number of labourers it employs.
2) See Sub-section 16.3.2. You are, however, most welcome to cite examples on your own
3) i) A consumer goods industry

ii) A small scale industry

1) See Sub-section 16.4.2 (Ist paragraph)
2) Hint: Stress the role of PDS in facilitating availability of foodgrains at a reasonable pace to a wide
section of the population-especially the weaker sections. Also mention how it helps the producers
of food grains (especially Ist and last paragraph)
3) See Sub-section 16.4.2 (4th paragraph)
4) See Sub-section 16,4.3

1) See section 16.5 (especially the first 3 paragraphs)
2) See section 16.5 (Ist paragraph). Note that there are five levels which constitute multi-level
planning.
UNIT 17 POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Over-population and Economic Development
17.2.1 Recent Developments of East Asia and Population Growth

17 2.2 U.N. Agenda for Population Management
17.3 Demographic Transition
17.3.1 Demographic Transition: A Historical Process

17.3.2 Three Stages of Demographic Transition
17.3.3 Demographic Characteristics of Today's Developing Countries
17.4 Some Adverse Consequences of Rapid Population Growth
17.5 Policy to Control Rapid Population Growth
17.5.1 Influence of Development on Fertility (Birth Rate)
17.5.2 Is Economic Development the Most Effective Way of Reducing Fertility?
17.6 Let Us Sum Up
17.7 Key Words
17.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to
judge the relationship between population and development;

examine the idea of over-population state the concept of demographic transition;
comprehend the demographic characteristics of developing countries;
explain the nature of population problem faced by developing countries; and
suggest proper policy measures to be followed by developing countries.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Perhaps it will take little time for you to agree with the proposition that human beings are a vital resource for
economic development. But to specify the relationship between economic development and growth of
population, it will be difficult to come out with an unambiguous answer. To your surprise, you will find
economies of many third world countries, notwithstanding a higher growth rate of their population, are the
least developed economically. Some of the most developed countries, on the contrary, will give you very
low rate of population growth. Such a scenario of the present-day world, therefore, will compel you to think
seriously in terms of a negative relationship between economic development and population growth.
17.2 OVER-POPULATION AND ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Essentially, what you are contemplating in the form of a relationship is the phenomena of so-called Òver-
population'. it depicts a situation, where human population has increased beyond the means of subsistence.
Thus a higher growth area in terms of population does not provide the basic needs of life such as food, cloth
and shelter. The third world countries have become the victim of such an eventuality The fear of over-
population is not new. Economist Malthus, as early as 1798, had expressed strong apprehensions on
population growth over-taking output growth. He thought that nature would reduce the excess number by
causing calamities and diseases. However, technological inventions subsequently helped increase
production and the seriousness of the problem was over-looked. The implications of population growth
resurfaced in recent years with the persistence of poverty and hunger in many parts of world .The over-
population perception has given rise to a number of prescriptions that aim at bringing down the growth rate
of population in the third world countries. It is asserted that such a move would allow the benefits of
economic development to reach the poor masses.
17.2.1 Recent Development of East Asia and Population

Growth
In order to convince others that a control of population growth could result in better quality of life, the
policy makers often draw attention to the experience of East Asian countries, viz., Hong Kong, Indonesia,
South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. These countries have been pointed out to be in the group
of third world during the fifties. But rapid economic development has come about there to solve the
problem of poverty, in the meantime. The average annual growth of population has witnessed a much faster
rate of decline in all of them. A comparison of this feature with other countries of Asia and Africa shows a
difference. Look at Table 17.1 it shows the difference in population growth of Asian and sub-Sahara
African countries during 1960-70 and 1980-90. It can be seen from the table that in the East Asian group,
Hong Kong has a growth rate of 2.5% per annum during 1960-70. But it came down to 1.4% per annum
during 1980-90. Similarly, in Thailand, the growth rate declined to 1.8% per annum during 1980-90, from a
higher rate of 3 1% per annum during 1960-70. The declining feature
Table 17.1
Change in Population growth of

Sub-Saharan Africa, South and East Asian Countries
Economy Average annual growth of Population (in %)

1960- 70 1980-90
East Asia
Hong Kong 2.5 1.4
Indonesia 2.1 1.8
South Korea 2.6 1.1
Malaysia 2.8 2.6
Singapore 2.3 2.2
Thailand 3.1 1.8
Sub-Saharan Africa
Ghana 2.3 3.4
Kenya 3.2 3.8
Sierra Leone 1.7 2.4
Tanzania 2.7 3.1
South Asia
Bangladesh 2.5 2.3
India 2.3 2.1
Nepal 1.9 2.6
Pakistan 2.8 3.1
Source: World Bank, 1993, 'The East Asian Miracle "'
similar to Hong Kong and Thailand, was evident in the remaining countries of East Asian group. In contrast
to these, sub-Saharan Africa showed an increase in the rate of population growth. As might have been seen,
Ghana recorded an increase from 2.3% per annum during 1960-70 to 3.4 % per annum in 1980-90. Other
countries of this group also showed the same tendency as Ghana.
In South Asia group, population growth was not uniform. While Bangladesh and India succeeded in
bringing down the growth rate of their population marginally, the remaining two, Nepal and Pakistan,
followed the tendency of sub-Saharan Africa group. Thus, from a growth rate of 1.9% per annum, during
1960-70, Nepal went on to 2.6% per annum in the succeeding decade. Pakistan also followed Nepal, as its
population growth during 1960-70 was 2.8% per annum but increased to 3.1% per annum subsequently.
17.2.2 U.N. Agenda for Population Management

The perception that control of population growth rate is necessary for solving the economic development
has been pursued seriously at important world bodies like United Nations. The World Population
Conference held in Bucharest, 1974, had sent the message in a similar vain. The Plan of Action highlighted
in the conference has been an integration of population planning with economic planning. More recently,
since 1994, the United Nations has organised three conferences - in Cairo, Copenhagen and Beijing -themes
of which are focused on population as a critical input for development. While the international Conference
on Population, held in Cairo in September 1994, emphasised the new thinking on meeting reproductive
health needs, the one held in Copenhagen in March 1995 (viz., World Summit on Social Development)
examined issues of poverty, employment and social integration. The Fourth World Conference on Women
held in Beijing, 1995, explored ways to enhance women's full and equal participation in the present-day
society. A common thread that runs through these conferences is the need for initiating action on population
management which will fit into the development model of industrialised society.
Check Your Progress

Tick mark (9) the correct statement:
1) Rapid increase in population in developing countries has:

a) an adverse impact on the pace of economic development;
b) made better off families smaller than poorer families;
c) accelerated the process of urbanization;
d) all the above features.
2) Write a note on the relationship between population growth and economic development
3) Fill in the blanks choosing suitable word (or words) from the brackets given below:
a) For today's India the ………… faster/slower) population grows, the………… (grimmer brighter)
becomes her struggle to survive.
b) The World Summit on Social Development held in Copenhagen, 1995, examined issues of
poverty, employment an…………(social integration, population planning, women's participation in
society).
c) The relationship between population and development ....... (has become/has not become) an
issue of world wide debate since the 1950s.
d) The United Nations World Population Conference held in ................(Geneva Bucharest) in 1974
adopted a Plan of Action.
4) Why is it believed that the third world countries are over- populated? (write in about 100 words)
5) Indicate whether the following are True (T) or False (F):
a) People who believe that poverty is the result of over-population, often point to empirical
evidence of East Asian countries. ( )
b) population growth should be modified to suit the prevailing economic situation.( )
c) Poor people and high birth rate are not generally related . ( )
d) An initial reaction on the relationship between population and development is likely to have
problems.( )
6) Compare the change in recent years' population growth rate between East and South Asian countries
17.3 DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

The underlying idea behind population growth commensurate to economic development is based on
demographic transition that comes about in an economy. Formulated by Frank Notestein in 1953, the theory
of Demographic Transition makes an attempt to document the experience of developing countries as
effected by the present-day economic growth.
17.3.1 Demographic Transition: A Historical Process

Demographic transition explains a form of relationship between population and economic development. In
the western countries it has been found that they have moved from a condition of high birth and death rates,
to a condition of low birth and death rates which led to a slow rate of growth of population. This
demographic change is known as 'Demographic Transition'. in other words, demographic transition
describes the passage through which countries move from high birth and death rates to low ones. This has
been the experience of countries going through a process of modernizing economic and social development.
However, it must be kept in mind that, the reasons for this change are very uncertain. There is no simple,
continuous and quantitative relationship been economic development and the decline in birth and death
rates.
17.3.2 Three Stages of Demographic Transition

The inter-relationship between population and economic development may be divided into three stages:
i) The first stage is characterized by high birth and death rates. These features give rise to low population
growth. To understand the forces that generate this situation you have to remember a society whose
economy is dominantly agrarian and level of technology is traditional. High death rates in such a society
could be due to chronic malnutrition, famines and epidemics, inadequate medicinal and health services and
poor living condition. High birth rates are influenced by the socio-cultural system (i.e. illiteracy, early
marriage, traditional values, religious beliefs, demand for family labour, etc.). The difference between high
birth and death rates becomes narrow resulting in one percent per annum or less growth rate of population.
Sometimes, it may even tend to stagnate at a particular level.
ii) In the second stage of demographic transition, death rate begins to decline. There is beginning of the
process of economic development. Better nutritional components are included in food and living condition
improves. However, the birth rates continue to remain high. Consequently, there is an increase in the growth
rate of population and it tends to grow quite rapidly.
iii) During the third stage when the country's economy is properly developed, the already low death rates
decline further only slightly. Birth rate, on the contrary, goes down rapidly. The low birth and death rates are
now stabilized resulting in a low population growth rate.
It is expected that today's developing countries, if successful in their development efforts, would also reach
the third stage of demographic transition.
17.3.3 Demographic Characteristics of Today's Developing

Countries
In today's developing countries we find the following features regarding their population growth:
i) High population growth rates, and
ii) Inadequate opportunities for the absorption of manpower.
The high population growth rates are due to high birth rate and fast declining death rates due to better
sanitation and health facilities. However, the capacities to absorb increasing manpower are much weaker.
Furthermore, the process of economic development tends to be more capital intensive under modern
technological conditions, and hence, has less potential of employment generation in the short run. Since the
total size of the population is already large, there is an urgency for speedy achievement of demographic
transition from high birth rate to low birth rate resulting in lower population growth.

1. Fill in the gaps selecting appropriate word/ words given in the brackets.
a) Economic development itself would release forces which would induce…………….

(decline/increase) in population growth rates.
b) Any independent policy of population control in a developing country

is…………….(necessary/unnecessary) and ………..(wasteful/fruitful).
c) Economic development …………(takes/does not take) time and a developing country

…………..(can/ cannot) wait for such a distant possibility.
d) It is very …………..(easy/difficult) to establish a very clear cut relationship between

economic development and population growth.
2. Identify whether (he following statements are true (T) or false (F).:
a) There is a reciprocal or bi-directional relationship between population and economic

development( )
b) Whether a growing population is conducive to or constraint on development would depend

upon a combination of number of factors. ()
c) Theory of Demographic Transition was as developed by Thomas R Malthus. ()
d) The long term historical trend in population is to maintain slow population growth rates.
3 Explain the demographic transition and its three stages in about 150 words.
4 State the demographic features of today's developing countries in five lines
17.4 SOME ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES OFRAPID

POPULATION GROWTH
It may be useful to throw light on some of the problems arising out of the rapid population growth in the
third world. They are:
i) Providing employment to growing population. This is so because in developing economies majority of

the population is illiterate. The burden of school age population has already shown signs of becoming
unbearable. The proportion of children in schools is increasing fast and, vast numbers are still not covered.
The absolute number or illiterate persons increases every year. This is only an indication of the wastage of
human resources for want of appropriate development opportunities.
ii) Problem of utilisation of manpower. Better educated manpower aspires for occupations of greater
prestige, which are opened up by the new development efforts. Because of its capital intensive nature, the
ability, of the new economy for employment generation becomes restricted. Simultaneously, it renders
many of the old occupations out of day and redundant. As a result, under-employment and unemployment,
including unemployment of educated persons, increases. There is thus wastage of even developed human
capital.
iii) Over-strained infrastructure. Facilities such as housing, transportation, health care, and education
become inadequate. The worst symptoms of congestion in every aspect of living conditions are manifested
in the urban areas. In countries such as India, a situation of "over urbanisation" prevails which puts
unbearable strain on urban amenities. Overcrowded houses, slums and unsanitary localities, traffic
congestion and crowded hospitals have become common features in the developing countries.
1) Pressure on land and other renewable natural resources. Common properties such as forest and water
are over-exploited. This results in deforestation and desertification with permanent damage to the renewable
resources.
v) Increased Cost of Production. Human ingenuity and technological advancement makes it possible to
increase production of goods and services. But, it must be kept in mind that, the cost of production of the
basic necessities of life, such as food, increases when the population is growing fast and worse lands are
brought into cultivation with costly irrigation etc.
vi) Inequitable Distribution of Income. Both at the international and national levels income disparities
increase. The increase in gross national product (GNP) is greatly reduced in per capita terms on account of
the rapidly growing population. In the face of a rapidly growing population, the major concern of a
developing country tends to be focused more on economic growth as such. Consideration of unequal
distribution of income are pushed to background. So inequalities within the country tend to widen further.
17.5 POLICY TO CONTROL, RAPID POPULATION

GROWTH: INTEGRATION OF POPULATION
POLICY WITH DEVELOPMENT POLICY
Seen in terms of on-going development models, one of the most serious problems faced by the developing
countries is the control of the rapid rate of growth of population. It has become therefore, necessary to
evolve on appropriate population policy . In such a context a major objective of the population policy has to
be one that takes into account the influence of economic and social development on fertility.
17.5.1 Influence of Development on Fertility (Birth Rate)

Different explanations about the influence of development on fertility can be seen in the following:
i) One explanation is based on the observation or experience of the present-day developed countries.
According to this, higher the level of economic development of a country, the lower is the level of fertility.
It must be emphasized that this explanation assumes that in developed countries children are regarded by
parents as durable consumer goods. With economic development parents become very much
conscious about the economic costs and benefits of raising children. This attitude has a distinct effect on
fertility and the size of the family.
ii) Another explanation regarding the influence of economic development on fertility takes into account the
love and affection which parents have for their children. This is known as 'Affective Aspects of Motivation'
for child bearing. According to this explanation, in limiting the size of their family, the parents are
influenced by their consideration for the future career of their children. Thus, it is not so much the
disincentive of increasing cost resulting in reduced economic returns from having a large family, but the fear
that the large size of the family would reduce their ability to provide adequately for the future of their
children, which is important. This fact discourages parents from having a large family.
It must be remembered that during the early phase of demographic transition, children inherit the social
status of the parents. Because, at that time, family is the unit of production. But with economic development
the economy becomes organized. As a result of the emergence of the organized economy children have to
achieve their social status outside their homes, and parents become very much aware of the new
responsibility of equipping their children for a satisfactory economic adjustment. The problem of
satisfactory economic adjustment tries to ensure that children do not fall below the social status of the
parents. This explanation confirm our general experience that persons coming from a larger family tend to
fare worse than their parents, in their careers. Therefore, parents who are aware of these now tend to have
smaller families because they want to train and equip their children for fulfilling occupational roles outside
their homes.
17.5.2 Is Economic Development the Most Effective Way of

Reducing Fertility ?
It may be emphasized that the above two explanations emphasize the influence of economic development on
the size of the family and fertility. But, since they offer different explanations, we cannot conclude that
economic development will automatically bring down fertility. Hence the view point that economic
development is the most effective contraceptive cannot be taken as the only factor that matters in population
policy. It is as much important for a developing country to deal with its problem of rapid population growth
by integrating population and family planning with development planning.

1) Point out five adverse consequences of rapid growth of population.
2) Fill in the blanks taking word words given in the brackets:
a) Because of capital intensity, the ability of the economy

for……….(employment/unemployment) generation becomes restricted.
b) In India, majority of the population is………… (literate/illiterate), and as such, the burden
of school age population has become………(bearable/ unbearable).
c) A rapidly growing population…………(over-strains/facilitates) the available infrastructure
and opportunities
d) India is facing a situation of …………..over urbanisation/ under urbanization).
e) The children and the elderly are economically………….. (independent/dependent)
3) Select five adverse consequences of rapid growth of population from the following:
i) Increased proportion of non-working population.

ii) Decline in dependency ratio.
iii) Increased per capita availability of food grains.
iv) High level of capital formation
v) More expenditure on maintenance of social services.
vi) Unemployment increase.
vii) Rate of increase in per capital income rises.
viii) Increased pressure on existing services.
ix) Rise in social tensions.
4) Identify the following statements as true (T) or false (F):
i) The rapidly growing population due to high birth and rapidly declining death rates give rise to
distorted age structure. ( )
ii) In a developing economy, where death rate has fallen fast, and the decline in birth rate is very slow,
the percentage of children in the population tends to fall.( )
iii) People in developed countries have much less children than people in developing countries
iv) opportunity Costs of raising many children are much less in developed countries than
indeveloping ones.( )
v) During the earliest phase of demographic transition children inherited the social status of
the parents.( )
5) Is economic development the most effective way of reducing birth rate ? Write your answer
in about 100 words.
17.6 LET US SUM UP

The rapid population growth in many third world countries and persistence of poverty has given rise to the
view of over-population possibility. There is, therefore, a major move throughout the world to bring down
the growth rate of population. Development experience of recent years shows that there is a long run trend
towards slow growth of population in a country. This is secured by balance between birth and death rates.
Before the commencement of modern economic development, countries were in the first stage of
demographic transition. At that time countries had slow population growth because of a balance between
high birth and death rates. But, as a result of economic development, developed countries have again
attained slow growth in their population. Birth and death rates in these have become quite low. Such
features have been noticed during the third stage of demographic transition. However, the balance between
birth and death rates is upset during the second phase of demographic transition because of the death rates
declining faster than the birth rates.
The present-day developed countries faced the problem of explosive increase in population which has been
put under the second phase of demographic transition. It happened more easily because of congenial
circumstances such as vast sparsely inhabited areas existing in those times. But today's developing countries
are experiencing a much faster growth in their population under conditions different than those faced by the
developed countries. Thus they are faced with huge problems of imparting education, employment, urban
development and environmental degradation. The need to tackle these problems has led to the necessity a
clearer understanding of the relationship between population and development.
The major problem faced by the developing countries is to bring down their birth rates, i. e. fertility.
Therefore, understanding of the relationship between development and fertility becomes very significant.
There are experts who think that unless fertility is first restricted, sustained economic development is not
possible. At the other extreme there are others who assume that fertility is dependent upon economic
development. This means that we should concentrate our efforts on development planning, which would, in
turn, reduce fertility. Thus, it seems that the nature of the relationship between fertility and development is
reciprocal. As the exact nature of this relationship is yet to be fully established, the proper course for a
developing country would be to follow integrated policies in regard to both population and development.
17.7 KEY WORDS

Age Dependency Ratio: The ratio of number of persons in the age-groups defined as dependent (under 15
years and over 64 years) to those in the age groups defined as economically productive (15-64 years) in a
population.
Age-group: Part of the population put together because of their age level being comparable with respect to
some characteristics and/or purpose. For instance, an age group could be all persons aged from 0-14 years
or another could be all persons aged sixty-five and more.
Age-sex distribution: The number and percentage of males and the number or percentage of females in
each group of the population.
Age-structure: The number of people or percentage of the population in each age group. In developing
countries proportion of young people below 15 years is high; in developed countries, because of long life
expectancy and low birth rates proportion of old people of 65 years of age, or more, is increasing.
Birth Rate or Crude Birth Rate: The number of births in a year per thousand persons in the total
population. (Not to be confused with growth rate).
Burden of Dependency: Concentration of the population of developing countries in the young, non-
productive ages, a situation which is less favourable to production and proportionately more burdensome
with respect to consumption and social overhead investment. Similar concentration takes place in the
developed countries in the old age-group of 65 years and more, who are also retired from the labour force
and have to depend on the rest of society.
Capital Intensive: A form of production in which the proportion of capital employment is large relative to
labour.
Capital-Labour Ratio: The ratio of capital to labour in an economy, (an industry or a firm).
Death Rate or Crude Death Rate: The number of deaths in a year per thousand persons in the total
population.
Demographic Transition: The historical shift of birth and death rates from high to low levels. The decline
of mortality usually precedes the decline in fertility thus resulting in rapid population growth during the
transition period. It has been devised with particular reference to the experience of developed countries
which have passed through the process of industrialisation and urbanisation.
Demography: (Greek: demos (people) + graphic (study), The scientific study of human populations,
including their size, composition, distribution, density, growth and other demographic and socio-economic
characteristics, and the causes and consequences of changes in these factors.
Dependency Ratio: The proportion of dependents in the population relative to the working population.
Desertification: The spread of like conditions in and or semi-arid areas due either to careless human
interference or to climate change. Often, it is the result of a combination of increasing human pressures and
spell of rainless lean years.
Durable Consumer Goods: Goods purchased by consumer for use over a relatively long period, e.g. cars,
washing machines, television, VCR, furniture etc.
Infrastructure: The underlying structure of services and amenities needed to facilitate industrial,
agricultural and other economic development, called economic infrastructure. It includes the provision of
transport communications, power supplies, water etc. investment in infrastructure is considered necessary
for economic development. There are social infrastructures also, indirectly associated with economic
development, such as health and education facilities.
Labour Intensive: A form of production requiring a high proportion of labour in relation to capital.
Malthus Thomas R (1766-1834) English clergyman and economist famous for his theory (expounded in the
"Essay on the Principle of Population") that the population of the world tends to increase faster than the food
supply and that unless fertility is controlled, famine, vice, disease and war must serve as natural checks on
population.
Occupation Structure: The distribution of economically active population i.e., working population into a
large number of employment or productive activities; Such activities are broadly categorized into primary,
secondary and tertiary sectors representing agriculture industry and services respectively.
Population Explosion: Expression used to describe the 20th century world wide trend of enormous and
rapid population growth resulting from a world birth rate much higher than the world death rate.
Population Growth Rate: The rate at which the population is increasing (or decreasing) in a given year due
to natural increase and net migration, expressed as a percentage of the base population. Natural rate of
population increase is the gap between birth and death rates in India, the combination of still high fertility
and much reduced mortality (death rate) led to population growth rate of around 2 per cent or more a year.
Population growth rate increased as death rate has continued to fall.
Population Increase: The total population increase resulting from the interactions of births, deaths, and
migration in a population in a given period of time.
Population Policy: Explicit or implicit measures instituted by a government to influence population size,
growth, distribution or composition.
Population Problem: For most developing countries, it is largely a problem of rapid growth rates. Rapid
growth rates in population are problematic in two respects: (a) they may slow down economic growth, and
(b) under certain conditions, they may increase income inequalities and worsen the condition of the poorer
groups.
Sex Distribution: The number of males in the population compared to that females.
Subsistence Level: The Standard of living below which human life cannot be maintained.
Under-employment: The employment of a worker in a job that either does not offer sufficient hours of
work to get him his due personal income or the income it fetches is too low for the satisfaction of his basic
needs even though he works full time.
Underdeveloped Countries (Third World or Developing or Less Developed): Those countries which for
some reasons have been slow in developing their economic resources with the result that their peoples have
a much lower standard of living than that enjoyed in the more economically advanced countries of Europe
and North America
Under-development: The lack of self-generating force or dynamic (or the presence of counter-productive
forces) in the economy, also marked by the underdeveloped social conditions of existence.
Unemployment: The difference between total employed workers and the labour force
(persons 15 years older, but less than 65 years, looking for work). This number as ratio of the labour force is
the unemployment rate.
Urbanisation: The process of becoming urban. In general usage urbanisation is associated with the
concentration of population in towns and cities. As a demographic phenomenon, urbanisation is interpreted
as a process involving the absolute and relative growth of towns and cities within a defined area. Usually,
they are identified as centres of social change with different attitudes, values and behaviour patterns. These
places are modified in the particular milieu of the urban place, characterised by its size, its density, and the
heterogeneity of its inhabitants. An urban area is usually supposed to spread its characteristics to the rest of
the society of a country or region by process of diffusion, which, however, may not always happen,
particularly in countries with colonial legacy.
Young Population: A population with a relatively high proportion of children, adolescents, and young
adults, and thus a high growth potential.

Cassen, R.H. (1979): India: Population, Economy, Society, Chapter I (pp 9-32), Chap 4 (pp 221-231, 245-
250, 272-279), Delhi, Macmillan.
United Nations (1982): Population of India: Country Monograph Series No. 10, Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Chap 5 (pp107-108), Chap 8 (pp 176-187).
17.9 ANSWERS AND/OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS /EXERCISES
1) ``d,,
2) See section 17.1 and 17.2 and frame your answer
3) a) 'faster' and 'grimmer' or 'slower' and 'brighter'

b) 'social integration'
c) 'has become'
d) 'Bucharest'
4) See section 17.2
5) a) T
b) T
c) F
d) T
6) See section 17.2 and frame your answer.
1) a) b)
c) takes, cannot
d) difficult
2) a) T
b) T
c) F
d) F
3) See Sub-sections 17.3.1 and frame your answer.
4) See Sub-section 17.3.2 for your answer.

1) i) Pressure on available infrastructure and opportunity
ii) Restricted employment opportunities
iii) Increased burden of dependency ratio
iv) Pressure on land and other renewable resources
v) Worsening of distributional justice.
2) a) employment,
b) illiterate, unbearable,
c) over-strains,
d) over-urbanisation,
e) dependent.
3) i), v), vi), viii), ix).
4) i) T ii) F iii) T iv) F v) T
5) See section 17.5.2 and attempt your answer.

UNIT 18 PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL
UNITY : A COLONIAL
HERITAGE
Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Evolution of the Idea of National Unity
18.3 Factors Contributing to National Unity
18.4 British Role and its Impact
18.4.1 Peasants
18.4.2 Tribals
18.4.3 Education and Reform
18.4.4 Martial Race Concepts
18.5 Distortions in History
18.6 Origins of Communal Tensions and Politics
18.6.1 In Representation to Legislatures

18.6.2 In Jobs
18.6.3 In Agrarian Relations
18.6.4 In Society and Culture
18.7 Growth of Regional Sentiments and Identity
18.8 Let Us Sum Up
18.9 Key Words
18.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit shall analyse the problems relating to National Unity in India. Here, the issues of
Communalism and Regionalism are identified as the two major obstacles to national unity. After
studying this unit, you will be able to :
• Discuss with some authority the concepts of Communalism and Regionalism.

• Trace the historical background of the evolution of these two ideas and processes.
• Learn the mechanisms by which the British colonial rule manipulated Indian people, and also
know about their role in aggravating communal tensions in India.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
India is a multi-ethnic society. There are a large number of ethnic groups which vary in size from
highly localized cast and tribal groups, to very large language and religious groups. No single
group is clearly dominant, and the boundaries between the various groups are not entirely fixed.
In such a situation, the difficulties involved in presenting the theme of principles of Indian unity
are of a fundamental nature. Of late, there has been a tendency in the literature on political
development to focus upon national integration as a policy which seeks assimilation of the entire
population of a state to a common identity and which recognizes only individual rights, privileges
and duties.
Such a policy is to be distinguished from one of political integration, which seeks to maintain the
cohesion and territorial integrity of a political unit, but does not necessarily demand the cultural
assimilation of diverse groups to either a dominant or composite culture. Without going into the
validity of these two processes, one can question the extent to which either individually or
together, have contributed to the process of nation building. In fact, today, one finds that on
issues like language, religion, caste, tribe and region the divisive forces due to their vested
interests are threatening to break the very fabric of Indian unity. In this unit, we look into the
historical background of the problems of communalism and regionalism in relation to national
unity. This is because today these are possibly the greatest impediments in the task of national
integration.
18.2 EVOLUTION OF THE IDEA OF

NATIONAL UNITY
There has been a considerable debate among scholars on the question whether the term India
applies to an all encompassing civilization with clearly identifiable components that make for a
political and cultural reality, or it refers merely to an application of the term multiplicity of
distinctive political and cultural regions, within a defined geographical location. By the 1880’s
this debate had emerged clearly. John Strachey in his book 'India’, mentioned that the most
essential thing to learn about India was that :
“There is not and never was an India, or even a country of India, possessing, according to
European ideas, my sort of unity : physical, political, social or religious”.
As against this British emphasis on regionalism, a large number of Indian writers like D.R.
Bhandarkar, Bankim Chandra Chattergie, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, and a number of
other nationalist writers tried to assert that there was and always had been and India, attested to
by its physical, political, social and cultural unity. An attempt was made to synthesize the
conflicting position by Vincent Smith in his Òxford History of India’, when he mentioned,
“India offers unity in diversity”, a usage which was used by Jawaharlal Nehru to demonstrate the
secular content of this unity.
18.3 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO

NATIONAL UNITY
There is no denying the fact that in the modern sense of the term India as a nation had never
existed before the establishment of British colonial rule, but India had a long history of religious
toleration and cultural assimilation. This gave India’s long history a sense of continuity. British
rule provided the basic infra-structure for the growth of India into a nation. This is brought out by
the following :
The British brought the entire geographical area of the country under a single administration.
They also unified the country by introducing a uniform system of law and government.
The introduction of modern means of communication like railways, telegraphs, a postal

system, development of roads and motor transport produced the same unifying effect.
The destruction of rural and local economic self-sufficiency, and the growth of internal trade
created conditions for the growth of a national consciousness, which could have become the basis
for a unified Indian state. But if British rule unconsciously contributed to the growth of Indian
unity, their deliberate policy of divide and rule certainly undid what had been achieved
unintentionally.

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Which of the following statements are right or wrong ? Mark (√) and (x)
i) John Strachey described India as a nation which was there for a long time.
ii) India has a long history of cultural assimilation.
iii) In India there is a unity in diversity.
2) What were the views of a nationalists in relation to India being a nation?
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
..............................................………………………………………………………..........
18.4 BRITISH ROLE AND ITS IMPACT

From 1757 the British used their control over India to promote their own interests. But the
character of their rule did not remain the same throughout. The nature of colonial rule, policies,
and their impact changed with the changing pattern of Britain’s own social, economic and
political development. Thus :
i) In the first stage of the British rule, no basic changes were introduced in the
administration, the judicial system, transport and communication, the methods of
agriculture or industrial production or in the educational and intellectual fields.
ii) The second stage saw the transformation of Indian economy to cater to the interests of the
British industrial capitalists. The new economic role which its was now required to
perform could not be done in the old setting.
Therefore, the British Government after 1813, set out to transform Indian administration,
economy and society to achieve exactly these ends. A new judicial system based on a new corpus
of laws and legal codes - Indian Penal Code, and the Civil Procedure Code - was introduced.
There was also the need for manpower resources to run the new system : therefore, modern
education that had been introduced after 1813, was expanded after 1833. This period also saw the
emergence of a liberal imperialist political ideology among British statesmen and British Indian
administrators and hence, the talk of training Indians in the art of self-government.
iii) The third stage of British rule in India coincided with far-reaching changes in the
world economic situation. It was the emergence of America, France, Germany, Russia
and Japan as industrial powers, resulting in a worldwide competition for markets and
colonies. Thus, in this stage British rule was marked by a renewed upsurge of
imperialist control. All talk of educating Indians for self-government was given
up.
On the contrary, it came to be emphasised that because of geographical, historical,social
and cultural factors, the Indian people had become permanently unfit for self-
government: therefore, the need for the British to continue with their rule. To
perpetuate their rule had recourse to various measures :
a) They tried to put checks on the process of modernization in India, when they saw
that such changes produced social forces that began to oppose imperialism and
the exploitative machinery of the colonial rule.
b) Secondly, in the face of growing threat from the Indian National Movement,
every conceivable effort was made to keep the people divided so that a strong
unified movement could never be created.
As a consequence of the above, by the end of the 19th century, India had been completely
transformed as a colony of Great Britain. The development of England as a leading capitalist
country went hand in hand with the growing underdevelopment of India into a backward
economy. All the policies of the British Government were designed to convert India into a
colonial economy to serve the interests of the British Government, British manufacturers, British
investments and a large imperialist administration. Of all the important administrative measures
of the British Government in India, the one which had the greatest impact on the people, was their
policy on land revenue administration.
18.4.1 Peasants
The two major land revenue and tenurial systems which Britain introduced were the Zamindari
System (later also known as Mahalwari System though in a modified form) and the Ryotwari
System.
This transformation was brought about not with an idea of improving the agricultural economy of
India and improving the economic condition of the people by increased productivity. Instead, the
main objective was to create a class of landed elements who looked up to the British for their
power and position and to ensure that all agricultural surplus was utilized in British financial
interest.
Under both these systems, the ultimate sufferers were the peasants. In the Zamindari system, the
old tax frame were turned into private landlords, complete masters of the village communities,
and the peasants were reduced a tenants at will. These new landlords, however, had to pay a bulk
of their rent collected from their tenants to the government.
In the Ryotwari System, the government collected revenue directly from the individual
cultivators. Though the right of ownership was recognised, the high rate of revenue made their
right only tentative. Through these two institutions, the government assumed the position of a
landlord.
One of the resultant evil effects of this policy was the growth of a class of money-lenders, who
not only became an influential economic strata in the country, but also a political force, often
manipulating the new judicial and the administrative systems to their advantage. The inroads
made in the villages by the landlords, money-lenders and merchants ruined the agrarian economy.
These measures resulted in the emergence of new social classes in the rural areas - landlords,
intermediaries, money-lenders at the top and tenants-at-will, share-croppers and agricultural
labourers at the bottom. Not only was exploitation intensified, but it led to a greater fragmentation
of society, all to the benefit of British, of course.
18.4.2 Tribals
British rule and the policy of commercialization of agriculture strengthened tendencies towards
penetration of tribal areas by outsiders from the plains - money-lenders, traders, land grabbers and
contractors. The tribal people greatly resented the intrusion of colonial administration. Most of
all, they objected to the penetration of their simple and sheltered life by various classes of
exploiters. A new but increasingly important factor from the 1870’s was the tightening of control
by the colonial state over forest zones for revenue purposes. Shifting cultivation which required
no plough animals and therefore, was often essential for the survival of the poorest in rural
society, was banned or restricted in the reserved forests from 1867 onwards. Attempts were made
to monopolize forest wealth through laws curbing the use of timber and grazing facilities. Protest
by tribal groups was marked by immense courage and sacrifice on their part and of course, savage
butchery the part of the official machinery of suppression. One can mention in particular the
revolts of the Kols from 1820 to 1837, the Santhals in 1855-56, the Rampas in 1879 and the
Mundas from 1895-1901.
These fragmentations which created wide disparities and imbalances were manifold in nature-
regional, communal, tribal, non-tribal, high caste and low caste, educated, non-educated, etc.
Such fragmentation and imbalances created problems for a united national movement. In order to
mobilize all the people in the struggle against imperialism, the national movement became
committed to the goals of abolishing all distinctions and disparities based on caste, sex or
religion.
18.4.3 Education and Reform

The link with the West also led to the entry of modern ideas into India and the intellectual life of
Indians began to undergo revolutionary changes. However, if ideas of democracy, sovereignty of
the people, rationalism and humanism developed in India, that was not the desired goals of the
colonialists. Modern education introduced in India after 1813 was very limited. Primary and
social education was neglected and later the British turned hostile to higher education, because
the indirect carrier of nationalism. The structure and pattern, aims, method, curricula and content
of the education system were all designed to serve colonialism.
Some of the aspects of Indian education, arising out of its colonial character, can be summarized
as follows :
There was a complete neglect of modern technical education, a basic necessity for
the development of modern industry.
There was the emphasis on English language as the medium of instruction in place
of Indian languages. As a result, education could not spread to the masses creating a
wide, social, linguistic and cultural gulf between the educated elites and the masses.
Education became a virtual monopoly of the middle and upper classes in towns and
cities.
In the initial stages, the colonial government encouraged social reforms, but gradually, the
conservative character and long term interests of colonialism led to a change of attitude. The
British not only withdrew their support of the reformers, but buttressed the orthodox, reactionary
and decadent elements of the Indian society, who willingly served as the bulwark of the British
Raj.
18.4.4 Martial Race Concepts

British policy of classifying Indians into martial and non-martial races, and basing their policy of
army recruitments and division of regiments on regional lines, also went against the principles of
national unity. For example, the Bengalis were especially singled out for their lack of manly
courage. T.B. Mckinley in an essay on Warren Hastings in his 'Critical and Historical Essays’,
wrote :
“The physical organization of the Bengali is feeble, even to effeminacy. He lives in a

constant vapour bath. His pursuits are sedentary, his limb delicate, his movements
languid. During many ages he was been trampled upon by men of bolder and more hardy
breeds. Courage, independence, veracity are qualities to which his constitution and his
situation are equally unfavorable”.
Needless to say, such a characterization was malicious and unwarranted but it certainly served
British ends.
Based on such prejudices were formed the Sikh, Jat, Rajput and Maratha Regiments. Thus, the
army instead of being a national force, emerged instead as a mere assemblage of units
representing regional, sectarian or caste interests. Unfortunately, this process has continued even
after independence. It is only very recently that a reassessment is being done to do away with
these legacies of the colonial rule.
In this way, from the end of the 19th century onward, the British policy of ,Divide and Rule’
became the basic and all pervading element of colonial policy. This policy manifested itself not
only through a communal division of Indians into monolithic religious groups, but also attempted
to set as many groups and interests against one another as possible. Thus, the British encouraged
provincialism, regionalism such as Bengali versus Bihari, or Punjabi versus Bengali, linguism,
caste against caste, martial versus non-martial races, etc. All the instruments in the hand of the
colonial power were utilised towards their basic objective of keeping the people divided.
Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.
1) Write in about ten lines the impact of colonial policies on the tribals.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................…………………………………..
2) Which of the following statement are right or wrong? Mark (√) or (x).
i) As a result of colonial education policy there emerged a gulf between the elite
and the masses.
ii) Classifying Indians into martial and non-martial races was a result of British
policy of divide and rule.
iii) The British divided Indians into martial and non-martial races to strengthen
Indian Unity.
iv) The British encouraged provincialism.
2) Why did the British withdraw their support to social reforms?

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
.............................................……………………………………………………….......
18.5 DISTORTIONS IN HISTORY

All possible attempts were made to distort Indian history. First, the British tried to show that
Indian had always been ruled by tyrants and despots, implying thereby that :
First, as long as the British provided the Indians with the rule of law, the British too could afford
to be autocratic.
Secondly, they tried to show that British rule had actually liberated the Hindus from the
maltreatment they had suffered at the hands of the Muslims.
Thirdly, they repeatedly asserted that the Hindus and the Muslims had always been divided into
two mutually exclusive monolithic groups.
The periodization of Indian history into the Hindu period, Muslim period and British period was
deliberately done to underline this presumed division and separateness.
Such a distorted, unscientific view of Indian history, especially of its ancient and medieval
periods, was a major factors in the spread of communal ideology among the people. The teaching
of Indian history in schools and colleges contributed in a major way to the growth of communal
feeling. Communal interpretation of Indian history was done first by writers and then by others.
Thus, H.M. Elliot, referring to Muslim rule in India, wrote :
“The few glimpses we have ... of Hindus slain for disputing with Muhammedans, of
general prohibitions against processions, worship and ablutions, and of other intolerant
measures, of idols mutilated, of temples razed, of forcible conversions and marriages, of
proscriptions and confiscations, of murders and massacres, and of the sensuality and
drunkenness of the tyrants who enjoined them”.
Elliot accepted that his motive in writing history was to make “Our native subjects more sensible
of the immense advantages accruing to them under the mildness and equity of our rule”, and to
make the emerging nationalist intellectuals see the reality of pre-British India and stop their
critique of British imperialism.
Unfortunately, many Indian writers imbibed consciously or unconsciously these prejudices of the
imperialist historians, and ignoring all historical evidence, went on to project their present into
the past and came to view Muslim rule in a similar spirit, or glorified the attempts at empire
building by the Hindus. Thus, Sir Jadunath Sarkar (in his History of Aurangzab’, Vol. III), wrote
:
“The conversion of the entire population to Islam and the extinction of every form of
dissent is the ideal of the Muslim state. If any infidel is suffered to exist in the
community, it is as a necessary evil, and for transitional period only. Political and social
disabilities must be imposed on him, and bribes offered to him from the public funds, to
hasten the day of his spiritual enlightenment and the addition of his name to the roll of
true believers.”
Similarly, A. L. Srivastava in his 'History of India’ (1000-1707 A.D.) wrote :
“The Turkish process of conquest and subjugation of the country, being co-extensive
with the period of its rule, lasted for over 350 years, during which lakhs of Hindus were
killed, and lakhs were massacred after wars, and lakhs of their women and children were
converted and sold as slaves ... politically and socially, the Hindus, as a people had to
suffer deeply during this period. Not only were they deprived of their position as rulers,
ministers, governors, and commanders of troops, but were also treated contemptuously.”
The role of history teaching and such distortions in the spread on communalism was seen clearly
by contemporary observers also. Gandhiji wrote that communal harmony could not be
permanently established in our country so long as highly distorted versions of history were being
taught in schools and colleges through the history textbooks.
In 1932, the “Foreword” to the Report of the Kanpur Riots Enquiry Committee appointed by the
Indian National Congress pointed out :
“We feel that unless the people begin to see the past in a truer perspective, it will be very
difficult or well-nigh impossible, to restore mutual confidence and to arrive at a real and
permanent solution of the present differences. We consider, therefore, that an attempt to
remove historical misconceptions is the first and the most indispensable step in the real
solution of the Hindu-Muslim problem.”
Even more than the textbooks, the communal view of history was spread widely through poetry,
dramas, historical novels and short stories, newspapers and popular magazines, pamphlets, and
orally through public platforms and private discussions.
Thus, there is a persistent attempt by many scholars and political leaders to show that the
communal politics of the present had its roots in the past ; in fact, in the very nature of Muslim
rule. It should be clearly understood that communalism was not a remnant of the past or a
hangover of the medieval period. In the words of Prof. Bipan Chandra :
“It was modern ideology that incorporated some aspects and element of the past
ideologies and institutions and historical background to form a new ideological and
political discourse or view”.
18.6 ORIGINS OF COMMUNAL TENSIONS

AND POLITICS
It was the post 1857 period which saw the development of such politics and ideology which
resulted in widening the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims. The latent differences in their
perceptions were allowed to surface and the existing goodwill and amity were marred by the
growth of communal politics and ideology. The major communal riots occurred in the first half of
the 20th century (1906-07, 1918,1926,1930 and 1946).
There is a conceptual distinction between communal tension and communal politics. Communal
tension, as Prof. Bipan Chandra points out, is episodic and usually involves the lower classes
only. But communal politics is a long-term process which is rather continuous unlike the former.
It mainly involves the middle classes, landlords and bureaucratic elements. Though, both the
integrated terms, what bring about communal riots are communal ideology and politics.
Communalism as a divisive force, in the societal and political life, is the result of the last hundred
years of communal politics and ideology.
The view was fuelled by the Britishers’ belief in the notion of division on the basis of religious
communities. Though, it would be historically incorrect to say that tension and differences had
never existed under the 'Muslim’ rule, these were not communal nature, but reflected more the
differences of class : the ruling class and the ruled, the producers and the consumers, the
landlords and the tenants, and each of these groups was composed of both Hindus and Muslims.
In social and cultural spheres, both the Hindus and Muslims had lived side by side sharing
pastoral and other festivals. The existence of syncretistic cults such as those of Satyapir,
Manikpir, etc. show the veneration by Hindus and Muslims alike of holy men. In the field of
poetry there were a number of Muslim poets who wrote on Vaishnav themes : for example, Sayed
Martuja, Chand Kazi, Sahanur and Lal Mahmud. Hindu Gods were held in high esteem. Nawab
Mir Jafar, at the time of his death, offered to drink the water of liberation poured on the idol of
Goddess Kiriteshwari and a few drops were actually poured down his throat by Maharaja Nand
Kumar. But, religion replaced other loyalties. viz., to the nation and the emphasis on the former
continued throughout the British rule. This was reflected in different fields of activity, as we shall
presently see.
18.6.1 In Representation to Legislatures

The system of communal representation was an important feature in official policy. Here creation
of communal electorates by the Act of 1909 was significant. By this Act, Muslims could vote in
Muslim constituencies for anyone, irrespective of their religion, though they could also vote
along with the Hindus for general seats. After the Act of 1919, the situation worsened, with both
the Muslims and the Hindus being permitted to vote members of their own community. The
Simon Commission report presented in 1930, only reinforced such a view, with its emphasis on
strengthening of communal representation in legislative bodies and communal reservation.
Weightage and discrimination were other facets of the British policy.
There were two basic assumptions proving encouragement for such a system :
i) The British believed that the political, social economic and cultural interests of
different communities were separate, and their respective interest could be best
represented only by members of their own communities.
ii) A general electorate would open up the possibility of domination by the majority
community, both in terms of representation in the legislature as well as by articulating
their interests. Separate electorates turned elections and the legislatures
into arenas of communal conflicts.
Added to the system of separate electorates was the other restrictive system of property and
educational qualifications. Thus, the elections were mostly confined to the middle classes and
separate electorates meant institutionalisation of middle class needs and politics along communal
lines. For instance, the communal award declared in early 1932 by Ramsay Macdonald provided
for separate Hindu, Untouchable, and Muslim electorates for the new federal legislatures. This
separate treatment and differentiation between the Hindus and Untouchables provoked resentment
by Gandhiji who opposed the award. He demanded reservation of more seats for them (he
referred to them as Harijans) in the legislature within the Hindu electorate. This was amendment
to the Communal Award.
18.6.2 In Jobs
In the late 19th century, the differences between the two communities manifested themselves in
three directions. First, it took the form of conflict over jobs. A study conducted by Sufia Ahmad
shows that in the province of Bengal in September 1907, the number of Muslims employed in the
salary range of Rs. 15-1001 and upwards was only 1,235 as compared to the Hindu enjoyed a
numerical superiority in all services and grades. During the British rule, the divide and rule policy
was increased in the matter of jobs.
18.6.3 In Agrarian Relations

Disputes between landlords and tenants was another area where the communal tensions were
visible. This occurred particularly in East Bengal (now Bangladesh), where the majority of the
zamindars were Hindus and the tenants Muslims. The 1901 census showed that of every 10,000
Muslims, 7,316 were cultivators. But, out of every 10,000 Hindus, there were only 5,555
cultivators. Thus, the proportion of landlords was 170 in 10,000 in the case of Muslims, and 217
in the case of Hindus. And this relationship between the landlords and the tenants was allowed by
the British to worsen for obvious reasons.
18.6.4 In Society and Culture

The ideological factor reflected in English-education and the resultant cultural influences
aggravated communalism. English education portrayed the British as saviours of Hindus from
Muslim tyranny. The already growing gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims, was intensified
further by the British through their various administrative and other institutions.
Besides the encouragement of communal tensions, the caste divisions in the society were also
highlighted. Caste solidarity was encouraged too. In pre-British India, the availability of land and
the fluid political situation, had facilitated caste mobility through each migration. The colonial
rule closed or reduced some of these avenues. At the same time, the Governor of U.P. supported
Hindu Communalism in that province. He increased the number of Hindus in government
employment and supported the advocates of Hindi and not Urdu, thus sowing deeper divisions
between the two communities.
From the first decade of the twentieth century, the principle of reserving posts and promotions in
public services through fixed quotas for Hindus and Muslims was rigorously pursued in Bengal
and Punjab. The principle was extended to all provincial and all India Services in 1934. It was
also increasingly applied to admissions to professional and other government colleges.
The Government also carefully managed educational development through municipal committees
and district boards, colleges, universities and denominational schools, which only promoted
rivalry between communities in the field of education.
Apart from jobs and education, communal rivalry was also created through contracts and
conferment of titles, appointment of honorary magistrates and nomination to municipal and
legislative bodies.
The British failed to take action against the propagators of communal tensions and ideas.
Whereas the government had evolved an extensive system of police-reporting, intelligence
gathering press censorship and other laws to control the legitimate demands of the people (which
was effectively used against the nationalists), the very same machinery took no action against the
instigators of tensions. They were helped by the attitude of the communal and British-owned
newspapers, which highlighted these tensions and inflamed passions, thus, contributing to bitter
feelings. English education increasingly provided a new ladder to social promotion for a small but
growing minority; in the process, creating wider differentiations. From 1901 onwards, the British
also made a direct contribution by undertaking a caste census, which classified castes on the basis
of social precedence as recognised by native public opinion. This encouraged the Jati leaders to
organise caste associations and invent mythological caste histories to puts their claims for pre-
eminence. Successful leading members of a jati mobilized support from their caste brethren in
their usually parochial and selfish struggle for social recognition, jobs and political favours. This
process was greatly accelerated by the gradual introduction of electoral politics from the 1880’s
onward.

1) Discuss in about 10 lines the steps taken by the British to distort Indian History.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
2) What is the distinction between communal tension and communal politics?
....................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
3) Why and how did the British encourage communal representation?

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
................................................................................…………………………………...
....................................................................................................................................
...................................................................………………………...............................
18.7 GROWTH OF REGIONAL SENTIMENTS

AND IDENTITY
An important development in the beginning of the 20th century was the growth of regional
sentiments along linguistic lines. These sentiments were at times associated with the demand for
more jobs for under-privileged groups of educated youth, but often these had deeper roots as they
were bound up with the emergence of “powerful literary and cultural trends in different regional
languages” (Sumit Sarkar, `Modern India’ Delhi, 1984).
About 1911, a movement began demanding a separate province in the Andhra districts of Madras.
From 1913 onwards, annual Andhra conferences or Andhra Mahasabhas were held, and among
other things, they demanded the use of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction. Though a
clear cut demand for a linguistic state came only from the Andhra region, the development of
regional languages led to the growth of various trends. For example, in Tamil Nadu, anti-Brahmin
movements were closely associated with the formation of Tamil Sangams in various towns,
which stimulated interest in ancient Tamil Classics.
Bengal had already exhibited a certain sense of regional unity and regional sentiments in 1905 in
the wake of the then Vice-Roy Lord Curzon’s partition of Bengal. What had contributed to such a
growth was the evolution of a standard literary language, newspapers, periodicals, modern
literature, and the general education and cultural developments of the nineteenth century, which
gave the Bengalis a certain regional pride.
In Bihar, the demand for a separate province came under the leadership of Sachidanand Sinha,
resulting in the formation of new provinces of Bihar and Orissa in 1911. Such a development of
regional sentiments, which was not confined to any particular region but covered the entire Indian
sub-continent, was a result of over centralization under the colonial rule, which undermined
regional entities resulting in their break-up. Under the Mughals, the process of centralization took
into consideration the existence of various entities such as Bijapur, Golkunda, Bihar, Orissa,
Oudh, Allahabad, etc. But British rule in India by creating big Presidencies like Bombay, Madras
and Calcutta, tried to bring various territorial and linguistic groups under one centralized control.
A reaction to such a process was the intensification of regional consciousness and the demand for
separate regional identities. However, it must be noted here that none of these regional sentiments
were opposed to the nationalist movement.
The colonial policy of encouraging all forms of separatist tendencies was to prevent people from
uniting under a common nationalist movement. The policy of divide and rule, particularly in the
context of communalism, was implemented in various ways. The British administrators treated
the Muslims as a separate community or political entity by acting upon the assumption that India.
Moreover, it was assumed that India consisted of varied interests or communities and the most
important of these were religious communities. Such a communal view of Indian society and
politics was maintained and propagated right from the beginning of modern politics in India to
the end of British rule.
In 1930, the Simon Commission referred to the relationship between the Hindus and Muslims as
that of “a basic opposition manifesting itself at every turn in social custom and economic
competitions, as well as in mutual religious antipathy.” Therefore, it was believed that
“representation of rival communities and different interests is the only principle, upon which, it
has been found possible to constitute, by the method of direct election, the legislative bodies of
India”.
The national movement could not be weakened. At times, we find that certain regional issues
were taken up at a national level. For example, the partition of Bengal in 1905 was not just a
regional issue. Bengal, at this time, was in the forefront of the national movement. People all over
the country were able to understand the British motive of crushing the roots of nationalism by
dividing Bengal. Hence, there were protests all over the country.
There is no dearth of such instances. Had regionalism been the dominant trend, why should have
there been protests all over the country after the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy? It were only the
people of Punjab who were massacred by the British. Similarly, Non-Cooperation Movement was
a great success in the regions of coastal Andhra. Leadership as well as mass support for the
national movement came from all the regions of the country.
In the context of the legacy of British rule, the problem of creating national unity is a serious one.
One important and redeeming feature is, that whereas colonial rule acted as a prop to separatist
tendencies, the state now is committed to a policy of secularism and removal of social and
economic imbalances. The task, however, is difficult and the path tedious. There is a need to
bring about a balanced economic development of all parts of the country, so that there are no
imbalances between far-flung small states and the more centrally located states. Equal
opportunity for education should be given to all to remove social imbalances. Instead of imposing
any one language, all languages should be given equal opportunity for their development. Thus,
in Hindi speaking areas, languages from the south should be encouraged and vice-versa. It is only
through a process of mutual understanding and accommodation that linguistic barriers can be
broken. Forceful imposition of one language may result in an equally forceful reaction, which
may not be in the interest of national unity. Above all, the government as a custodian of national
unity has to ensure that regional, sectarian, religious, caste or other forms of separatist sentiments
are not exploited for transient petty gains like votes or other similar interests. To achieve these
goals, it is essential to impress on the minds of the people at an impressionable age, the need for
and the principles of national unity. For only then, a recurrence of what happened at Ayodhya on
December 6, 1992 can be prevented.

1) How did the colonial policy encourage separatist divisions?

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................………………………………
……………………..............................................................................................
2) How did the national movement see the growth of regional identities?
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
..........................................................…………………………………….....................
3) Write a short note on how regional and linguistic identities can be brought into the
national mainstream.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
..........................................................…………………………………………..............
18.8 LET US SUM UP

We have learnt in this unit the main impediments for national unity in the country and identified
the major ones as Communalism and Regionalism. We have also examined how the British rule
reinforced the nascent communal tensions prevalent in our society and used them, employing
various techniques, to further their own ends. A divide and rule policy was helpful to the British
in consolidating their hold over India - a jewel in the British Crown.
The legacy of communalism and regionalism was inherited by the independent Indian state. This
historical legacy had only got accentuated in recent years, because of the problems generated by
economic development and the resultant social changes.
The social changes and tensions which are quite natural in the course of development of a society,
should not be allowed to aggravate and tear apart the very fabric of unity and integrity of the
country. Foundations of secularism and integration are to be strengthened by the policies of the
government. Resorting to communal politics should be discouraged, and instead, programmes
involving cross-section of people in various development projects and schemes should be
planned.
18.9 KEY WORDS

Syncretist : Tendencies in a culture which can bring diverse or different cultures or social groups
together.
Shifting Cultivation : Cultivation which changes its site for production since the soil on which it
is practised becomes useless after a few seasons. Lack of developed agricultural technology also
led to this practice on good soils in earlier times.
Commercialization : Introduction of money and money relations in areas hitherto not affected
by the same.
Episodic: Occurring briefly.

Chandra, Bipan : Communalism in Modern India, New Delhi, 1984.
Sarkar, Sumit : Modern India 1885-1947, New Delhi.
Wallace, Paul (ed.) : Region and Nation in India, New Delhi.

PROGRESS EXERCISES
1) i) X ii) 9iii) 9
2) See Section 18.2. Your answer should include the nationalist writers’ argument that
India had from the ancient times possessed a unity.

1) See Sub-section 18.4.2. Your answer should include :
i) penetration of simple tribal life by outsiders.
ii) ban on shifting cultivation due to creation of restricted forest zones by the
British.
iii) attempt to monopolize forest wealth earlier available to all tribals.
iv) tribal rebellions
2) i) 9ii) 9iii) X iv) 9

i) the limited nature of British reform.
ii) conservative character of colonialism
iii) colonialism support to reactionary classes to strengthen itself.

1) See Section 18.5. Your answer should include :
i) projection of India as a traditionally despot ruled land.
ii) stress on Hindu-Muslim divide in the past.
iii) colonialism’s support to reactionary classes to strengthen itself.
2) See Section 18.6. Your answer should include :

i) tension as a brief happening and politics as a long term phenomenon.
ii) mainly lower classes being involved in tension while upper and middle classes
being involved in politics.
iii) role of communal ideology in bringing about communal riots.

i) the role of British belief which viewed India as comprising of separate
communities.
ii) policy of divide and rule. For 'how’, you should mention the role of separate
electorates and the communal award.

1) See Section 18.7., Para 5. Your answer should include :
i) the role of the policy of divide and rule
ii) Communal view of Indian society by the British.
iii) ruthless suppression of the nationalists who opposed separatist tendencies. e.g.,
suppression of protest against partition of Bengal in 1905.
2) See Section 18.7., Para 7. Your answer should include how opposition developed to :
i) partition of Bengal
ii) other parts of the country
iii) how various regions initiated nationalist struggles.
3) See Section 18.7., last para. Your answer should include :

i) the role of secularism
ii) removal of social, economic imbalances
iii) the development of various languages and then a mutual understanding between
persons speaking different languages
iv) role of government in ensuring that separatist and divisive trends or cultural
differences are not used for petty political ends, and
v) role of education.
UNIT 20 PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL
UNITY : REGIONAL IMBALANCES
Structure
20.0 Objectives
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Regions and Regionalisation
20.3 Colonial Distortions and Regional Structure
20.3.1 The Agricultural Scene in the Colonial Period

20.3.2 Industrial Development during the Colonial Period
20.4 Changing Regional Patterns of Agricultural Development Since Independence
20.5 Industrial Development Since Independence and the Regions
20.6 Growth Rates and Regional Development
20.7 The Instruments of Balanced Regional Development
20.8 Planned Development, Regional Specialisation and Sectoral Interdependence
20.9 Effects of Regional Disparities
20.10 Let Us Sum Up
20.11 Key Words
20.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit describes the processes of regionalisation of the vast sub-continent of India. Some of the
problems of National Unity arise out of these processes. These create regional imbalance - some
regions of the country forging ahead leaving others behind. After going through this unit, you
will be able to understand and explain the following features of the problem of regional
development in India :
“Region” as a concept
The Colonial Legacy and the Regional Structure
The Changing Pattern of Regionalisation in Agriculture and Industry
Planning for Balanced Regional Development.
20.1 INTRODUCTION
Regional disparities are the result of our unfinished task of nation building. These reflect
essentially the inadequacies of the development strategy followed since independence and its
failure to correct the distortions brought about by colonial rule. Of late, these tensions have
acquired alarming proportions and are threatening to strike at the very roots of the nation state.
This has brought to sharp focus the need of better understanding of the pattern of regionalisation,
the nature of regional imbalances and their changing structure over time. This unit introduces you
to this problem and its impact on national unity.
20.2 REGIONS AND REGIONALISATION

There were not very many studies on regionalism in India until the late forties excepting the
works of Dudley Stemp, Pithawalla and Kuriyen. Of course, the famous economic historian, R.C.
Dutta, had drawn attention to the consequences of regional variations of the land tenure system in
British India, such as the Permanent Settlement in the East, the Temporary Settlement in the
South etc. The British had sought to partition Bengal for political reasons in pursuance of their
policy of 'Divide and Rule’. The ethos of the national movement, which originated partly in the
successful battle against the partition of Bengal, was surcharged with the idea of United India
fighting for freedom. The issues relating to regionalisation and regional balance occupied a back-
seat, consequently, although the Constitution of India could only build on the Govt. Of India Act,
1935, which had created the structure of Provincial Governments.
Socio-economic differentiations within the country, however, started accelerating quite early
soon after independence and the States Reorganisation Commission had to go into the question in
depth. The Central Government’s early attempts were, none the less, aimed at a high rate of
growth of the economy through concentration of investment in comparatively developed regions
and in select sectors. This was to utilise the urban industrial infrastructure inherited from the
colonial regime.
A few regional designs were, however, worked out during the fifties for certain policy matters,
based largely on physiographic factors. The Census of India (1951) revived the concept of natural
regions, and identified five resource regions. The Reserve Bank of India worked out a regional
scheme based on physical and demographic factors. Individual researchers also attempt to study
the conditions of regions along similar lines. Particular interest was shown on the demarcation of
agrarian regions since the middle of the fifties.
It may be observed that attention to regions in India during the fifties remained by and large the
responsibility of geologists, geographers and agricultural experts, concerned with the delineation
of resource regions. But, the policy making process either ignored the regional dimension
altogether as was the case with the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 (which totally lacked a
regional perspective), or shifted the focus to linguistic and ethnic factors, as was reflected in the
Report of the States Reorganisation Commission in 1955. The socio-economic development
aspects of regions did not receive due emphasis in the formative phase of regionalisation
exercises in India.
The studies relating to regions and regional imbalances came to incorporate the socio-economic
dimensions in a meaningful manner since the early sixties. Economic regionalisation of India
by Sengupta and Sdasyuk (1961), brought out by the Census of India, 1961, was a major effort in
this direction. In 1962, the Planning Commission initiated a study to identify the backward
regions based on a set of socio-economic indicators. These clearly showed that Indian economy
was not only backward but was also characterised by regional imbalances.

Notes : i) Use the space given below for your answers.
a) “Regions” in India may be defined :

i) Solely in terms of rainfall
ii) Solely in terms of height above sea level
iii) Solely in terms of language
iv) Solely in terms of cropping patterns
v) Solely in terms of density of the Urban population
vi) A combination of all the foregoing plus a few other socio-economic
characteristics, such as, distribution of landholdings, availability of bank credit,
incidence of landlessness, incidence of tribals, etc.
b) Tick mark (√) whichever of the above six alternatives you consider correct.
Explain in four sentences why you consider your answer to be correct. If you have
any answer other than the above six, you may also give that answer along with the
reasons.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
...............................................................………………………………………………
20.3 COLONIAL DISTORTIONS AND

REGIONAL STRUCTURE
20.3.1 The Agriculture Scene in the Colonial Period
India with its vast alluvial plains and a generally warm, humid climate has been one of the major
agricultural regions of the world since the dawn of civilisation. It was primarily the surplus
generated from agriculture which provided the base for flourishing civilisations in ancient and
medieval times. It is, therefore, clear that British Imperialism acquired in India a well-developed
agricultural sector by all contemporary standards. But the colonial administration effected
agriculture in many ways.
Firstly, the proportion of workers dependent on this sector increased; secondly, the area under
cultivation stagnated; thirdly, investment on land and irrigation systems was marginal; and lastly,
the production responsibility was increasingly passed on to the people who did not own the land.
All these led to significant decrease in the productivity of land and labour. The adverse effect of
these factors on agriculture, however, was not uniform in all the regions of the country. The gap
in agricultural productivity between the north-western and eastern regions of the Indo-Gangetic
plains widened significantly during the colonial period. While the former showed positive trends,
the eastern region suffered very badly.
The decision to make large scale investment in building the railway network in eastern India, with
Calcutta as its vertex, curbed investment in irrigation. Besides, a disproportionate share of the
meager amount made available for irrigation went to north-west India. During the first fifteen
years of the twentieth century, the combined share of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in the total capital
outlay in irrigation was about five per cent, while that of Punjab was above forty per cent. India at
the time of independence, thus, inherited a stagnant agricultural sector with serious regional
imbalances.
20.3.2 Industrial Development during the Colonial

Period
The British acquired one of the relatively developed industrial economies of the world when they
conquered and incorporated India into their empire. The Indian Industrial Commission (1961-68)
was of the view that “when merchant adventurers from the West made their first appearance in
India, the industrial development of this country was not inferior to that of more advanced
European nations”.
Not only was the Indian segment of the British Empire Particularly rich in terms of the historical
traditions of craftsmanship and technical expertise, it was endowed with exceptionally rich
industrial resources. The Indian Industrial Commission was of the opinion that “the mineral
deposits of the country are sufficient to main most of the called key”, which could not have been
said about many of the then developed countries.
The colonial administration, however, was not interested in development of this industrial base.
They transformed the agro-industrial India of the ancient and medieval period into “An
Agriculture Farm of England.” The industrial policy of the government, particularly in the pre
World War - I phase, followed the injunction from the British Capitalist class to transform India
into its raw material appendage and a market for its manufactured goods. This resulted in directed
de-industrialisation of the country.
The process of industrial growth initiated during the colonial period, therefore, was feeble and
inverted in character with its predominant emphasis on consumer goods. Due to the absence of a
capital goods sector, which had laid the foundation of self-reliant industrialisation in European
nations, the industrial structure in this country stood on weak grounds. Though the British
described India as one of the “leading industrial nations of the world” at the Geneva Conference
(1922), it was in fact insignificant.
The process of industrial development was not merely structurally inverted but also regionally
distorted. The old, large urban centres like Surat, Dacca, Murshidabad and several of the small
and medium towns that could have acted as growth centres for the development of a modern
industrial sector, experienced fast decay. A top heavy spatial hierarchy with the port cities of
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras at the apex emerged on the scene. The establishment of a few
export processing and consumer goods industries in the port enclaves and some of the small
towns, acting as satellites to the former, could not make a dent on the low share of industries in
the workforce. Also, the erstwhile princely states were left virtually untouched by this limited
process of industrialisation.
A port-oriented centrifugal network of transport, dependent basically on the railways, was

established at phenomenal costs. This resulted in the emergence of enclaves of industrial
development around the few port cities. As a result, the industrial map of colonial India was
characterised by resource rich regions remaining industrially underdeveloped, barring a few
exceptions. The new developments in the field of industry and transport were highly localised and
their impact on the total economy was, at best, marginal. On the eve of independence, the
presidency states, wherein the above-mentioned port cities were located, claimed over seventy per
cent of the industrial workforce as well as output of the country. Their share in the total
production of engineering and electrical goods was 82 per cent and in the chemical industry,
above 87 per cent. The combined share of the minerally rich states of Bihar, Orissa and Madhya
Pradesh to the total industrial workforce, on the other hand, was less than twenty per cent.
It may thus be concluded that the British policies during the late nineteenth and the twentieth
century permitted a process of industrialisation which was quantitatively weak and structurally
inverted. Also, this left the resource rich regions in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka,
etc., virtually untouched, while a few islands of industrial growth, specialising in certain primary
processing consumer goods industries, emerged around the large cities.

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) The following features characterize the regional structure which developed during
the colonial period :
i) The gap in agricultural productivity between the northwestern and the eastern
regions of the Indo-Gangetic Plain widened.
ii) Railways developed to connect major port cities like Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras, to their hinterlands.
iii) Large scale investments in developing railways took place at the cost of
investments in irrigation.
Do you think these characteristics indicated positive developments helpful to our country. If not,
why? Give your answers in two sentences for each of the characteristics.
20.4 CHANGING REGIONAL PATTERNS OF

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT SINCE
INDEPENDENCE
The changes brought about within the agricultural segment of the Indian economy since
independence have been of far reaching consequence. The agrarian reforms initiated in the fifties
loosened the feudal claims and permitted the use of technological inputs on a large scale. These in
turn weakened the environmental constraints. The annual compound growth rate in the value of
agricultural output was above three per cent during the fifties, which fell to about two and a half
per cent during the sixties. The average growth rate came down to less than two per cent in the
seventies. It is now showing signs of recovery in the eighties, but is highly unstable. The
instability is generally sharper in regions where minor irrigation through wells and ponds
predominate.
The increase in the agricultural output has been associated with increased absorption of
technological inputs. There has been phenomenal increased in the number of tractors, tube wells,
amount of fertiliser, etc., per hectare of net sown area along with the enhancement of the area
under cultivation itself. It is important to note that although the share of agriculture together with
the other components of the primary sector in the national income has gone down from about
sixty per cent in the early fifties to less than thirty-five per cent in the eighties at constant prices,
there has been no corresponding shift the workforce structure.
A large portion of the total increase in the agricultural output, specially since the early sixties, can
be attributed to the increases in the productivity of land brought about through technological
inputs, viz. seeds, fertilisers, mechanisation, etc. This is in contrast to the area increases which
explained much of the growth in output during the fifties. The Government had made a conscious
choice to fight the food crisis by concentrating the limited capital inputs in selected districts with
“potentialities” of development. This naturally increased land and labour productivities in these
districts, mostly in Punjab, Haryana and Western U.P. and parts of Tamil Nadu, Coastal Andhra
Pradesh, and some other districts in the rest of the country.
The green Revolution is the term used to describe the growth in agricultural output by the seed-
fertiliser-irrigation-tractor technology. This has thus turned out to be a rather localised
phenomenon. Of the forty-nine National Sample Survey regions for which data on agricultural
inputs were available, for seventeen regions, claiming more than forty-five per cent of the net
cultivated area in the country, the change in the productivity of land during 1962-75 has been
either negative or positive but extremely low, viz, less than Rs. 10 per hectare per annum. The
gains in land productivity has gone down in as many as twenty-seven regions claiming more than
fifty per cent of the net sown area. All these regions together can be taken to describe the 'Hungry
Belly’ of the country, whose boundaries spread out in all directions extending from the Uttar
Pradesh Himalayas in the north to the Nilgiris in the south, from Thar in the west to coastal
Orissa in the east. The fourteen regions figuring in the category of high land productivity in the
early seventies, cornered about 44, 50 and 60 per cent of the output in 20 per cent of the land. The
application of fertiliser, tubewell and tractor per hectare works out to be even higher. Since the
strategy of development was to maximize the rate of growth of output by concentrating
technological inputs in a few relatively advanced regions with development potential, the
dynamics of change brought about a sharp differentation between the rich and the poor regions.
This clearly means that in terms of agricultural development there has been accentuation of
regional inequalities. The increase in inter-state as well as inter-state inequality in labour
productivity, has been noted by several scholars. The study by a Working Group set up by the
Planning Commission reports that inter-state inequality has more than doubled between 1961 and
1981.
20.5 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT SINCE

INDEPENDENCE AND THE REGIONS
A programme of planned economic development was launched in the country through massive
public sector investment and a system of controls imposed on the private sector. The average
growth rate of gross value added per annum in the manufacturing sector was accelerated in the
early sixties-more than eight per cent per annum. In 1965-66, however, the growth rate dropped
down to about one per cent and in the following year, the value added in the manufacturing sector
declined in absolute terms. The growth rate did not rise in the subsequent years to reach the level
of the early sixties or even that of the fifties. From the eighties, however, one is noticing a
tendency towards gradual improvement in the growth rate of industrial sector and also that of the
overall economy.
The set-back in the industrial sector in the mid-sixties, which has started off a recession in the
Indian Economy, was responsible for bringing to the fore questions relating to the regional spread
of industries.
The inter-state inequality in the level of industrial development increased significantly in the first
decade of development planning in India. The fifties marked a period of rising regional
imbalances in the per capita income from the secondary, i.e., the industrial sector. Data complied
by the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) at 1960-61 prices reveal that
the coefficient of variation across states in the per capita income from the secondary sector moved
up from fifty per cent in 1950-51 to fifty eight per cent in 1960-61. The study, however,
concludes that after this initial phase, industrial inequality across the states has shown continuous
decline. The series published by the Statistical Bureau of different states, adjusted to match the
NCAER estimates, show that the inequality index has gone down from 58 per cent in 1960-61 to
47 per cent in 1975-76.
The Task Force set up by the Planning Commission of Housing and Urban Development
(1983) has shown that the inter-state inequality in per capital value added by the factor sector at
constant prices declined during 1960-81. The coefficient of variation was 92 per cent in 1960-61
which went down to 67 per cent in 1970-71. This became 62 per cent only in 1980-81. Analysis
based on indicators like per capita industrial output, share of manufacturing sector in the State
Domestic Product, proportion of workers in non-household industrial activities, manufacturing
units or employment therein per thousand etc. also suggest that inter-state inequality, which had
increased during 1951-61, got stabilised or showed marginal decline in the subsequent decades.
However, examining the changes during 1973-78 in the spatial and sectoral composition of the
industries reported in the Annual survey of Industries (A.S.I.), one study demonstrates that
decline in the inter-state inequality during recent years cannot be established conclusively. It also
shows that while the combined shares of the top three states in the total number of units, output
and fixed capital have gone down for several industries, the shares of the top nine states have
gone up marginally. An analysis of the most recent A.S.I. data too does not clearly establish the
thesis of regional dispersal of industries. The only significant change is the fall in the relative
positions of Maharashtra and West Bengal. This can be explained in terms of slowing down of
the process of industrial concentration in Bombay and Calcutta due to the serious human
problems of congestion and various shortages which are called, 'Diseconomies of
Agglomeration’, in these cities. It may also be argued that West Bengal experienced significant
deindustrialisation during sixties and early seventies partly due to labour and other associated
problems; such as, shortage of electricity and this cannot be attributed to the Government policy
of industrial dispersal.
The credit of the reduction of inter-state inequality, as noted above, must go to the policy of
urban industrial development followed by almost every state in the post-independence period.
Many among the state governments came forward to provide high level economic infrastructure
and urban amenities in their state capitals and a few other centres. These highly subsidized
facilities attracted the relatively well-to-do into these centres, including the senior administrators,
professionals, entrepreneurs and highly skilled workers. The government often took the
responsibility of providing these facilities either directly through its departments or by setting up
Corporations, Boards, etc., for this purpose. In either case, the required funds came from the
Government Exchequer. The municipal bodies in these centres generally has much better tax as
well as non-tax revenue base, and could spend much more in providing the basic municipal
services, compared to other small towns. These centres, thus, enjoyed the benefits of subsidised
infrastructure and public utilities that overwhelmingly outweighted those of capital subsidy and
other incentives provided in the backward regions. Industrialists, therefore, preferred to locate
their units either within the cities or in their periphery. This also helped them in their interactions
with various governmental bodies, financial institutions, etc., located in these centres. Finally,
this enabled them to obtain the skilled workers, executives, etc., for their firms who were also
attracted by the high quality residential environment created through these facilities in some parts
of these cities.
20.6 GROWTH RATES AND REGIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
The changing structure of regional imbalance may also be analysed in terms of aggregate levels
of development articulated through per capita State Domestic Products (SDP) or other aggregate
measures, in addition to the sectoral perspectives, discussed above. As a part of an international
exercise, one study investigated the pattern of inter-state inequality in India during the fifties and
concluded that the decade marked the first phase of the developement process characterised by
accentuation of spatial imbalances. But it suggested that after this initial phase, regional
imbalance is likely to go down with development in India.
These conclusions were challenged by a few scholars who demonstrated that the inter -state
inequality has narrowed down during the fifties. More importantly, the scholars are almost
unanimous in their finding that the inequality, instead of showing a declining trend, has
sharpened in subsequent decades. The increase in inequality was significant particularly, during
the seventies. The Task force set up by the Planning commission reporting on Housing and Urban
Development showed that the coefficient of variation in the per capita SDP has increased from 23
per cent in 1961 to 26 per client in 1971. This rose further to 33 per cent in 1981.
Recognising the limitation of per capita income as a measure of overall development, scholars
have attempted to aggregate a large number of socio-economic indicators to articulate such a total
process of development. These statistical exercises too generally suggest that inter-state
inequality has not gone down since the sixties. It is interesting that the indicators of economic
infrastructure and social amenities, like percentage of villages electrified, literacy rate, schooling,
banking and medical facilities per thousand population, etc., show marginal decreases in
inequality in their inter-state distribution. The accentuation of imbalance in the overall
development, or in per capita SDP may, therefore, partly be attributed to increases in inequality in
agricultural development. It was noted earlier that the indicators of technological inputs in
agriculture like irrigation intensity, proportion of area under irrigation or under commercial crops
and use of fertilizer, tractor, etc. Per hectare, too, show an accentuation in inequality during the
sixties and seventies. This has resulted in sharper regional differentiation in labour productivity in
agriculture. It may be argued that despite a less unbalanced development of industries, economic
infrastructure and public amenities across the states, the inequality in the overall levels of
development did not register a decline, largely due to the imbalance in agriculture, which still
employs about seventy per cent of the total workforce in the country.
With regard to the spatial patter of industrial development, economic infrastructure etc., one may
add that inter-state inequality gives only a partial picture. It has been argued above that there has
been a concentration of infrastructural facilities and social amenities in a few large cities which
has led to agglomeration of industries in these centres. This has increased imbalances within the
state boundaries and contributed to rural-urban dichotomy. The policy of industrial dispersal and
provision of infrastructure and basic amenities in the backward areas can, therefore, be said to
have met only with limited success.

ii) Check Your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit.
1) Do you think that in course of planned development since independence inter-state

inequality has increased ? If so, describe in five sentences the main indicators of such a
development.
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................
2) If overall development of a state has to be measured by per capita State Domestic Product
(SDP), describe in three sentences how the growth rate of this indicator has behaved
across the states, and why.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
20.7 THE INSTRUMENTS OF BALANCED
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The most important factor promoting balanced regional development in the country has been the
direct investment of the central government through public sector undertakings. It is indeed true
that the poorer states enjoyed higher per capita investment during the fifties and early sixties.
This was primarily due to the availability of appropriate raw-materials like iron ore, coal,
limestone, etc., in those states that had to be developed and utilised for industrial growth. The
steel plants alone accounted for more than one-third of the total central investments during the
sixties in the state of Bihar, two-thirds in Madhya Pradesh and ninety per cent in Orissa.
However, based on the data for the later period upto 1979, one can argue that the bias in favour of
the poorer states in the central government investment does not appear to be very significant. The
transfer of resources through various Finance Commissions for non-plan purposes during late
sixties and seventies, too, fails to establish a clear pattern in favour of the backward states,
perceptible during the fifties and early sixties. A few among the middle income states have
succeeded in obtaining relatively high shares in the total non-plan resources during the late sixties
and seventies.
The transfer of resources through the Planning Commission to the states under various plans has
been guided by the objective of balanced regional development. During the period 1951-81, the
backward states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh received large amounts in per
capita terms, although a few among the developed like Maharashtra and West Bengal also have
been allocated large per capita plan funds.
The controls exercised by the government on the location of private industrial units through
regulative mechanism does not seem to have been very effective as revealed by the pattern of
sanction of industrial licences. The Hazari Committee which reviewed the functioning of the
Licensing Policy during the period 1959-66 felt that this cold not promote regional development
in the country. This suggested that the already better industrialised states have fared batter in
obtaining new industrial licensed. This may be due to the fact that these states were in a position
to lobby more effectively through their Industrial Development Corporations and were often able
to ensure that applications for licenses within their territory succeeded.
An analysis of the spatial pattern in the approval of the licences issued during 1953-85 provides
interesting insights into the functioning of the Licensing Policy. The share of the few
industrialised states in the total licences sanctioned decreased during the period. This, however,
did not benefit the states in the bottom rung of industrial development. With the decline in the
dominance of the high income states like West Bengal and Maharashtra, those that came up in the
industrial map are the middle income states like Gujarat and Karnataka. The proportions of the
licences claimed by Kerala and Bihar, for example, declined during the period, while those for
Madhya Pradesh and Orissa remained stable at the low level of the fifties. Also, the three states of
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu claimed more than one-third of the total licences issued in
the country even in the mid-eighties, although this was considerably less than the average figure
for the previous years.
These imbalances in agricultural development and the issue of industrial licenses are partly
responsible for the inequality in the distribution of institutional credits. Funds disbursed by the
development-cum-financial institutions like Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), Life
Insurance Corporation, State Financial Corporations, etc. In the states and Union territories of the
north-east are estimated to be quite low. Poorer states like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan, to report low figures of institutional credit. The bias in favour
of the industrially developed states happens to be much more pronounced in the sanctioning of
advanced by the commercial banks. Fortunately, there have been changes in the strategy of credit
disbursed by IDBI, the largest term lending institution in the country, noticeable particularly since
the mid-seventies. The Bank has allocated a substantial portion of its total credit in favour of the
declared backward districts.
20.8 PLANNED DEVELOPMENT, REGIONAL

SPECIALISATION AND SECTORAL
INTERDEPENDENCE
Inheriting a stagnant agricultural sector and a weak and distorted industrial base, independent
India faced the colossal challenge of accelerating its growth and of correcting the colonial
distortions in the regional structure of the economy. The government adopted a programme of
massive investment in the basic industries, concentrating the available resources in few selected
pockets and at the same time, disbursing funds in every state to stabilize agriculture and promote
the growth of industrial and service sectors. The first, which may be designated as the
'Agglomerated Pattern’, is based on capital intensive, large scale manufacturing units in a few big
cities and their immediate neighbourhood. The second pattern may be designated as the
'Dispersed Pattern’ and this is less capital intensive and is spread over small towns and rural
settlements.
An analysis based on indicators articulating these two distinct patterns of industrialisation and
economic growth reveals that eight of agglomerated development dominate the industrial map of
India. Among these, five have come up around the cities of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Bangalore
and Jamshedpur surrounded by regions with low levels of dispersed industrialisation. The first
three are based on the major port towns of colonial India and suggest that the inherited spatial
structure still dominates the hard core of industrial based regions. The genesis of growth in
Bangalore and Jamshedpur - Dhanbad regions can also be traced back to the colonial period,
although their high growth since independence is primarily due to significant government
support. This process often had negative effects on agricultural productivity and resulted in
deindustrialisation, i.e., decline of traditional industries and crafts in small towns and surrounding
rural areas. The other three cores of agglomerated growth developing around Delhi, Ahmedabad
and Ludhiana-Jalandhar are, however, accompanied by the process of dispersed industrial
development. The latter process extends over Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka in
the South, Delhi, Haryana and Punjab in the north and Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh in the centre. Kerala provides a good example of rural and small town based
industrialisation and this pattern is emerging in a few other southern regions as well. The
presence of agglomerated industrialisation in many of these regions except Bangalore is,
however, slowing down their overall growth. Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana seem to have achieved
some success in connecting the process of dispersal with agglomerated industrialisation. This is
being supported, in no small measure, by agricultural development in these regions.
It may be argued that the acceptance of the inherited colonial structure as the bias for future
development has led to wider disparities in agricultural development. It has led to only a limited
spread of territorial industrial production complexes, comprising technologically linked activities
utilising the local resources. Strong intra-regional linkages have not emerged in the resource rich
but economically less developed regions. While steel mills were set up in the backward states, the
engineering industry with strong technological linkages with the former flourished in and around
a few large cities. The production complexes were, thus, fragmented by the “kidnapping of
innovative and profitable components of the production system from the backward areas to the
urban industrial centres. This quality also emerged in case of the new centres of industrial activity
set up with massive public sector investment like Bhilai, Bokaro, Bhopal, etc. One can move from
a centre of the most advanced ferrous metallurgy or heavy electrical equipments to a neolithic
hinterland within a distance of twenty or thirty kilometers, in case of many of these cities.
The gains of dispersed industrialisation, on the other hand, have been fally well distributed across
space and among different sections of the population. The unfortunate aspect of this process of
industrialisation, however, is that this cannot go very far, or even survive in the long run, without
being integrated with the agglomerated pattern and, through this, with the national market. The
National Commission for the Development of Backward Areas (Sivaraman Committee) has
recommended setting up of one hundred centres of agglomerated industrial development linked
up with the regional economy through a system of production and marketing linkages. While
agglomeration without dispersal has led to enclaves in the past, dispersal without agglomeration
has the danger of resulting in technological backwardness and inefficiency. It would, therefore,
be important to integrate the two different processes of industrialisation and of agricultural
development within the regional economy. The production system in a region must be developed,
based on the local resource availability, connecting the former with the demands of the national
market along with the local demand. This is possible only if plans are prepared with a regional
perspective both at the national and state levels. This highlights the role and importance of
planning and government intervention for achieving the objective of balanced regional
development in India in future years. And balanced gnomic development of the regions of India,
is one of the cornerstones of our country’s national unity.
20.9 EFFECTS OF REGIONAL DISPARITIES

Existence and continuance of regional inequalities and imbalances create various types of
tensions in a country which is multi-ethnic and multi-religious with various ethnic-religious
groups concentrated in some states, these tensions became a serious challenge to example where
because of regional disparities there emerged a sense of alienation leading to separatist
tendencies. Similarly, the movements for creation of Jharkhand and Uttarakhand states are also to
a great extent because of neglect of these regions. Though these movements by no definition are
separatist or anti-national, they do pose challenges to social harmony.
On the other hand, the development efforts and benefits concentrated in certain states and regions
have also given birth to vested interests. For instance, in areas where Green revolution was
introduced and has been successful, the new rich farmers class has become economically and
politically important. They are now interested in perpetuating the concessions and facilities which
were given to them. Thus it is now becoming difficult to divert the resources to under-developed
regions or states. Similarly, in the states with industrial growth, workers are opposing the arrival
of labour from other states to protect high wages and better service conditions they have got
because of rapid industrialisation.
As a whole, both in developed regions and backward regions, there is growing a strong feeling of
regionalism. This is also stimulating parochial, communal and sectional organisations. In India
today, a large number of inter-state, inter-community and to a great extent centre-state tensions
are because of the persistence of regional imbalances. The need for a balanced development,
therefore, is important in the interest of both national integration and people’s welfare.

Notes : i) Use the space given below for your answers.
1) Give your idea of how balanced regional development can take place and what its
instrument would be.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
20.10 LET US SUM UP

India, being a country of sub-continental magnitude, is characterised by wide variations across
regions in terms of natural endowments of climate, soil, minerals, forests, water regime, etc., as
well as linguistic, demographic and socio-economic characteristics. Economic forces can either
make best use of these regional variations and develop the regions equitably, or may exploit
resources only to accentuate inter-regional disparities. Economic forces in colonial India led to a
distorted pattern of development across regions in which narrow-base, urban agglomerations,
such as the port cities and railwaynodes of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were kept floating, so
to say, in a sea of backwardness. Similarly, whatever industrial and agricultural growth took
place, was also restricted to narrow regional bases. In the post-independence period, agricultural
and industrial development has taken place along a broad front, but the deformities of the colonial
period have not been eliminated fully. Moreover, the new technologies, such as the Green
Revolution in agriculture has accentuated inter-regional disparities. While industrial development
across the Indian states has been less uneven than before, there is some evidence to show that,
perhaps inequality of per capita income, inter-state as well as between rural and urban sectors, has
widened. Balanced regional development and specialisation has to be carefully orchestrated
through intersectoral linkages of territorial resource based production complexes.
20.11 KEY WORDS

Arithmetic Mean : It is an average of a set of valued of a variable obtained by dividing the sum
of the values of their number.
Correlation : When two variables are associated with one another, they are said to be correlated.
For example, the correlation between quantum of rainfall and yield of foodgrains in any region of
our country is generally positively correlated, i.e., they move in the same direction. The
correlation is negative when two variables move in opposite directions.
Fixed Capital : It is a term used to indicate durable means of production, i.e. those inputs in the
productive process, such as tools, machines and equipment, buildings, etc., which are not
exhausted in one single period of production.
Gross National Product of Factor cost and Constant Prices : The Gross National Product
(GNP) is the aggregate value of what a nation produces after deducting the value of materials
used up in the process. The GNP at factor cost is arrived at by adding the incomes of the various
factors of production- land, labour, capital and enterpreneurship. From this, indirect taxes are
deducted and subsidies that are given by the government are added on. That gives the GNP at
factor cost. Since the value of money keeps changing as prices change, GNP is also measured
with reference to the price levels prevailing in a particular year, and holding them constant. This
is GNP at constant prices.
Net Sown Area : This is total area under cultivation at any given point of time. If it refers to a
year, it does not take into account the number of times an area is sown to crops cover the crop
seasons during a year. An area sown more than once is counted only once.
Non-Plan Resources : In general, resources are divided into physical resources and financial
resources. In the context of planning, financial resources are categorised into : Plan resources and
Plan-Plan Resources. Non-Plan resources are those which are required to finance non-plan items
of public expenditure. All items which are not included in the current plan are non-plan items.
Some of the important items of non-plan public expenditure are on defence, law and order,
administration, etc. For administrative convenience, Planning Commission looks after resources
for the plans and Finance Commission takes care of non-plan resources.
Permanent Settlement : A land tenure system in colonial India devised by the British whereby
an individual was granted permanent right to collect land rents from a specific area in exchange
for a fixed annual payment to the British administration.
Physiographic Factors : These are the physical and natural characteristics of a country, or a
region in a country, such as climate, i.e., temperature and rainfall regime, characteristics of the
soil, its relief, properties and composition, vegetation cover, natural resources, etc.
Productivity : It is a ratio of a particular measure of output, either in money or physical units to

some index of input use. For example, labour productivity means how much of output would a
unit of labour, using certain equipment produce.
Region : A region is a spatial/territorial unit of a national economy defined by a range of natural,

physical characteristics, and resources, demographic and socio-economic characteristics, with
respect to which the region may be considered homogeneous. The choice of characteristics to
define a region depends on the purpose of analysis and policy.
Special Hierarchy : In the course of socio-economic development, spatial units of a national

economy develop a system of interdependence in which, in terms of resources, infrastructure,
such as transport and communication, energy supply, education and health facilities, etc., some
areas become highly developed and other areas become functionally subordinate to them. This
pattern of the space economy is characterised as spatial hierarchy.
Standard Deviation : It is a measure of dispersion of a variable around the arithmetic mean.
State Domestic Product : This is defined as the aggregate value of all goods and services
produced within a state of the Indian Union after deducting the value of materials used up in
producing the same, irrespective of whether any claim is laid on a part of this product by people
residing outside the state.
State Per Capita Income : From the state domestic product, claims of people living outside the
state are deducted and incomes of the residents from outside the state are added; the sum thus
arrived at, when divided by the population of the state, gives the state’s per capita income.
Value Added by Sector : It implied the contribution of a sector of the national economy to the
national product which is arrived at by aggregating the value of its output and deducting the value
of materials used up in producing that output, including purchases from other sector. It is also the
sum payments made to its factors of production - labour, land, capital and enterpreneurship.

Bhalla, G.S. and Alagh, Y.K. : 1979, Performance of Indian Agriculture - A District-Wise Study,
Sterling, New Delhi.
Davis, Kingsley: 1951, The population of India and Pakistan, Princeton University Press,
Princeton.
Mishra, G,P. : Regional Structure of Development and Growth in India, Volume I, Ashish
Publishing House, New Delhi.
Mitra, A. : 1961, Levels of Regional Development in India, Census of India, Vol. I, Part IA (I),
Government of India New Delhi.
Nair, K.F.G. : Regional Experience in a Development Economy, Delhi, 1982.
Sengupta, P and Sdasyuk, G.V. : 1961, Economic Regionalisation of India- Problems and
Approaches, Census of India, Vol. I, No.8, New Delhi.

PROGRESS/ EXERCISES
a) vi)
b) A region is best defined in terms of a wide range of characteristics, for an agricultural

country, rainfall, relief and cropping patterns are important. These are physical
characteristics. Similarly, distribution of land holdings, bank credit, landlessness,
incidences of tribals, etc., are also important as socio-economic factors. Urbanisation and
occupational patterns are important determinants of development. Hence, a region is best
defined in terms of a combination of these characteristics with respect to which it is more
or less homogeneous.
Check Your progress 2

1) Go through the entire Section 20.3 and you will get you answers.

1) Go through Sections 20.4 and 20.5, look for the indicators of development such as
productivity of labour and land, per capita sectoral income, etc., and you will get your
answers.
2) Go through Sections 20.6 carefully and look for the variations in per capita State
Domestic Product as a measure of development as well as for the limitations of this
measure. You can then write out the answers.

1) Go through Sections 20.7 and 20.8, look for the effects of licensing policy on
the development of backward areas, disbursal of bank resources and term lending
institutions across states, and take account the pros and cons of agglomerated versus
dispersed developement pattern to write out the answers.
UNIT 21 MULTI RELIGIOUS SOCIETY:
THE SECULAR PRINCIPLE
Structure
21.0 Objectives
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Secularism in the West
21.2.1 Emergence
21.2.2 Spheres of religion and Secularism
21.3 Secularism in India
21.3.1 Secularism and Indian Tradition

21.3.2 Secularism and National Movement
21.3.3 Importance of Secularism for India
21.4 Indian Constitution : Basis of Secularism
21.5 Jawaharlal Nehru’s Outloook on Secularism
21.6 Problems in the Path of Secularism
21.6.1 Problem of Uniform Civil Code

21.6.2 Politics and Religion
21.6.3 Cultural Symbols and Secularism
21.6.4 Minority Group Perceptions
21.7 Measures to Promote Secularism
21.7.1 Education
21.7.2 Voluntary Agencies
21.8 Let Us Sum Up
21.9 Key words
21.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to make you understand the meaning and the nature of secularism and
the problems that it faces in the Indian context. After studying this unit you should be able to :
explain the rise of secularism in the west and its nature
identity the secular traditions in India before independence
describe how secularism was adopted as a value in India
identify the problems in the path of secularism, and

suggest measures to overcome them.
21.1 INTRODUCTION
India has always been the home of a wide variety of religious faiths. Perhaps, there is no other
society that is as multi-religious as Indian society. The co-existence of a vast variety of faiths,
some of which have been quite different form one another, has been a shining example of
religious pluralism, and tolerance, a characteristic for which this country has been justly famous.
This is not to say that Indian society has been completely free from religious tensions and
friction. But when one surveys the vast panorama of Indian history, extending over three
thousand years or more, evidence of bitter religious conflicts and wars is not substantial. Even the
advent of Muslim conquests led to no great religious warfare. Muslim rule in India,
notwithstanding some intolerant rulers, was on the whole, characterised by religious harmony
rather than discord. (On the other hand, in this very period Europe had been in the grip of bitter
religious conflicts.) British rule which followed Muslim decline, initially, saw a continuation of
the Indian tradition of religious tolerance and co-existence. Hindus and Muslims fought alongside
of each other in the first war of Independence, in 1857.
By about the beginning of the twentieth century the situation began to change. Economic and
political competitiveness, unleashed by the process of modernisation introduced by the British,
began to sow seeds of religious discord. Within a short span of about half-a-century communal
tensions and violence seized Indian society. Parties like the Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim
League successfully communalised Indian politics. India’s liberation from colonial rule, in 1947,
was ironically, accompanied by one of the worst blood paths in human history. Events leading to
partition, as well as the partition itself, led Hindus and Muslims into much bitterness and
hostility. For once it seemed as if the tradition of religious co-existence, had been destroyed
forever.
Yet, just two years after partition, when free India’s first ever constitution was framed, the
national leadership, under Nehru’s inspiration and guidance, decided to declare India a “Secular
State; that is, a state in which all religions and citizens irrespective of their faith would be treated
equally impartially.” In framing the Constitution, the bitterness of communal prejudice and
antagonisms of the recent past were cast aside. India decided to follow a secular path and remain
a multi-religious society guaranteeing freedom of religions, common citizenship and equality
before law to all its citizens.
In the light of this history and tradition, it is important to know that what factors impelled India to
prefer becoming a secular state? And, how is Indian secularism influenced by India’s unique
historical, political and cultural experiences? Also, the need to fully understand and appreciate the
importance of secularism in contemporary India has become critical today, for as recent evidence
suggests, Indian society is tending to move increasingly in the direction of Hindu revivalism and
Muslim and Sikh fundamentalism. This is contrary to what the founding fathers of our
constitution wanted. In this unit you will know about these developments and their effects.
21.2 SECULARISM IN THE WEST

The world secularism was first coined by George Jacob Holyoake (1817-1906) in 1851. In
English, the word is derived from the Latin Saeculum which literally means “this present age.” It
is also one of the Latin words for World, and for a long time secular meant “worldly” in contrast
to “religious” or “sacred”. However, much before the formal coining of the term by Holyoake, the
process, or rather the struggle, for secularisation had already been launched in western society.
21.2.1 Emergence
In Europe and England, from very early times, the Catholic Church had exercised almost total
authority over all aspects of life. By virtue of their tremendous power, those exercising religious
authority, beginning from the Pope and downwards, had become very oppressive. Kings and
commoners were equally victims of their oppression. Both of them, therefore, struggled to get rid
of the control of Church from affairs of the state, as well as routine everyday life. Religion and
religious authorities were opposed because these had become the main justification and
instrument of oppression. Due to this experience, religion, in Western society was confronted
with a powerful challenge from forces that wanted to free political and social life, including
matters pertaining to every-day life, from the control and interference of religious authority. The
forces that set themselves in opposition to the Church and its power came to be known as secular,
while the struggle, and process, which eventually, led to the decline of religious authoritarianism,
and instead, replaced it with a rational and scientific outlook, has been termed 'Secularisation’.
Most fundamentally, secularism is concerned with affairs of this world only, and with improving
the human condition and promoting human welfare in this life. Accordingly, the secular outlook
and ideology de-emphasises the importance and role of religion to matters that are outside the
realm of faith, and after life.
Secularisation, in the western world, led to the dilution of westerns attachment to religion and
religious outlook on matters relating to state and society. One important consequence of this trend
was that various social institutions, particularly the economy and polity came to be increasingly
guided by rational considerations, rather than by religious injunctions. Along with this
development, religion ceased to function as the sole integrative force in European societies.
Instead, a secular ideology like nationalism gradually emerged as the principle on which societies
and their members began to get integrated.
For the individual, the development of secularism meant more personal freedom and choice to
thank, to belong, and to act. At a period of human history in which modern science had not yet
developed, and human life had been guided by traditions, superstitions and blind faith, the
insistence of some bold and committed thinkers to stamp out these non-rational elements, and
instead base human thought and behaviour on reason was nothing short of a revolution.
21.2.2 Spheres of Religion and Secularism

The reduction of the pervasive role of religion has led many people to believe that religion and
secularism are antithetical and hostile to each other. Strictly speaking, this is not quite correct.
Rather than being antagonistic, the relationship between the two is mutually exclusive. The
primary concerns of religion (as is well known) are faith in some divine being and after-life. With
these, state is not concerned and it would gladly leave such matters to religion.
In view of the differing spheres of religion and secularism, Lauer has observed, “along with
secularisation, religion may still flourish and may continue to function as a source of justification
for man’s morality, affording him some transcendent meaning to his existence.” Thus, it is not
quite proper to view secularism and religion as an “either/or” situation; to quote Lauer again
“secularisation involves the change of religion, not its disappearance.” This position, however,
should not make us lose sight of the fact that there is, to an extent, an inbuilt tension between
religion and secularism. As Mackee has this world, due to which mans understanding of his
society is no longer, primarily in religious terms.” Secularism, he further adds, is “a turning away
from other worlds, and towards this one.” Having pointed out that religion and secularism are not
necessarily opposite of or inimical towards each other, it may be added that this mistaken notion
of their “inevitable” hostility arises out of the fact that superstitions, meaningless rituals and
dogmatic beliefs, which really, are, far removed from religion, are mistakenly identified with
religion. As S. Gopal has indicated, if religion is concerned with the “higher things of life,” there
should be no conflict between the two.
Before bringing this discussion to an end, one final point concerning secularism needs to be
made. It is that in the ultimate analysis, secularism is an attitude, and a mental approach, which,
apart from emphasising the supermacy of reason and scientific thinking, also emphasises the
equality of all human being and holds that every individual is as good as another. Indeed, here
there appears to be a common meeting point, and religion and secularism seem to be two sides of
the same coin.

1) Fill up the blanks
a) In the west secularism resulted from a struggle to get freedom from the
oppression of....................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
b) Religion is concerned th.....................................................................................

world whereas secularism concerns ..................................................................
....................................................................... world.
2) Are religion and secularism inimical to each other?

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
21.3 SECULARISM IN INDIA

In the preceding section, it has been seen that in the west secularism was coincident with the
process of reducing and eliminating the pervasive influence of religion from this worldly life. In
this context, “secular” has been equated with “non-religious.” In India, however, secular and
secularism have been used in the context of the state only. As such, in our country, one only hears
of the secular state, never of secular society. This is partly because in India the concerns of
secularism have been vastly different from those in the west. Indian secularism has primarily been
conceived of as the antithesis of communalism.
21.3.1 Secularism and Indian Tradition

It has already been pointed out that in the west the development of secularism was the outcome of
the conflict between the Church and the State, including the common people. Indian society does
not have any record of such oppression by organised religious authority. In both Hinduism and
Islam, neither the Brahmins nor the Muslim Ulema have ever been able to function as an
organized official clergy, and wield effective power in the lives of the people. Thus both during
pre-Muslim times there has been no history of serious conflict between religious authority and the
king or people. Secondly, even at the inter-group level, until modern times, Indian Society
generally has had a tradition of religious co-existence.
Even during Muslim rule, Islam was not proclaimed as the official religion of the state, and
barring some exceptions, Muslims rulers had followed a policy of tolerance and co-existence. In
course of time, Hindus had come to occupy various positions in the administrative machinery,
and Muslim policy, on the whole, was one of “live and let live.” Subsequently, when the British
occupied Indian they too maintained an attitude of neutrality insofar as the religious life of the
various communities was concerned. Further, the British also introduced the concept and practice
of equality before law, whereby all citizens came to enjoy equal rights, irrespective of caste and
creed. This had not been the case in pre-British India. Thus, apart from the earlier historical
tradition of religious co-existence, British rule introduced two important elements, - namely, state
neutrality towards religion, and equality before law. These served as fore-runners of the modern
secular state in India.
21.3.2 Secularism and National Movement

By the beginning of the twentieth century, the British had abandoned their earlier neutrality, and
adopted their well known policy of divide and rule, due to which Indian political life became
dangerously communalised. National leaders, with a vision, were apprehensive that religious
disharmony would not only thwart the freedom struggle but would also crate a problem for the
country, when freedom would be eventually achieved.
To counter this unhealthy cleavage, Nehru took a pre-emptive step in the 1931 session of the
Congress, held in Karachi, by incorporating in the resolution on fundamental rights, clauses
asserting that every citizen of Indian would enjoy freedom of conscience, and the right to profess
and practice any religion; that all citizens were equal before the law; that no disability would be
attached to citizens in regard to public employment and in the exercise of any trade or calling, on
grounds of creed, caste or sex; and that the state would observe neutrality in regard to all
religions. This, according to S. Gopal was “ The first breakdown in concrete sense of the concept
of secularism in the Indian Context and formed the basis of relevant articles in the Constitution,
many years later.”
At the time of the passage of this resolution, the demand for Pakistan had not yet appeared on the
Indian political horizon. Unfortunately, Nehru’s pre-emptive action bore little fruit in terms of
controlling Hindu Muslim divisiveness, which ultimately culminated in the partition of the
country.
Independence saw Indian partitioned also. Therefore, contrary pulls existed in the fulfilment of
earlier commitments. On the one hand, was the fact that Pakistan had come into existence purely
on the basis of a deliberately promoted religious conflict, and that, its creation was accompanied
by one of the worst massacres in human history. On the other hand, was the fact that Gandhi,
Nehru, and other Congress leaders, had always dreamt of a united Indian in which nationalism
and economic development would transcend religious differences. These leaders had never
accepted Jinnah’s thesis that religion could be the basis of statehood. But the ideals for which the
national leaders had struggled were pushed into the background, during the partition riots by
insane mobs whose passions had been inflamed by the communalist forces.
If Pakistan was to be an example, there was a good case for Indian also to become a theocratic
Hindu state, particularly when eighty-five per cent of its population comprised of Hindu. But
standing firmly against the insanity of those difficult days, Nehru and his colleagues stuck
steadfastly to the commitment they had made in 1931, and opted to declare Indian as a secular
state - thought the formal inclusion of the word “secularism” in the Preamble of the Constitution
was effected only in 1976.
21.3.3 Importance of Secularism for India

The decision to make India a secular state, which, against the backdrop of the upheavals of
Partition may appear to be enigmatic, was influenced by several sound considerations.
Firstly, the freedom struggle, as initiated and conducted by the Indian National Congress, had
operated in terms of the secular ideology of non-religious nationalism. No compromise was made
on this point even in the darkest days of Hindu-Muslim antagonisms, attendant on the Pakistan
movement. Indeed, as Partition became inevitable, leaders like Gandhi and Nehru became even
more resolute in their commitment to non-communalised nationalism. Therefore, any deviation
from the objective of establishing a secular state would have been the very negation of the ideal
which the nationalist leaders had always espoused. A declaration of India as a Hindu state would
have provided justification to Jinnah’s two nation theory.
Secondly, apart from ideological considerations, there was also an importance pragmatic
consideration. India had always been the home of a vast variety of religious communities and
sects; after independence, this multi-religious composition of the country remained unaltered. In
fact, sizeable numbers of Muslims opted not to migrate to Pakistan but to pin their fate and
destiny with the rest of the country. The long tradition of inter-communal co-existence had given
faith and confidence to Muslims, and others that they could continue living in this country in
peace and honour. Thus for this pluralism also, a secular state became essential.
Above all these, these was the tragic assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948. This gruesome
tragedy shocked Hindus and non-Hindus alike, and impressed upon all Indians that separation of
politics and religion was the best safeguard of their hard won freedom. It was realised that, if this
separation was not effected, communal divisiveness would lead the country to disaster. In the
interests of a strong and prosperous nation internecine conflicts had to stop.
Thus, India’s historical traditions, as well as its immediate political exigencies, following
independence, supported the case for the Indian polity taking a secular direction. Accordingly, the
Constitution which was adopted in 1950, includes several articles that have given the Indian state
a definite secular character.
21.4 INDIAN CONSTITUTION : BASIS OF

SECULARISM
Having briefly considered the circumstances under which the decision to make India a secular
state occurred, it is now time to become familiar with the provisions of the Constitution, which
are supportive of principle of secularism, and which reflect the secular base and character of the
Indian state.
Article 15.1 of the Constitution lays down that the State shall not discriminate against any citizen
on grounds of religion. Article 16 provides equal opportunity for all citizens in matters of
employment under the State. Further, it prohibits discrimination or ineligibility on grounds of
religion. Article 25 gives all persons freedom of conscience and right to profess, practice and
propagate religion. It can make laws for regulating or restricting economic, political or secular
activity associated with religion. Especially, it can throw open Hindu religious institutions to all
classes of Hindus.
All religion denominations have a right to establish and maintain institutions and to own and
manage property for religious purposes. The state can not compel any one to pay taxes to promote
or support a particular religion.
Government educational institutions cannot provide religious instruction. Government and aided
educational institutions, cannot deny anyone admission on grounds of religion. Nor can they
compel anyone to take part in religious instruction or prayer.
Religious minorities have a right to establish educational institutions and the State cannot
discriminate against them on that ground in granting aid. The constitution specially rejects
communal electorates.
It may be pointed out that the religious freedom of individuals and groups as well as neutrality on
the part of Indian state is not absolute but is of a restricted nature. The freedom of religion is
subject to public order, morality and health. This indicates that the state has the right to interfere
in religious affairs which seem to be warranted in the Indian context - for religious practices such
as 'Devadasi’ human sacrifice and untouchability needed to be banned.
This restriction is also reflected in article 25 (2) (a) which empowers the state to regulate and
restrict any economic, financial, political or other secular activity which may be associated with
religious practice. Further, Article 25 (2) (b) provides for social welfare and reforms. State
intervention is also indicated in the constitutional directive of striving to evolve a Uniform Civil
Code.
In matters pertaining to Hindu Society, state interference in religious matters has been justified on
the ground that Hinduism lacks an eccelesiastical organisation to bring about any reforms from
within. Moreover, this initiative and action was needed to evolve a Uniform Civil Code.
In view of these provisions in India, the term secularism is interpreted to imply that the state will
not identify itself with any one religion, but be equally friendly towards, or equidistant from, all
religions. Operating on this principle of neutrality, the Indian state is expected to prevent and
contain inter-group conflict, and, at the same time, wield together the large variety of competing,
and at times conflicting, multiple religious communities, that characterise out society, into one
nation. This kind of secular policy, it is expected, would promote among all citizens a national
identity that would rise above various religious identities, without, however, negating the latter.
Concretely, this implies that in their public life, all citizens, and especially state functionaries,
will maintain a separation between their rights and duties, on the one hand, and their beliefs and
practices, on the other. The reasons for the differing interpretations of secularism in India, and the
west, are the differing historical, political and social conditions in which secularism has emerged
in India.

ii) Check you answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit.
1) Why is the Indian tradition favourable to secularism?

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
2) Fill up the blanks.
a) To counter religions divisiveness the 1931 session of the Congress at Karachi

included in its resolution on fundamental rights.
........................................................................................................................
b) The word secularism was included in the Preamble of the Indian constitution.
In ....................................................................................................................
3) Mention two reasons that made Indian leaders choose to make India a secular state.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
21.5 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU’S OUTLOOK

ON SECULARISM
The story of India’s choice in favour of becoming secular state cannot be completed without
mention of the pivotal role played by Jawaharlal Nehru in implanting and nourishing the seed of
secularism in our country. Nehru’s concept of secularism, however, was not limited to making
secularism merely a principle of state policy. In fact, Nehru was equally, if not more, committed
to the development of an all pervasive rational and scientific outlook that would permeate all
aspects of our life. To this extent, Nehru’s idea of secularism was closer to the western model,
and the declaration of India as a secular state was for him, only one of the steps in the
secularisation process.
Till the end of his life, Nehru struggled to promote secularism in India, along democratic lines.
Given his charisma, which enabled him to exercise an emotional sway over India’s people, he
could have used coercive methods to spread secular thoughtways and practices, as Kemal
Anaturk had done to secularise Turkey’s Islamic state and society. But being essentially a liberal
democrat, he eschewed authoritarian methods. Instead, he pinned his faith in economic
development and hoped that once this became the prime concern of our people, religious
differences would automatically recede into the back-ground, and common economic concerns
would unite different groups.
However, due to our slow rate of economic development and population Explosion, there has
been a perpetuation of economic deprivation of large segments of the population. Social and
psychological conservatism has continue to coexist alongwith economic stagnation.
Consequently, little dent if any, has been made in the ignorant, superstitious and obscurantist
outlook of a substantial number of our people. The religion-traditional world-view has continued
even among several educated people in urban areas. Several towns and cities have become
theaters of communal violence and focal points of religious fundamentalism. A good deal of
money in the urban areas is being spent on rituals and ceremonies that have little relationship with
rationality and scientific knowledge.
People just perform these thoughtlessly, as a matter of habit. Thus, Nehru’s hope and faith that
economic development and modernisation would be the solvent of intercommunity differences,
and would lead to a secularised outlook are, for the present, far from being attained.
It is also possible that in a religiously pluralistic society like ours, people like to cling to religion
more closely and more devoutly since it is a source of their identity. Also, since the passing away
of Nehru in 1964, no other leader has tried to promote a secular world-view with the same zeal
and commitment that he had. There is also a view that there is something deep rooted about
Hinduism and Islam, or about the larger Indian culture, in which secularism, as a principle of
rational and scientific world-view will always remain a western transplant and never really
become an organic part of our society and culture. Obviously, it is difficult to reach any
conclusion on these points with any certainty. Instead, the better thing we can do here is to turn
towards and examination of the factors that thwart the realisation of the secular deal.
21.6 PROBLEMS IN THE PATH OF

SECULARISM
It has been explained above that as understood in the Indian context, secularism is a somewhat
restricted phenomenon limited only to the functioning of the Indian state. In India, secularism is
neither conceived nor expected to interfere with the hold of religion in most sectors of life. The
result of this policy has been that, contrary to expectations around the time of our independence,
religion and religiosity continue to exercise a powerful influence in the daily life of many, or
most, Indians.
Thus, God-men and miracle performers have large followings. Faith in horoscopes and
astrologers remains strong; rath yatras and religious processions attract mammoth crowds. Now,
even the government controlled electronic media gives considerable coverage to religious events,
and also permits telecast of purely religious programmes. Given these developments, the question
naturally arises as to how a rational and scientific outlook will develop in India, if the
interpretation of secularism in our society is confined merely to the limited formula of religious
neutrality, or “Dharma Nirpekshta’, on the part of the state. There are also problems that beset the
proper function of our state along secular lines.
21.6.1 Problem of Uniform Civil Code

The best point to begin is with the vexed issue of the uniform civil code, which the founding
fathers of our constitution wanted to eventually apply to all citizens. A uniform civil code, it was
felt, was essential to help forge a national identity and bring about the integration of members of
all religious communities into one bond of common citizenship. In its absence, citizens of this
country would always remain divided, since they were all governed by their respective personal
laws, which are rooted in the various religions. Following Independence, it was hoped that this
step would be taken to usher in a secular society.
But in the last forty years, no progress has been made in the evolution of a uniform civil code.
Today, its adoption appears to be more problematic than it was at the time when the constitution
was framed. The Muslim minority compelled the Government, in 1986, to enact legislation
concerning maintenance of divorced women which it felt was closer to its Personal Law, and
therefore, religiously more acceptable. Modern secular considerations, and the opinion of those
Muslims who took a secular position, were given no cognizance by the Government.
Similarly, other minorities like Christians, too, have given some indications that would render the
formulation and enforcement of a uniform civil code an impossibility of course, the fact needs
recognition that since Indian follows the path of liberal democracy, no government can legislate
on any vital issue without the consent or concurrence of the affected groups and communities.
This constraint is particularly great in sensitive legislation like religious laws. Such limitations
indicate that the path leading to a truly secular society in India is strewn with numerous hurdles.
21.6.2 Politics and Religion

After the experience of Partition, and other events surrounding it, it was expected that politics in
India would steer clear of religion. This expectation has been belied in as much as all our political
activities are heavily laden with communal, caste or other parochial considerations. To worsen
matters, religious or caste divisiveness is exploited for political gains. There is evidence to show
that even communal riots are engineered with political objectives in view. These strategic have
tragically prevented the development of a non-religious and non-communal approach to elections
and the conduct of other political affairs, which basically are civil and secular matters.
Further, the unbridled communalisation of our political strategies, has set into motion a vicious
circle of action and reaction on the part of various religious communities. To the extent that the
political system is compelled to bend itself before the pressures exerted by religious-political
forces, a truly secular state cannot come into existence, leave alone a secular society.
The responsibility of undermining India’s limited secularism falls upon the shoulders of the
leaders of the post-Nehru era, many of whom are not intellectually liberated. Due to their neo-
traditional orientation, these leaders are lacking in true commitment to the secularisation of Indian
society, not only in terms of developing non-religious outlook but also in terms of developing a
rational and scientific temper. This failure of the leadership has thwarted the progressive
separation of religion and politics in India.
21.6.3 Cultural Symbols and Secularism

There is yet another danger secularism faces in India. Hinduism, the religion of the vast majority,
is also a sort of a “national” religion in the sense that it is confined to the boundaries of this
country (with Nepal, of course, being an exception). Consequently, for most, if not all Hindus,
Hinduism gets identified with nationalism and national culture.
Several majority-minority misunderstandings originate from such perspectives. Thus, many

public rituals and ceremonials, like bhoomi pujan, breaking of coconuts on inaugural or
auspicious occasions, performing of aarti and applying of tilak to distinguished guests are
perceived by Hindus as cultural or nationalistic expressions, but to non-Hindus these are
manifestations of Hindu culture. Such rituals are performed even on state functions and,
therefore, create unnecessary misgivings about the neutrality of the state.
Therefore, a state which avowedly has to treat all religions alike must be very cautious in the
promotion of “Indian” values and culture, lest, under the garb of “Indian” it is really Hindu values
that get promoted. Considering of course, that the pre-ponderant majority of the people are
Hindus, it may be granted that, to a great extent, the cultural symbols of Hinduism will be
equated with, and treated as “Indian”. But this does not justify a total exclusion of the symbols
and cultural items of minorities by a state which is expected to be equi-distant from all religions.
The confusion between “Hindu” and “Indian” has largely arisen because in the last forty years,
the cultural dimensions of secularism have been totally neglected. We have, therefore neither
attempted to develop a composite Indian culture based on a true amalgam of all religious sub-
cultures, nor have we developed a new culture based on secular values, with emphasis on secular
symbols. Of course, this was not an easy task but efforts too have been lacking.
Due to the limited interpretation of secularism, as being confined to state policy only, the
religious identities and other sub-cultural differences of Indian citizens have continued to remain
strong. In societies where such distinctions are emphasised, groups and communities remain
distanced from one another.
In India, one repercussion of this distance has been that for a large majority of our masses such
concepts as common citizenship, equality before law and equality of opportunity have remained
were abstractions. As a result, the Constitutional guarantees of non-discrimination of any citizen
in the matter of employment and education cannot be fully translated into action. To quote Imtiaz
Ahmad, “communal consciousness is sharply developed and the outlook of people is clouded by
communal world-view ...” Hence, the possibility of communal biases entering into the processes
of recruitment to hobs and educational institutions is undoubtedly present.
21.6.4 Minority group Perceptions
There may be no discrimination in law or even by state functionaries. But the psychological
insecurity of minorities is such that they perceive themselves to be the targets of discrimination.
Sociologically, perception of discrimination is as detrimental as actual discrimination for
members of minority groups and affects their motivation, aspirations and achievements. It was,
indeed with good reasons Nehru had observed that the test of Indian secularism lay not in what
the majority thought, but now the minority felt.
Apart from education and jobs, prejudice and discrimination are perceived as operating in the
matter of intergroup violence and conflict. There is now ample evidence to show that at times the
administrative machinery of the state does not operate impartially at the time of communal riots;
those responsible for ensuring law and order act in non-secular way, and tend to victimize
members of minority groups.
Admittedly, inter-group prejudice and discrimination are a legacy inherited from British rule and
the Pakistan movement. But sincere efforts to develop a secular outlook would have enable our
people to rise above parochial consideration and get integrated into a common bond of Indianess.
It is difficult to achieve secular deals through the strategy of secularism being declared as a
principle of state policy only, and allowing religion to continue its domination on all aspects of
our national and public life. Actually, for the success of the secular state itself, the widespread
permeation of a secular world -view is a precondition. In the west also, the secular state was the
culmination of the process of secularisation. Imtiaz Ahmad has pertinently observed that on
account of the unique and radical decision to make Indian a secular state, unusual energy and
efforts were needed to promote secularism. There was need to consciously and systematically
discourage and curtail the anti-secular tendencies dominating our society.
21.7 MEASURES TO PROMOTE

SECULARISM
The question that we now face is, what may be done to promote a rational and scientific world
view?” A secular state,” S. Gopal has stated, “can be strongly founded in a secular society and
this implies changing the people’s outlook” For Nehru, improvement in people’s economic
condition would push religion into the background. But as we have already seen, this hope has
been belied in India.
The other alternative is education, which according to some is a more important solvent than
perhaps even economic improvement. Let us therefore examine the role of education in
facilitating secularism.
21.7.1 Education
Today, the world over, education is considered to be the best agent for promotion of rational and
scientific values and attitudes. While a total faith in education’s modernising role may be
somewhat exaggerated, the states that are in the process of nation-building rely considerably on it
to modernise the out-look and world-view of their population.
Unlike in the past, when education was anchored in pathshalas, gurukuls and madrasahs, that
emphasised religio-traditional learning, modern education is supposed to provide scientific
knowledge and superior technical skills. At the same time, it directly or indirectly, also influences
the mind of the learners, especially of those who are in the younger generation. Since young
minds are receptive to new ideas and values, education has its greatest impact on young people.
Also, the young have questioning minds and are critical enough to evaluate what is taught to
them. Hence, faith is placed in them that they will usher in changes in society.
In India, our hopes of building a secular society, therefore, largely rest upon the million of school
and university students, who are today being exposed to modern science, rationality and
humanism.
However, the extent to which success will be achieved in secularising the outlook of the younger
generation will depend on several other factors as well. The educational system functions in a
specific socio-cultural milieu, and is, therefore, influenced by it.
Earlier, in this unit, it has been pointed out that the Indian Constitution has made some specific
provisions to impart a secular character to our educational system.
Thus the secular approach of the state, insofar as prevention of any discrimination in education
against minorities is concerned, is quite evident. However, these steps do not guarantee that the
content of education, which ultimately is more vitally linked with the dissemination of values,
would be necessarily such as to be conducive to imparting secular values and attitudes. But,
fortunately, there exist mechanisms and agencies to take care of this also. Thus, such bodies as
the National Council for Educational Research and Training prepare text-books for schools which
emphasise values that are consistent with our secular ideals. Furthermore, from time to time,
books are examined by experts to ensure that lessons likely to promote negative feelings about
any group are not allowed to continue. Complaints, in this regard, from any quarter, are given
serious attention and lapses that may have crept in are checked and removed. These are important
measures to ensure dissemination of knowledge and values that are free from prejudices and
biases against any group of community in our society. Apart from this, frequent seminars and
conferences of experts are organised to see how values and attitudes that constitute the positive
and constructive aspects of our national heritage, and which promote secularism, can be
transmitted through education. This step also ensures that the content of our education is not
devoid of any values at all; education without values is soulless and leads the learners nowhere.
Recognising the importance of education in promoting a rational and scientific temper, the
National Policy on Education 1986, has addressed itself to the task of fostering certain universal
values which are oriented towards the unity and integration of our people. It has also taken
cognizance of the fact that through education we must fight and eliminate such evils as
obscurnatism, religious fantacism, violence, superstition and fatalism. The categorical recognition
in our education system, of these problems has, for the first time, drawn formal attention to
conditions that thwart the development of a secular society in India.
One other secular dimension of education that has received special emphasis in the policy
document is “Education for Equality.” According, the new policy seeks to remove disparities and
equalize educational opportunities by attending to the specific needs of those who have been
denied equality so far. The new emphasis will particularly benefit such weaker sections as
women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, and other minorities. Women’s education is
particularly crucial in the secularisation process because the individual’s early socialisation takes
place largely through mothers; as such the values which the individual inculcates are generally
those received from the mother. Uneducated mothers cannot be expected to transmit rational and
scientific values; it is mostly through enlightened mothers that the base of a modern and secular
social order can be constructed in our society. One may, therefore, reasonably expect that as
Indian women become educated and emancipated, profound changes are likely to occur in Indian
society, in the near future.
21.7.2 Voluntary Agencies

Mere education is not enough to promote secular attitude among people, if the society continues
to be in the clutches of obscurantism, superstition and fundamentalism. Movement for social
reform will have to be orgnised and public opinion mobilised. Minorities should be encouraged to
participate in the mainstream of national life. Social reform is a spirit of social justice, and
equality must pervade all section of the population. Religion should not be allowed to hinder the
spread of these values. The work of voluntary agencies and associations (e.g. women’s
movement), Science for the Peoples Movement are as important in this regard as state action.
These efforts, hopefully, will go a long way in enabling Indian society to make a big leap towards
secularisation. When this happens, education can rightfully claims its contribution in this
important endeavour.

1) Write five lines on Nehru’s concept of secularism.

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
2) What are the problems in the path of secularism in India?

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
3) How can education promote secularism?

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
21.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed the nature of secularism in India - its evolution, its differences from
secularism in the west : it problems and dilemmas, and the role of education in spreading
secularism in Indian society.
It was pointed out that the founding fathers of the Indian Constitution had a clear vision of India
as a secular state. They had laid down specific provisions and guarantees to ensure freedom of
religion, equality of opportunity and equality before law for all citizens in the hope that once
these were assured, Indian society will become secular. To a large extent, these guarantees and
assurances have not simply remained printed words of the Constitution, but have been translated
into reality. Thus, Indian citizens are free to profess, practice and propagate the religion of their
choice, conduct separate educational institutions and so on. State policies, in all respects, are non-
discriminatory. There is a non-communal electorate and the highest office of the state is open to
members of the minority communities, as well. In broad terms, the state in India is a good
example of secularism in action.
But, it was also pointed out that, as yet, the secular principle has not reached the point of
perfection. We have failed to produce a uniform civil code; communal violence, religious
fundamentalism and revivalism are on the ascendant. In many state functions, the cultural
symbols of the majority group are being increasingly promoted as “national culture” creating
misgivings in the minds of members of minority groups. Thus, our conclusion was that it is
difficult for a secular polity to function in a society which is not entirely secular. It was, therefore,
argued that sticking close to a very restricted interpretation of secularism is not quite the proper
way to promote secularism. In fact, this dissonance between the limited sphere of the polity and
the wider society has put a tremendous strain upon the process of national integration and nation-
building.
To reduce the strain, it is necessary to promote a truly rational and scientific world view, in
Indian society. The role that education can play, in this task, was examined and it was pointed out
that through various policies, the educational system is taking Indian society in the direction of
secularism.
21.9 KEY WORDS

Authoritarianism : A system in which unquestioned obedience to authority has to be rendered.
Devdasi: A woman attached to the service of a temple and who, therefore, does not have a
private life; a public woman.
Ecclesiastical: of religious organisation.
Emancipation: Freedom from bondage.
Fundamentalism: An ideology which advocates going back to a life strictly according to the
word of the holy books.
Internecine: Mutually destructive.
Obscurantism: Faith in age old beliefs.
Plurality: Co-existence of many cultures or ethnic groups.
Theocracy: A state based on religious laws.

Smith, D.E.; 1963, India as a Secular State, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Luthera, V.P.: 1960, Concept of Secular State and India, O U.P., Delhi.

PROGRESS/EXERCISES
1) a) Clergy
b) Spiritual, Temporal
2) Strictly speaking this is not quite correct. Religion and secularism have different spheres
but religion can co-exist with secularism as it affords some transcendent meaning to
man’s existence, the notion of hostility between religion and secularism arises because
superstitions rituals, etc., are identified with religion which secularism seeks to remove
etc. See Sub-section 21.2.2.

1) Whereas in the west secularism was the outcome of conflict between Church and the
State including common people, Indian society does not have any record of such
oppression by organised religious authority. Indian society had a tradition of religious co-
existence, etc. See Sub-sec. 21.3.1.
2) a) Clauses asserting that every citizen of Indian would enjoy freedom of conscience
and the right to profess and practice any religion, etc. See Sub-section 21.3.2.
b) 1976 by the 42nd Amendment.
3) For pluralism, a secular state was essential. Tragic assassination of Gandhi reinforced
the belief that politics sould be separated from religion. See Sub-section 21.3.3.

1) Nehru wanted scientific and rational outlook to permeate all aspects of life, in this
sense. Nehru’s idea of secularism was closer to the western model. Declaration of
India as a secular state was only one of the steps in secularisation process. See
section 21.5.
2) Secularism in India is a phenomenon limited only to the functioning of the state. It

does not interfere with the hold of religion in most spheres of life. Problems in the
path of secularism are many - no uniform civil code, interlocking of politics and
religion, etc. See section 21.6 and Sub-section 21.6.1, 21.6.2, 21.6.3 and 21.6.4.
3) States in the process of nation building rely on modern education, which lays
emphasis on scientific knowledge and superior technical skills, to modernise the
outlook and world view of their population. Bodies such as N.C.E.R.T. in India
emphasise values which are consistent with secular ideas. See sub-section 21.7.1.
UNIT 30 THE STRUGGLE FOR
FREEDOM AGAINST COLONIALISM
AND RACISM
Structure
30.0 Objectives
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Impact of Indian Independence on the Process of Decolonization
30.2.1 Freedom Struggle in Asia
30.2.2 Freedom Struggle in Africa
30.2.3 Impact of Indian Independence
30.3 Colonialism and its Remnants
30.3.1 Diego Garcia : Existence of Military Bases
30.3.2 Western Sahara : Governance by the Allies of Imperialist Powers
30.4 Colonialism and Racial Justification
30.4.1 Race Used as a Tool for Exploitation
30.4.2 Colonial Practices and their Effects
30.5 Struggle for Racial Equality and Freedom
30.5.1 South Africa
30.5.2 Namibia
30.5.3 Zimbabwe-Rhodesia
30.5.4 Indian Support for the Struggle Against Apartheid
30.6 Let Us Sum Up
30.7 Key Words
30.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading, this unit you will get to know about :
a brief historical background to the struggles for freedom and equality in Asia and Africa,
the inspiration for the struggle,
the current struggles going on for freedom and equality,
the opposition to the struggle through Neo-colonialism and Imperialism, and
India’s contribution in promoting a free and equal world.
30.1 INTRODUCTION
You must have read and/or heard about the freedom movements of Asian and African people.
They were mainly for self-determination and equality. The question of equality became dominant
because the Europeans were inferior in intellect and therefore, they needed guidance and
civilizing.
It may look surprising today, but Jules Ferry, a French intellectual, defended the French
aggression of Indo-China by arguing that it was the duty of superior races to civilize the inferior
races. The English poet Rudyard Kipling talked of the `white man’s burden’ to civilize the
Asians. The American President McKinley defended the conquest of Philippines by declaring that
Americans were to educate, uplift, civilize and christianise the Filipinos.
These arguments were only a cover. The real motives were to acquire control over those countries
which were the sources of raw materials for their developing industries, besides being markets for
their industrial products. The colonies were also to serve as reserves for recruitment of cheap
labour and recruits for the colonial armies.
Needless to say, the colonialists sought to consolidate their positions in settlements which were
strategically and militarily crucial for their operations.
The task of the freedom movements was two-fold : one, to expose the falsehood of the theory of
superiority of the European or the White Man; and two, to achieve self-determination and thus
put an end to exploitation of resources and subjugation of people.
India was the first country to attain independence after World War II. The Indian anti-colonial
struggle left an impact on the political developments of other Asian and African countries. The
Indian national movement linked its struggle with the aspiration of the freedom movements in
other colonies. The freedom struggles against the colonizers and the racists thus, became a
worldwide movement. Extending a hand of friendship and cooperation to Africans in their
struggle against colonialism and racism, Jawaharlal Nehru, independent India’s first Prime
Minister said at the Asian-African Nations Conference held at Bandung (Indonesia) from 18-24
April 1955 : “It is upto Asia to help Africa to the best of her ability because we are sister
continents. We are determined not to fail in this new phase of Asia and Africa”.
30.2 IMPACT OF INDIAN INDEPENDENCE

ON THE PROCESS OF
DECOLONIZATION
Decolonization means ending of colonialism and attainment of independence - both political and
economic. The question is: did India have any impact on the anti-colonial struggles in Asia and
Africa? We find that being the first to be independence, the Indian impact was both direct and
indirect. The success of Indian methods of freedom struggle, i.e., participation of all sections of
people, of defiance of colonial laws, boycott of imported goods, stoppage of work, closure of
markets and filling prisons with patriots, intensely encouraged other Asian and Africans. They
used methods successfully tried by India in their respective struggles for freedom.
30.2.1 Freedom Struggle in Asia

Freedom struggle in most Asian countries had started in the early twenties of the twentieth
century. During World War II, while Hitler was conquering Europe, Japan had run-over Asia and
occupied all the small nations. The Japanese occupation was resisted by the nationalists of every
Asian country. And country. And when Japan was defeated by the allied forces in August 1945,
the process of decolonization began. In fact, it was completed within a decade. The French,
Dutch, British and Americans did try to recolonise, but, they could not stand the pressure of the
nationalists. In Indonesia, the Dutch had to leave in 1950; Cambodia freed itself from the French
in 1953, and Korea, after an unsuccessful attempt for unification for two years, emerged as two
independent countries in 1948. British held on to Malaya till 1957 and Singapore till 1959.
Chinese revolution in 1949 was regarded as a great victory of the people.
In Vietnam, the revolutionaries had taken over power in 1945 under the leadership of Ho Chi
Minh. Till 1954, they had to fight the French who tried to recolonize. Soon after the defeat of the
French, they had to fight the Americans till 1975. The US administration had emerged into the
conflict to back up anti-communist forces. India opposed US intervention and extended full
support to the regime of Ho Chi Minh. And when Western powers tried to debar entry of China
into UN, India supported the Chinese case.
30.2.2 Freedom Struggle in Africa

In Africa the decolonization process stretched over a much longer period than in Asia lasting upto
1990.
The African decolonisation process can be divided under four major periods. The first phase was
between 1950 and 1959. Six African countries had been liberated during this period. For attaining
their independence, over 2,00,000 Africans sacrificed their lives. The Second phase was in the
1960s. The periods saw the dismantling of the British, French and Belgian colonial empires. This
was possible because of the mass support for the independence movements, both inside their
respective territories and from independent governments and international organizations.
During this phase, as many as thirty one colonial territories gained independence becoming
individual countries. The Third phase was in the 1970s. In the mid 1970s, the Portuguese empire
in Africa collapsed. Most of the African continent thus became decolonized.
While these were the colonies decolonized from the European rule, the colonized groups in South
Africa, Namibia and Rhodesia were still struggling against the white settler groups who had
either gained their independence from the Europeans in the early 20th century or had unilaterally
declared themselves independent of their colonial power. South Africa and Namibia are instances
of the former, while Rhodesia (now called Zimbabwe-Rhodesia) is an example of the latter case.
In Rhodesia and Namibia, the Africans won their independence only in 1980 and 1991
respectively. The South Africans were already a Republic. The Fourth Phase of the
decolonization process thus ended only in the early 1990s.
30.2.3 Impact of Indian Independence

Asian and African leaders fighting their respective colonial powers were inspired by the
successful Indian independence struggle. They hailed the Indian success as an achievement of the
colonized population as a whole, especially because it demolished the racial theories of
`superiority of the white race’. The Asian and Africa leaders became convinced now about the
possibility of their own victory. This strong hope in the potential of their people gave the
necessary morale and confidence.
The Indian sacrifices sustained in challenging the British rule moved the leaders of the colonized
territories in Asia and Africa. Their personal contacts with the Indian leaders in England and the
United Nations further inspired them. During these personal meetings, they gained knowledge of
the Indian struggle and learnt the tactics of the anti-colonial movement. Political programmes,
Manifestoes, and Resolutions of the Indian Political Parties clearly demonstrated that the
ideology of freedom was shared by all the opinion groups and parties in India.
Some of the parties and groups in Africa fighting colonial rule based their own activities on the
Indian method to obtain freedom. The Ghanaian leader, Kwame Nkrumah who led his country’s
freedom struggle appreciating India’s role wrote :
After month of studying Gandhi’s policy and watching the effect it had, I believe.....
(when backed by strong political organisation) it could be the solution of the colonial
problems.
On another occasion he noted :
Nehru’s understanding of the problems of Asia and Africa were a great source of
encouragement to all of us who had been engaged in the struggle for liberation and unity
of Africa.
The support of post-Independence India to the freedom movements in Africa became a crucial
factor as the former was a founding-member of the Non-Aligned Movement. The Indian
liberation of Goa from the Portuguese, rule in 1961 inspired the liberation movements
particularly, in Portuguese Africa as well as in the rest of the colonial territories. The liberation of
Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) from Pakistan in 1971, where India’s support was crucial,
further encouraged the Africa liberation movements. They looked upto the Indian as the leader of
the Afro-Asian bloc. Earlier, the Indian initiative in bringing forth a resolution at the UN General
Assembly in 1946 condemning the Apartheid regime in South Africa, establishing India as the
pioneer of anti-racist struggle also. India helped the movement with moral, material and
humanitarian assistance. It also took the lead in creation of the Àction Fighting Racist Invasions
and Colonialism in Africa’ (AFRICA) Fund to help the independent countries in the Southern
African region in the mid-1980s.
Winnie Mandela, a South African leader and the former wife of the First President of the
Republic of South Africa, Nelson Mandela appreciated India for supporting the anti-racist
movement, thus :
The warmth, love and solidarity of the people of India give us courage and strength to
stand up and walk upright under the load of apartheid and continue the bitter struggle
against the inhuman regime.
The influence of India was also felt in the foreign policy decision of the newly independent
countries of Africa. Almost every country adopted Non-alignment as their foreign policy
programme. They chose not to be entangled in any post-Second World War military block,
formed both by the US and the Western allies (`The NATO’) and the USSR and allies (`The
Warsaw Pact’). Instead, the new African countries joined the Organisation of African Unity
(OAU) formed in 1963 as the organisation of Pan-African continent. Like India, they retained
their friendly relations with their respective former colonial masters.

1) What were the two main tasks of the freedom movements in Asia and Africa?
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
2) How did India inspire the freedom movements in Africa? Mention three main activities.
............................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
3) The following can be said to be the defenders of the ideology of superior races’ mission
to civilize inferior races. Tick (&) the right answer.
(a) Gandhiji, Nehru, Azad

(b) Luther, Mandela, Nyerere
(c) Ferry, Kipling, Mckinely.
30.3 COLONIALISM AND ITS REMNANTS

The impact of colonialism can still be felt in many parts of the world, although the colonial
powers have decolonized most of their territories.
(a) There are a large number of military bases which the western powers maintain in their
former colonies.
(b) Also there are the former colonies to which the colonial powers have granted formal
independence. However, in these areas, the governance is still not allowed to be done by
the chosen representatives of the people. Instead, the territories are being run by the allies
of the former colonial powers.
30.3.1 Existence of Military Bases

Diego Garcia
While the UN does not regard Diego Garcia as a colonial area, for the countries of the region, this
is indeed a remnant of colonialism.
Diego Garcia is a group of islands forming a part of the Mauritius archipelago in the Eastern
Indian ocean.
When Mauritian independence was negotiated with the British in 1965, the latter which was the
colonial power insisted that though Diego Garcia was a part of the Mauritian archipelago, it
would be still under the British possession. According to the agreement, the people of the island
were shifted to the Mauritius main island, and the British paid compensation for their
rehabilitation. The British leased the island out to their ally, the USA, which set up a military and
a nuclear base.
Realising the danger this base poses to the security of Mauritius, Indian and the other Indian
ocean countries have been demanding the withdrawal of foreign powers. They are supporting the
nationalist forces in Mauritius who urge a speedy return of Diego Garcia to Mauritius and the
dismantling of the US base.
30.3.2 Governance by the Allies of Imperial Powers

Western Sahara
The Western Sahara, now called the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), is a desert
country of 2,66,000 sq. km. in the North Western part of Africa. It formed a part of the Spanish
colonies in Africa and was recognised by the other colonial powers, namely, the British, French
and the Belgians at the Berlin conference in 1885. One November 14, 1975 Spain abandoned the
area by entering into a tripartite agreement with Morocco and Mauritania. Sahara was divided
into three parts: The Northern part was handed over to Morocco, and Mauritania received the
Southern part. Morocco and Mauritania were neighbours and were skating claims to the Spanish
Saharan territory due to historical reasons. Spain kept for herself rich fishing banks and settled for
a share in the profits from phosphate mining.
Annexation by Morocco
Morocco which annexed the northern part had the richest phosphate deposits. The Moroccan
annexation was strongly backed by France. To ensure continued support, Morocco agreed to buy
military equipment from the USA and to give transit facilities to the USA’s Rapid Development
Force.
POLISARIO Opposes Moroccan Actions
The annexation by Morocco was disputed by the POLISARIO (Peoples’ Organisation for the
Liberation of Sakiet el Hamra and Rio de Oro). This is a Front encompassing all the nationalist
groups and people of the territory and is spearheading the political movement for liberation of the
territory from Morocco. After failing in its initial attempts to persuade Morocco to withdraw, the
POLISARIO launched an armed struggle. Spain, the colonial power, which still retained control
over certain rich areas of the territory, ultimately gave up its claims after the death of its dictator,
Gen. `Caudillo’ Franco in 1975. Mauritania, which claimed and occupied the southern part of the
territory, also made peace with the POLISARIO after a military coup in 1978. POLISARIO now
occupied three-fourth of the territory, declaring those areas on which it established its control as
an independent republic, the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). The POLISARIO
won a major victory when the organization of African unity (OAU) admitted the SADR as its
51st member-state.
Though the SADR had been recognised by more than seventy countries internationally, Morocco
with the support of its western allies, has refused to handover its territory to the POLISARIO’S
administration. Morocco which is supposed to hold free and fair referendum, under the joint
auspices of the OAU and the UN, has so far delayed the implementation of this plan. Various
reasons and excuses have been given, such as the assessment of nationality of the voters and the
status of refugees who are lodged in different POLISARIO-controlled camps in Algeria and
camps inside the SADR territory.
Therefore, Morocco’s policy in the Western Saharan territory is referred to as ”Internal

Colonialism”.
30.4 COLONIALISM AND RACIAL

JUSTIFICATION
In the first unit of this course, you have read about the meaning of `race’ and the political uses of
radicalism.
Race refers to distinctive physical characters that distinguish one from the other sub-divisions of
the human species. There are more similarities than dissimilarities amongst the different groups.
By grouping similarities in pigmentation, hair texture, jaw and shape of nostril it is possible to
distinguish three broad divisions of human race - the Negroid (Black), the Mongoloid (Yellow)
and Caucasoid (White). Years of scientific research has proved that these differences have no
bearing on the basic physiological or psychological peculiarities of human beings. They play no
role in deciding the intelligence level of humans. Racial peculiarities are just external physical
attributes. Those who have coined the concept of superiority of the Europeans over the Asians
and Africans have used the term `race’ for political purposes. For them broad racial divisions are
Whites, Asians and Africans.
30.4.1 Race Used as a tool for Exploitation

By picturing the non-Whites, particularly Africans, as incapable of independent development,
racism was used as a tool for securing legitimacy and acceptance of European rule and
discriminatory socio-economic practices. By repeated indoctrination and distorted propaganda
about superiority of white races, a whole range of exploitative economic relationships, value
systems, social attitudes and political principles were developed.
Ideological indoctrination was so subtle that even the non-Whites were taken in by it. Many got
misguided and accepted the doctrine of superiority of whites. The scientific truth that all men are
born equal and belong to one human race had to be defended. Mahatma Gandhi explained “all
those who can have children of one another belong to the same race, the human race”.
Till the 16th century inferiority was not associated with Africans or Asians or with pigmentation
or texture of hair. Discrimination was generally based on religion, region or class. Mobility from
a lower status group to a higher status group was possible under Plato or Aristotle’s ideas of
differences. Their philosophies did not imply or attribute any inherent elements of inequality
among the men based on racial features. Racial groups were not discussed as inflexible, non-
transgressable, divisionary water-tight compartments but as a group whose only right to be
considered superior was the superiority of martial powers.
The European colonizers, through slave trade, plunder, genocide devasted the African continent
in particular, and pushed it hundreds of years backward. And then they attributed backwardness
of Africa to `racial inferiority’ of Africans. The colonizers theorized that European technological
advance was due to their social superiority.
30.4.2 Colonial Practice and their Effects
In the African areas where colonialism introduced European settlements, societies were structured
on the basis of racial discrimination. In these areas, climatically suitable, minerally rich and
agriculturally fertile lands were alienated and allotted to the white settlers. Non-Europeans, i.e.,
Asian settlers and indigenous people were denied the right to own land or lease their lands.
Africans were forced to work on low wages. There was no occasion for them to rise up in society
and compete with the whites. Africans were also denied a share in political life. Their political
parties were banned. Formation of multi-racial and multi-ethnic parties was forbidden. Racial
discrimination tried to reduce Africans to sub-human levels.
30.5 STRUGGLE FOR RACIAL EQUALITY

AND FREEDOM
Racial discrimination was used, till recently, in certain territories of Africa, to exclude the Non-
White groups from exercising power. These groups were denied even the basic rights of human
dignity and freedom. They were arbitrarily administered by the white settler communities whose
ancestors emigrated from Europe, mostly from Britain, Netherlands and Germany. The settler
communities were either granted independence in the beginning of the 20th century or had
themselves declared their independence from their mother countries.
These communities had been the most ardent and vocal advocates of racial discrimination.
Although colonialism as it is understood in the conventional sense is no longer valid in such
territories, the white settler communities have themselves become colonisers of the lands of the
native peoples. They have displaced the local people from their traditionally inhabited lands, and
have stopped the people from advancing into modern modes of life. The white settlers had allied
themselves with the remnants of colonialism, such as Portugal which continued to maintain its
control over two Southern African territories, Angola and Mozambique till 1975, much later than
the other European colonial powers. The impact of colonialism is still too powerful to be removed
from these territories.
The republics of South Africa, Namibia and Rhodesia are examples of the White-settler
community-dominated territories.
30.5.1 South Africa

The white settlers numbering 4.5 million out of a total population of 32 million gained
independence from the British in 1910. Like Canada and Australia, in South Africa the Europeans
settled and founded a colony. Ever since then, the settler minority’s rule had denied political,
social and economic rights to the Africans and Indians. What is more, the African majority was
denied their rightful place in their own native country.
In 1912, the African National Congress (ANC) was founded to represent the Africans, the Asians
and the colored population (mostly the descendants of Africans and Europeans), who constitute
eighty three per cent of the total population. The ANC and its allies, united in a broad nationalist
front to struggle against Apartheid (racial segregation). Apartheid was also adopted by the settler
regime in legal as well as in other walks of life. The regime argued that separate development of
culturally differing groups is most suitable for retaining their culture and identity. For this
purpose, the regime created separate residential areas for all and `reserves’ or the `homelands’
known as Banturtans. Thus, 87% of the population were forced to live in 13% of the territory,
while 13% of the population inhabitated 87% of the land areas. The Africans were also paid low
wages and were compelled to have permission of the administration and approval of the employer
for undertaking to visit the `Non-African Areas’.
The Africans opposing the policy of apartheid argued that the apartheid theory was itself illogical
and inhuman in democratic world. The Africans and their organisation, the ANC were committed
to establish democracy and participation of all sections of the people in government.
The struggle continued for more than seventy years in the face of the white regime’s refusal to
dismantle the apartheid system. Violence and terror tactics were employed to silence the black
opposition. Since the western powers invested huge amounts in South Africa, they backed the
apartheid regime. Close military relations were also established between the West and South
Africa. The ANC’s struggle involved opposing the regime both internally as well as
internationally.
The White regime eventually had to bow to the political and economic pressures created by the
black opposition groups and the international forces focussed on the UN. Nelson Mandela’s
release from prison after more than 28 years in February 1992 set the stage for a final
transformation of South Africa. A phase-by-phase change over the next two years saw the
convening of a Constituent Assembly having representation of all the communities and groups
inhabiting South Africa. The elections held under the Constituent Assembly brought the ANC
and allies a complete victory. A National Unity Government was formed and a new constitution
approved. The new constitution came into effect in 1996. Its main features are to constitute South
Africa into a non-racist democratic country with equal representation and power to all its
inhabitants.
Thus, the fight against racism and remnants of colonialism by the Africans, Asians, the coloured
and the liberal sections of the Whites culminated successfully. The objective of the new
government is to ensure development of all sections of the population and to reverse the bad
impact sustained by years of subjugation.
30.5.2 Namibia
South-West Africa or Namibia was earlier colonised by the Germans during 1880-1915 after
annihilating three-fourths of the indigenous population. But in the First World War, Germany lost
Namibia to the British. The League of Nations formed after the war in 1919 assigned Namibia to
the British to govern as a Mandate Territory. But Britain transferred Namibia to South Africa to
be administered. According to the League, the Mandatory Power was expected “to promote to the
utmost the material and moral well being of the inhabitants”. The British decisions was in
violation of the League of Nations mandate. South Africa, on its part, introduced white settlement
and discriminatory laws and practices. The European settles increased from 14000 in 1915 to
50000 in 1949, depriving Africans of their lands. They were forced to work for the White settlers.
After World War II, the League of Nations was replaced by the UN. The mandate system of the
League was also replaced by the UN’s Trusteeship System. The new arrangement required
preparing the Trusteeship territory to an eventual independence. But South Africa, the
administrator of the Mandate refused to acknowledge the transfer and challenged the UN
authority. Its argument was that it was responsible only to the League and not to the new
organisation, the UN.
The case of Namibia was taken to the International court of Justice. In the meanwhile, the UN had
terminated its mandate in 1966 in the hope of preparing Namibia for eventual independence. But
South Africa refused to oblige, and continued to occupy Namibia. It imposed the apartheid
system. South African supporters included the US, besides France, Great Britain, West Germany,
the former colonial powers in Africa and Japan. In 1964 the UN transferred Namibia to the UN
Council on Namibia to administer the territory until independence. IN 1971, the international
Court of Justice ruled that South Africa had to return Namibia as its occupation was declared
illegal.
The South-West African People’s Organisation (SWAPO) which was formed in 1960 led the
struggle to end racial discrimination and the South African rule. Initially adopting peaceful means
such as strikes, demonstrations and boycott actions, it switched on the armed struggle in 1966
when the South African regime began using violent methods to suppress the opposition. South
Africa crossed over even to the neighbouring Angola in hot pursuit of the Namibian refugees. A
government was also sought to be set up in Namibia by the South African government called the
Turnhalle Conference. It proposed setting up of a loose federation of ethnic groups. The
Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA) which was the result was to counter the SWAPO. the
SWAPO was recognised by the UN and OAU as “the sole and authentic representative of the
Namibia people”. Therefore, the DTA was rejected by the UN, the Namibia Council besides the
SWAPO itself. Incidentally, the Western powers also joined in its rejection.
The five member Contact Group that was formed by the USA, Canada, West Germany, Britain
and France attempted to find a solution for holding free election as demanded by the UN Security
Council Resolution 385. But South Africa refused to acknowledge the proposal of the Contact
Group. in 1978, the UN again resolved through resolution 435 to hold elections in Namibia under
a UN Transitory Assistance Group. Again, South Africa rejected Resolution 435 and conducted a
sham election in 1978 trying to install the DTA. But the SWAPO and its allies rejected and
intensified the armed struggle. It attracted widespread support from the trade unions, children and
opinion groups. To suppress the agitations and armed struggle, the South African Defence Forces
invaded the northern neighbour, Angola because of that country’s sheltering the SWAPO. After
the South African forces were roundly defeated by the joint forces of Angola and Cuba at Cuito
Cunavale (Angola) in 1988, the talks for withdrawing South African troops from Angola were
intensified. From late 1988, internal developments forced South Africa to withdraw from
Namibia, because the methods of control of Namibia being exercised by South Africa were not
successful for long. There were revolts and dissidence even by those groups who were trusted by
South Africa to administer the West Namibian territory. SWAPO began to be supported by
almost all the ethnic communities on the external front, the US on whose support South Africa
was depending also favoured negotiations with Angola, Cuba and the SWAPO. Us acted as a
mediator. It was agreed that Cuba would withdraw its troops from Angola according to a time
frame and that Angola would not host the SWAPO. This was conditional on South Africa’s
withdrawal from the Angolan territories which it had invaded and implementation of Resolution
435 on Namibia, (which promised independence to Namibia). Though 1st April 1989 was
promised as the implementation date, due to technical logistical problems the date was put off to
November 1, 1989. The UN Transitional Group (UNTAG) supervised the elections to a 72-
member National Assembly in November 1989, after South Africa granted general amnesty to all
the exiled refugees. With the SWAPO securing 57.3% of the votes of the 95% electorate, the
party emerged as the ruling party in the pre-independence election. The National Assembly later
supervised the smooth transition to independence. Namibia thus became free on March 21, 1990.
30.5.3 Zimbabwe-Rhodesia
The territory of Southern Rhodesia which acquired the name of Zimbabwe after independence in
1930, was controlled by the British South African Company of Cecil Rhodes till 1923, was
controlled by the British government later took control and it encouraged enterprising Britishers
to settle down and take advantage of the mineral discoveries. However, the Land Apportionment
Act of 1930 enacted by the settlers who controlled the administration, began a policy of racial
discrimination. The Whites excluded the Africans from acquiring fertile agricultural lands and
restricted their mobility. Jobs were denied and wages were kept low. No facilities were also
given. But the Second World War brought pressures on the white settlers to improve the
condition of the Africans. Some token reforms were, therefore, introduced which the Africans
used to their advantage. The educated Africans protested against the racial segregation and
conducted strikes against the government. As there was no organised protests, the strikes soon
ended without achieving any major results. Meanwhile, the British government proposed that
Southern Rhodesia join the Central African Federation whose other members were Nyasaland and
Northern Rhodesia so that they would be profiting from mineral discoveries. But the whites of
Southern Rhodesia rejected the offer protesting against the British Government’s àppeasement’
policy of the Blacks. The white extremists of Southern Rhodesia won the 1962 elections,
displacing the party which ruled the territory from 1923. Ian Smith was elected the leader of the
Nationalist party which took over power. His threats to declare Southern Rhodesia independent of
Britain materialised in 1965 when the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) shocked the
world.
Racial discrimination increased under Ian Smith’s regime. The UDI was declared illegal by the
UN and sanctions, military, political and economic, were imposed. In the first few years, the
sanctions were becoming effective, Ian Smith’s regime concluded alliances with South Africa and
Portugal which were having colonies in Angola and Mozambique.
The Africans, meanwhile began their armed struggle in 1966 after a few years of passing through
ineffective organisation and splits in their main organisation, the Zimbabwe African People’s
Union (ZAPU) in 1963. The ZAPU was powerful among the Ndeble Community of southern
parts of the territory. The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU( which emerged from the
ZAPU was influential among the Shona community in the north-east. The ZANU having good
links with the People’s Republic of China, Korea, and the freedom movement in Mozambique,
the FRELIMO, soon spread its activities to central and eastern areas of the territory. The ZAPU
was led by Joshua Nkomo and had USSR’s support. The ZANU was led by Rev. Ndabaningi
Sithole and Robert Mugabe. From December 1972, active armed operations began in the territory.
The operations radicalised the population but South Africa, Zambia, U.K. and US were alarmed.
More so it was happening during the Cold War. The USSR was supporting the liberation
movements in the neighbouring Portuguese territories of Angola and Mozambique. From 1946,
after the decolonization of Portuguese territories, war increased. The `Frontline’ states - Angola,
Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia-urged both the feuding guerrilla parties, the ZAPU and the
ZANU to unite. In 1976, with their backing, Patriotic Front came into being but unity between
the two groups was still not forthcoming. However, the guerrilla struggles were mounting
pressure on Ian Smith’s government. Now, more successful, the guerrillas made heavy inroads
into the rural areas. With economic difficulties mounting, and white morale falling, Smith’s
regime made internal settlements and modifications. A few African leaders were invited and
power was promised to be shared. The Africans saw through the design of the Smith government.
His plans were rejected and more support extended to the guerrillas. Smith’s chosen government
under Bishop Abel Muzorewa could not be successful in governing the territory. International
pressure especially from the USA and the UK, besides the UN, compelled the regime to
particpate in the Lancaster House Constitutional conference in 1979 and 1980. The South
Africans too pressurised the Smith regime into accepting a compromise. Accordingly, transitional
arrangements to independence began from September 1979 and the agreement recognising the
modalities for transfer of power signed in December 1979 after the annulment of the Unilateral
Declaration of Independence of 1965.
In the elections of February 1980, the ZANU-PF (Patriotic Front) and Mugabe won 57 of the 80
`Common Roll’ (seats for the Africans) seats, representing 63% of the total votes cast. The seats
for whites were reduced to 20, and for the first time in Rhodesian history, the Blacks obtained the
majority of representation. Rhodesia became independent as Zimbabwe on April 18, 1980. The
new government promised to redistribute the lands among the African, who had, in the early
twentieth century, lost to the greed of the White Settlers.
30.5.4 Indian Support for the Struggle Against

Apartheid
India has followed a consistent policy of anti-racism. This stand is based on the cardinal
principles that freedom is indivisible and that racism is another facet of colonialism. India has
been in the forefront of the fight against the racist systems of South Africa, Namibia and
Rhodesia. Even during the struggle for independence, the Indian nationalists were vehemently
opposing racist practices and policies. The leader of the Indian National Congress, Mahatma
Gandhi had himself experienced apartheid for a full two decades when he lived in South Africa as
a practising lawyer.
Mahatma Gandhi’s Satyagraha (`Soul Force’) and other non-violent campaigns for human rights
first took shape in South Africa. Gandhi returned to India with his experiences of racial cruelties,
repression and inhumanness. The opposition to racial discrimination was well reflected in the
Indian initiative at the United Nations in October 1946. India highlighted the problem of racial
discrimination at the very first session of the UN General Assembly. India launched what can be
termed a movement against racism. The UN was till then dominated by colonial powers. Most of
the present members were still struggling to free themselves from foreign domination and
subjugation. India spoke on behalf of the colonized people and urged freeing racial discrimination
in its widest political context and not as a side issue, confined to certain parts of the world. In
other international forums too, India took the initiative and condemned racial discrimination.
India described racialism as a crime against humanity and as a manifestation of colonialism,
exploitation and oppression. It declared that apartheid could only be destroyed and smashed as it
cannot be reformed.
Indian Initiative Against Racism

Indian initiative and UN debates helped in the formulation of three main principles of anti-
apartheid movement, namely: one, that racial policies were not matters of domestic jurisdiction;
two, that racial policies adversely affected relations between states; three, that racial
discrimination was a violation of the Charter of United Nations and of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights.
Protests Against Racism

India further pressed the issue and the UN set up a Special Committee against apartheid. The UN
General Assembly also passed a resolution asking member states to take certain diplomatic and
economic steps against the Government of South Africa to force it into abandoning its racial
policies. UN voted for meaningful comprehensive economic and arms sanctions against South
Africa.
Earlier, Nehru, protesting against the continuous defiance of South Africa even demanded its
expulsion from UN and the Commonwealth. He also blamed the Western powers for supporting
the racist regime. He warned them of the colonial war turning into the most violent struggle on
racial lines.
Indian efforts continued and in 1967 India recognized that ANC was the true leader of anti-
apartheid forces in Southern Africa. This further strengthened the anti-apartheid movement. ANC
was allowed to open its Asia mission in India to spread their cause further. A few years later India
extended diplomatic recognition also to SWAPO, a companion movement of the ANC, which
helped the latter to open its embassy. India contributed further by honouring the imprisoned ANC
leader Nelson Mandela with Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding. The ANC
and the SWAPO leaders were personally invited on state visits.
India condemned the armed attacks of South Africa against the neighbouring independent African
States because the latter gave shelter to the freedom fighters of the ANC and the SWAPO.
Destabilisation attempts of South Africa against the governments of Angola, Mozambique,
Lesotho and Zimbabwe were discussed at the international forums.
At the instance of India and under its chairmanship, the AFRICA fund was created to help the
nationalist movements of South Africa and Namibia and to assist the Frontline States - Angola,
Mozambique, Zambia Lesotho, Zimbabwe and Botswana - to repair the damages caused to them
by South African military invasions and sabotage of their nascent economies. The decisions to set
up the AFRICA fund was taken at the Non-Aligned Summit in Harare, Zimbabwe in 1986.
With the emergence of Namibia as an independent country and the dismantling of apartheid
regime in South Africa complete, the fight against racism now involves steps to combat the
repercussions of centuries of racism. Economic programmes given by the South African
Development Coordination Committee (SADCC) Summits are being implemented towards
making the Southern African region recover from the distortions caused by the apartheid regime.
30.6 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we discussed:
helped the background of the self-determination and freedom movements in Asia and Africa.
how the ideals of equality and economic development became a driving force for the liberation
movements.
what role was played by the Indian Freedom movements in inspiring the freedom Movements of
Asia and Africa.
how the post-independence India the freedom movements and the anti-racist struggles in Africa.
30.7 KEY WORDS

Apartheid: The practice of segregation of races as was practised in the Republic of South
Africa by the White Community. The practice was discontinued after 1991 and
the institutions of apartheid began to be dismantled since.
Bipolar World: A situation in international politics where two `Big Powers’ opposed to
each other complete for getting allegiance of and control over the other countries.
The `Big Powers’ are also called `Super Powers’.
Bloc: Grouping of entities or countries based either on ideological similarities or

security issues or economic necessities.
Cold War: Confrontation between countries through methods other than armed. It could be
psychological or through media.

PROGRESS EXERCISES
Answer to Check Your Progress 1
1) a) To disprove the theory of the superiority of the white race and the inferiority
of the others.
b) to establish that the colonized people can also be as self-reliant and resourceful as
those who colonized them or
Self-determination and liberation from the foreign rule.
(You may note down any other tasks of the freedom movements as well).
2) a) Desire to be away from the politics of Super Powers because involvement in

the politics of external powers would be wasteful and would not help in their
progress.
b) Fear of once again coming under the colonial rule.
c) Apprehensions about the spread of communism in the own countries.
d) Preference to nationalism or to unity between countries of their same continent or

region rather than to be followers of extremely developed ideologies.
UNIT 31 THE STRUGGLE FOR
FREEDOM AGAINST
CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF
DOMINATION
Structure
31.0 Objectives
31.1 Introduction
31.2 `Social Imperialism’ or `Neo-Imperialism’
31.3 Neo-Colonialism
31.3.1 Economic Means
31.3.2 Political Means
31.3.3 Military means
31.3.4 Cultural Means
31.4 Reducing Dependence on Former Colonial Powers
31.4.1 The Role of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
31.5 Role of UN’s Leadership Against Contemporary Forms of Domination
31.5.1 Encouraging Formation of Regional and sub-regional Associations of the
Developing Countries
31.5.2 Environment
31.5.3 Social Field
31.5.4 UN’s Co-ordination with the Developing Countries
31.6 Position of the Developing Countries in Today’s World
31.6.1 An Appraisal
31.7 Let Us Sum up
31.9 Key Words
31.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to learn the following:
that the imperialism which continued even after Second World War, has changed its face
Neo-colonialism is the new name of the game which is now being carried out through economic,
political, military and cultural means
Role of NAM in reducing dependence of ex-colonies on their previous colonial masters
Role of UN in providing leadership to bring about true liberation of the newly independent
developing countries in conventional as well as non-conventional areas like environment,
women’s empowerment, information etc.
31.1 INTRODUCTION
Though the wave of decolonization covering many of the colonial territories had set in after the
second World War, Imperialism did not actually vanish from the globe. Colonialism, in the sense
of acquisition of overseas territories, was only replaced by two forms of imperialist domination.
The first form was called, ”Social Imperialism”; and it was also known as “Neo-Imperialism”.
The second form came to be known as “Neo-Colonialism”. These two forms were occurring in a
period when cold war began to gain momentum between the western countries and the
communist countries during the late 1940s and the 1950s. The newly independent countries were
caught in the bipolar world where the two major powers - the USA and the USSR hence known
as the “Super powers” - competed for their allegiance and support. Rivalry between the West and
the East Blocs began.
31.2 `SOCIAL IMPERIALISM’ OR `NEO-

IMPERIALISM’
The policy makers of the West described the USSR’s dominance, and in particular, its domination
of the non-Russian people as `Russian Imperialism’. They blamed the Russian leaders for
dismantling the non-communist independent governments in Eastern Europe and the Caucuses
and installing Communist governments. The Communist governments were identified as
totalitarian dictatorships. The overall life of the people including their sentiments, culture,
language and religious practices were to be controlled besides their indigenous and historical,
political and economic institutions and ways of life, under communist goverance. Moscow’s
controlling the former Eastern European and Baltic Republics was criticized also by Mao’s
Peoples Republic of China after the Sino-Soviet split in the mid-1960s. The split was not only
political between the USSR and the Peoples’ Republic of China. It also caused to the separate the
Communist powers in their doctrinal beliefs, thereby creating a wide wedge in the communist
movement itself. Moscow’s imposition of its own brand of communism and economic
programmes on the developing countries was criticized by the Chinese Communists as “Social
Imperialism”. The Chinese, therefore, prepared themselves to resist the USSR’s Imperialism and
made alliances with the developing and the former colonized states all over the world. Now, the
field of competition was left to three major powers - the West, the Eastern bloc of the USSR and
the People’s Republic of China (PRC). In course of time, the policies pursued by the PRC
towards its Asian neighbours and specifically, its òccupation’ or ànnexation’ of Tibet and
portions of North-East India and Kashmir, were also criticized as Chinese domination or
Imperialism
31.3 NEO-COLONIALISM
A couple of reasons explain why the western powers were described as Neo-colonial. First, as the
former colonial powers could not maintain their territories in the aftermath of the Second World
War due to economic and political pressures, they had to find alternate means to maintain their
control over their former territories. So, one method of colonialism was seen to have been
replaced by a different one and form. Second, the name was first used widely by the communist
theoreticians to denote any capitalist country investing in the economies of the underdeveloped
countries. Therefore, this group of political opinion included the leader of the Western group, the
USA, as a neo-colonist power, although the USA had no colonies in the sense that its European
allies - France, Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal - had and despite, the fact
that the present USA was born of territories that were earlier under the British, French and
Spanish rules. Since the USA was the leader of the Western countries, that country was also
called a ”Neo-colonial” country. The term used by the communist parties became common as
gradually even the nationalist and non-communist leaders began using the term to describe the
western domination through modern means of exercising influence. The nationalist leader of the
Gold Coast (now known as Ghana) and the first President of the country which became
independent in Africa in (1957), Kwame Nkrumah described Neo-colonialism as a new form of
imperialism within which a country may have all the outward trappings of political independence,
but such independence has no meaning since it is not backed by economic independence. In 1958,
he described the methods of neo-colonialist domination thus:
“... not merely by military means, but by economic penetration, cultural assimilation,
ideological domination, psychological infiltration, and subversive activities.”
Thus, neo-colonialism is an invisible system of domination over the former colonies and the
developing countries. The basic effect of neo-colonialist imperialism is to impose capitalist
economic and political systems on the developing countries. It also includes retaining for the
independent political system, the framework devised by capitalism. Such a method become
essential for preserving and promoting the economic and strategic interests of the dominating
country/countries.
The system of neo-colonialism operates through big trading firms, state agencies, cultural media
and educational organisations, in addition to military bases, military interventions and
intelligence agencies. This form of domination operates both through formal structures as well as
informal links and psychological propaganda methods.
31.3.1 Economic Means

Neo-Colonialism has essentially four forms: Economic, political, cultural and military. The
economic form of neo-colonialism is directed to assist the profit-making function of big
monopolies: to ensure to neo-colonial powers the uninterrupted supply of cheap raw materials; to
control the industrial and technological growth of the third world countries; to enable, the neo-
colonial powers to wield political influence over the governments through economic means.
One of the main aims of economic neo-coloniliams is to retain essentially the same economic
relationships between imperialism and developing countries as had existed until independence.
During the colonial era, the big business houses or trading companies of the metropolis invested
in mining on plantations in Asia and Africa; and reaped high profits by exploiting the cheap wage
labour and national resources. These trading companies, such as the United Africa Company,
bought cheap raw materials produced by local producers and made huge profits by selling them at
high rates.
The metropolitan manufacturing firms made substantial profits by selling their goods in the
colonies. After independence these big trading and manufacturing firms did not withdraw.
Instead, they strengthened their economic relations. Since these bodies operated in more than one
country, they are called Multinational Corporations (MNCs). Some of these MNCs are not
identifiable with any particular state because their investments come from many states. The
MNCs have become vehicles of neo-colonial relations. They have almost complete control over
the economics of countries. They produce or mine the product, provide technology and experts,
process, transport and market the products. Even where the cash crop is grown by small holders,
as coffee is in Kenya or palm is Nigeria or Cocoa in Ghana, the control of the market and prices
remain with the MNCs. In the process they make lucrative profits and transfer them to their
country where the Headquarters’ are located. This way, they underdevelop the country of their
operation by draining the wealth.
The fixation of prices of raw materials exported by the third world countries are so manipulated
that they benefit the MNCs or the metropolitan country. This is followed by repatriation of profits
to the former colonial countries. This leads to an unequal relationship, and the foreign exchange
reserves of raw material exporting countries go down. They face crisis and approach the
international financial organizations, like World Bank, International Development Bank, Western
commercial Banks and International Monetary Fund (IMF), for funds.
These banks, before granting loans, dictate terms and lay down certain conditions, e.g.,
devaluation of the currency, reduction in expenditure on social services, or cutting down
government subsidies, and insist on opening of the economy for private foreign investments.
These conditions, influence political, social and economic policies of the recipient countries. Debt
burden continues to increase as the recipient countries are not in a position to pay even service
charge and interest. This to greater dependence. In most countries of Africa per-capita income has
been stagnant or declining since 1970.
31.3.2 Political Means

Politically, the neo-colonial forces create internal conditions in the developing countries, which
assist in the retention of political power in the hands of those social strata which are prepared to
collaborate with them to subserve their interests. Operationally, political power can be said to
have been retained when the citizens of an independent political system are not involved in
various decision-making. The ground rules, established institutions, the social and political
notions are retained with only cosmetic change as if only the `persons in rule’ have changed and
not the spirit and letter of `rule’. The members of these strata benefit by getting commission
agencies or jobs in the MNCs by such a collaboration.
The purposes of creating these strata is to ensure that the state power does not fall into the hands
of radical nationalists who will vehemently oppose the exploitation by the agencies and practices
of the neo-colonialist powers. The most pliable sections of the people are sought after. The
western countries who claim to practice liberal democratic philosophy of government do not
hesitate to back dictators, military rulers, monarchs or unpopular leaders when their own interests
have to be protected and expanded. For instance, the deposed Emperors, Haile Selassie of
Ethiopia and the Shah of Iran, Reza Pehlavi and the military rulers of South Korea were
supported.
In case radical leaders took over power, the neo-colonial powers attempted to overthrow them,
through even murders or coups. The overthrow of Mossadeq of Iran (1953), the Arbenz
government of Guatemala (1954), President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana (1966), Allende of Chile
(1973) and the murders of Patrice Lumumba of Congo [Leopold Ville (1960)] and Maurice
Bishop of Grenada (1983) are a few instances. Efforts had also been made to destabilize the
governments of Mozambique, Angola, Guinea, Nicaragua under Sandinistas and Cuba under
Fidel
Castro.
31.3.3 Military Means
The neo colonialist powers use their military to maintain their dominance over the third world
countries. Their greatest fear is spread of communism in their erstwhile colonies. Following
World War II, they entered into agreements and alliances for setting up military bases all over the
world, particularly around USSR and China. Western powers signed military cooperation pacts
with the Third world countries and some of were coerced to join the military blocs. Military bases
in Asia, Pacific and Caribbean Africa were set up. The US Central Command (CENTCOM) alone
uses 2,22,000 military personnel from the Rapid Deployment Force and its area of operations
include 19 nations bordering South-West Asia, the Persian Gulf and the Horn of Africa. Due to
indirect impact of bases, the military budget of most of the newly liberated countries has risen to
as many as fifty per cent of the total national budget. New military equipment and arms are sold
or dumped in these countries as large armament producers have developed interests in armed
conflicts in these regions, as military-industrial-complexes benefit from the sale of arms.
Very often the military bases have been used to threaten the sovereignty of the third world
countries and interfere in their politics, e.g., Diego Garcia and arming of Pakistan.
There are numerous instances of US, British and French interventions in local affairs of the third
world countries. In 1960 Belgian troops with US backing were sent to Congo (Zaire) to assist
pro-western leaders. In 1978 French and Belgian troops were again sent to Zaire in US Air Force
planes to suppress Katanga uprising. The French intervened in 1985 in Chad, France’s former
African colony.
Even without interventions, military bases have their impact. They provide foundations for
political intervention during normal times. They function as centres of prestige, power and
importance of their owners. They enable the owners to exert pressure, establish and enforce their
interests in the surrounding regions.
31.3.4 Cultural Means

The ex-colonial powers imposed their own languages as the main language for conducting
administration and education in their colonies. During the final years of colonial rule, they
encouraged the Asians and Africans to purse higher education in the colonial metropolitan cities
by way of giving scholarships. This step was to instill a feeling of greatness for the colonising
powers’ civilisation and to convince the colonised population about the goodness of the colonial
powers, intentions. By this way, a separate group of natives was cultivated who became elites in
their respective countries after decolonisation. The `new elites’ in the post independence
countries in their turn, imposed their own cultural preferences and tastes in their country’s
educational policies. Indigenous languages and dialects were neglected as a result of this
assimilation into the colonial country’s culture and language. Many independent countries did not
even try to promote their own languages and cultures as they preferred to retain the languages of
their erstwhile colonial countries. The love for knowing the languages and cultures of the
erstwhile colonial masters came to be associated with preference for purchasing of goods and
depending n the services of the former metropolis. Thus, cultural methods became tools for
advancement of economic and political power of the ex-colonial powers and influence the policy
decisions of the independent countries.
Not only was this method confined to the erstwhile colonial powers, but after the advent of the
cold war, the USA, the leader of Western Imperialism, also used several means of culturally
imperialistic policies vis-a-vis the developing world.
The methods of cultural imperialism include, opening of cultural centres especially in former
colonies, offering scholarships for students in the developing world to pursue their education
either in the former colonial metropolis or neo-imperialist capitals and teaching of the language
and culture of the erstwhile colonial powers to the citizens of their former colonies.
Two examples are: the French government’s opening branches of Alliance Francaise all over the
world; and the USA’s Centres of American Studies and Civilization and the alternative
scholarship programmes. These are intended mainly to create an appreciation of their country’s
culture, politics, society and business among the people they operate in.

1) What is Neo-Colonialism? What methods are used by Neo-Colonialist powers to
expand their influence?
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
2) Read the following carefully and tick (&) the correct answer.
Racism can be considered to be:
a) scientific because it logically gives us an understanding of how man came to

be civilized.
b) a tool of neo-colonialism.
c) an unscientific ideology because it associates physical characteristics with

superior or inferior or inferior human capabilities.
d) both b and c.
3) What are the three main principles on which the Indian anti-apartheid movement
is based? Write in ten lines.
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
31.4 REDUCING DEPENDENCE ON
FORMER COLONIAL POWERS
Struggle against the forces and powers of contemporary forms of domination and Imperialism has
been found to be tough and complex. The forces ranged against the newly-liberated countries are
formidable indeed. First, the countries need to correct the historical distortions introduced by the
long colonial rule which involved solving the economic imbalances. Second, the countries had to
effectively come out of the web of dependence with which the departing colonial Poere
deliberately bound their colonial besides in socio-cultural matters. All these had affected the
domestic and foreign policies of the newly independent countries. If they were to progress and
find an independent place in the new international set up, then they had to devise their own
methods of development programmes. These involved an independent understanding of their
indigenous economies and socio-political set ups without getting influenced by their former
colonial countries or for that matter, by any outside power. This was important if the hard-won
independence were to be consolidated.
The newly-independent countries were fortunately helped in their task of building their new states
by the UN and its specialized Agencies. There were also the Socialist Countries that aided them
in economic development. Further, there was a few newly liberated countries such as India,
Ghana and Nigeria which took aid and assistance from their former colonial country (the UK) or
from the USA, and even from the USSR, but devised their own programmes of development
came forward to extend assistance.
In fact, the importance of cooperation among the newly-liberated countries was increasing being
felt. So, this was given the utmost priority because this method of mutual assistance was
identified as effective in crating not only cooperation among the countries sharing similar
historical situations, but also in bringing about individual developments. The objectives of the
newly-liberated countries then were to: cultivate self-reliance and cooperation with the larger aim
of reducing dependence on the former colonial powers and forces of imperial domination.
31.4.1 The Role of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

The NAM grouping together the newly-independent countries and the other developing countries
became an effective forum not only politically, but also in economic, environmental and social
matters. This forum, formed in 1961, started with only four member-countries namely India,
Indonesia, Egypt and Yugoslavia. But by 1997 it had touched membership of more than one
hundred members, all independent countries. This touched membership of more than one hundred
members, all independent countries. This growth in the Movement corresponds with the increase
in its effectiveness in taking up political and economic issues alike. For the first two decades of
its activities, the NAM concentrated its appeals on political maters, such as anti-colonialism, anti-
imperialism, and anti-apartheid effectively playing a part in freeing colonial territories. Its
independent stand on foreign policy matters gave it an equidistant position from either of the two
blocs - the Western and the Eastern. Thus, securing an honoured place in world affairs, its voice
carried a good weight. Having strengthened its own position, the NAM gradually moved its
emphasis from political matters and voiced its concerns on the economic, trade and
environmental issues that were assuming larger importance from the early 1980s. For instance,
the 1995 Cartagena (Colombia) Summit of the NAM condemned the “use of unilateral coercive
measures by some states against the others by taking advantage of their dominant position in
world economy” and “rejected the unilateral imposition of blockades, embargoes, and asset
freezing as instruments of political pressure”. The NAM’s “Appeal of Colombia” went on to
demand a reform of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund and pledged to step up
South-South cooperation.
After the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the emergence of a unipolar and a single dominant
power, (the USA) in its wake, the NAM’s very relevance has been questioned. The movement,
however, has become an effective forum for the developing countries to guard their vital interests
in this changed world scenario. Thus, the NAM has, in recent years, become a major organisation
to focus the world’s attention on nuclear and peace issues, the environmental crusades against the
developed countries’ dumping of nuclear wastes in the environment of the developing countries
and the depletion of the Ozone layer of the world. The 1995 Cartagena Summit had also
condemned the resumption and continuation of nuclear testing by the Nuclear Powers. The NAM
has been constantly encouraging the developing countries to maintain their independent status in
foreign policy matters and has alerted them whenever a damage to this position becomes visible.
Additionally, the NAM’s role has also been to strive to bring about rethinking in the foreign
policies of the developed countries towards the developing countries. It has called for periodic
meetings and consultations between the two groups to ensure appreciation of each other’s socio-
economic positions and situations. The North-South Cooperation Summit, as this effort has come
to be known as, has thus received a strong backing. Furthermore, NAM’s activities have
complemented the United Nation’s efforts in constructing a peaceful and an equitable world.
31.5 ROLE OF UN’S LEADERSHIP

AGAINST CONTEMPORARY FORMS
OF DOMINATION
The attempts of the United Nations in constructing a new and just international environment is
noteworthy.
With the increase in the number of independent countries, the UN’s membership as it stood in
1996, has also gone up four-fold since the end of the Second World War. The new countries
found it advantageous to rely on the UN and its specialised Agencies and Programmes for their
development rather than depending on the Developed Countries.
The major agencies of the UN that have assisted the developing countries are the UNDP (United
Nations Development Programme), the UNICEF (the United Nations International Children’s
emergency Fund), the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation), the WHO (World Health Organisation), the FAO (Food and Agricultural
Organisation) and the Economic Commissions for Africa, Latin of children’s welfare and health
while the UNESCO helps to correct the imbalances between the developed and the developed and
the developing Countries in education, and cultural fields besides aiding the developing countries
to discover their own, often forgotten indigenous cultures, and in promoting technical,
educational and scientific cooperation among the countries.
On the economic front, the UNDP is a major regulator of aid assistance which aims to equitably
distribute the aid among the developing countries. By thus encouraging the vital development of
their economies, the UNDP’s role is fast becoming crucial for the very survival of many
developing countries.
The FAO is a specialised agency devoting itself to expand the agricultural potential and
productivity of the developing countries. Its encouragement to the national governments of the
countries to access expensive farm technologies has resulted in the developing countries to secure
a better position in the international commodity markets. The FAO’s expertise has also led to the
individual national governments to increase and diversify their own agricultural produces.
The Economic Commissions for the individual Continents have become important agencies to
promote development and to initiate new economic activities aimed at increasing employment
and to realise their potentials to compete with the rich, developed countries.
An important contribution of the UN Agencies to the developing countries is that all the agencies
have been working in close coordination with the respective national governments. In so doing,
the agencies have helped the governments to develop their respective societies and economies
based on the individual country’s specific histories and indigenous talents. Thus, borrowing from
the programmes of the developed countries, is sought to be discouraged. This effort has resulted
in the strengthening of the foundations of the developing countries and to consolidate their
political independence. A strong country with solid roots becomes essential to survive in a
competitive international environment.
As a consequence of the UN’s call for the creation of a New International Economic order at its
Sixth Special session in 1974, the UN has taken the lead in helping to create multilateral
cooperation among the developing countries themselves. This is besides, the UN’s assistance in
channelising assistance from the developed countries. The UN’s coordination role has also helped
in convening several conferences that have had a decisive impact on the survival and future of the
developing countries. Thus under the UN’s auspices, the Summit meeting between the leaders of
the North (the developed countries) took place at Cancun (Mexico) in 1981. Again, the UN
sponsored direct talks between the developed and the developing countries to sort out problems
related to investments, trading and export of commodities, pricing of raw material exports, import
of processed goods, and intellectual property and services. Many rounds of negotiations have
been held during the last three decades, for example, the Tokyo restrictions of the developed
countries on the produce of the developing nations and have argued for resource transfers to the
Less Developed Countries (LDCs)
31.5.1 Encouraging Formation of Regional and Sub

regional Associates of the Developing
countries
The objectives sought to be attained are promoting self-reliance among the developing countries,
for facilitating transfer of resources and technology on easy terms and for building up sufficient
economic and commercial strengths to enable these countries to withstand pressures from the
agencies of the developed countries.
The following are a few of the organisations formed:

1. The Group of 77 (G-77)
2 The Group of 15 (G-15)
3 The Southern Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
4 The Southern African Development Community (SADC), formerly known as
the Southern African Development Coordination Committee (SADCC).
The G-77 has been a powerful grouping which meets regularly. The G-15 has come into
operation in the mid-1970s. This is a smaller grouping with representatives from Asia, South-East
Asia and the Pacific, Africa, Central and Southern American regions. Coordination of
information and policies on behalf of the developing world has been undertaken. This smaller
grouping has become a sort of a permanent standing group of the developing countries regarding
development issues. The SAARC group comprises Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives,
Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. It has been progressing themselves to set up a South Asian Free
Trade Association (SAFTA), not later than 2005 AD. Barriers to trade within the region are to be
eased and concessions to be increased meanwhile. There are also plans to set up regional Multi-
National Corporations (MNCs) to take on the global MNCs, to take advantage of the region’s
large market and increasing purchasing power of the people. The programme also involves
granting of the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status to each member-country, and in promoting
technology transfer among themselves. The SADC intends to offset the imbalances and
underdevelopment of the economies of the member-states caused due to centuries of colonialism,
racism and exploitation of their peoples by the colonial powers and settler communities which
practised racial discrimination. The Community has requested the UN and other Non-
Governmental agencies to channelise more funds in development assistance. The SADC
comprising Angola, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland,
Namibia and South Africa is engaged in creating infrastructure for development of the subregion.
31.5.2 Environment
The other measures undertaken under the UN’s auspice concerns protection of the environment.
This includes organising the conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the Un Summit on
Environment and Development of the Èarth Summit’, at Rio-de-Janeiro in 1992 and the
conference to ban chemical weapons. The UN’s forum became crucial for the developing
countries to resist the plans and actions of the developed countries to dump toxic pollutants in
their respective countries. The UNCLOS and the Earth Summit virtually protected the
sovereignties of the developing countries from being violated by the activities of the developed
countries. The UNCLOS’s demarcation of the maritime boundaries and preventing of exploitation
of deep sea mineral resources within the maritime territorial and economic zones of the
developing countries was a great achievement, thanks to the UN. The Earth Summit deliberations
made the developed countries yield to the calls of the developing countries to allocate funds from
their budgets for the development and conservation of the environment in the developing
countries. The UN has also facilitated the developing countries to protect and demand nuclear
disarmament and creation of `Zones of Peace’. For instance, the Indian Ocean Rim States (those
bordering the Indian Ocean) have called on the US and UK to disband nuclear facilities from the
Diego Garcia base. Similarly, African countries are determined to keep their continent free of
nuclear weapons.
31.5.3 Social Field

In the social field, the UN has actively assisted in the convening of World Conference on Women
and Population. It has helped the developing countries to implement the resolutions of the
International Women’s Decade (1975-85) and has guided the developing countries to focus
attention on problems of gender discrimination, and issues of Peace and Development. The
Fourth World Women’s Conference at Beijing September 1995, held under the UN’s
coordinating role, concentrated on solving the problems of the girl children and demanded
empowerment of women in order to solve poverty and developmental imbalances evident
especially in the developing countries. The UN has pledged assistance to the member states to
implement the `Platform for Action’ adopted at the Beijing meet.
Information
The UN’s call for a New International Information Order (NIIO) is intended to curb the
monopoly of the media by the developed countries and to ensure that the developing countries
share information that is necessary for policy making. The UN has rightly realised that a free,
independent, unbiased and reliable information flow between the developed and the developing
countries and vice-versa is essential for safeguarding the independence of the latter countries.
31.5.4 UN’s Co-Ordination with the Developing

Countries
The UN has definitely helped the developing countries to come closer, to share and understand
each other’s problems and to construct avenues for greater cooperation. By giving observer status
to them, the UN has recognized their importance. The purpose of such a coordination is to ensure
unity of purpose to enable the developing countries to progress. Specifically, the UN has
undertaken the following:
Encouraging bilateral cooperation between the developing countries.
Promoting good neighbourliness is one of the UN’s main objectives. It has encouraged the
countries, particularly the Developing ones, to enter into bilateral cooperation agreement within
the spirit of greater South-South Cooperation.
The following are some recent instances of successful bilateral agreements between the
neighbouring developing countries:
Indo-Bangladesh Ganga Water Sharing agreement December 1996, Indo-Nepal Agreement on

Construction of Bridges and Highways (to solve the Mahakali and Tanakpur barrage problems
and to share the Western Himalayan River Waters) - 1986
Trade and Transit Agreement between India and Nepal - 1995.
Bilateral agreements among the developing countries have increased and have become a regular
feature nor only in South Asia, more importantly in Africa and the Caribbean ever since the UN
encouraged South-South cooperation.
A few developing countries that have been ruled by the same colonial power and which have
exchanged people during the colonial period have sought to maintain historical and cultural links
with each other. Bilateral agreements between groups of countries in the post-colonial period
include matters such as culture, education, science and technical cooperation besides trade. A few
instances which fall in this category are the agreements which India concluded with Mauritius
(February 1997), Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and South Africa during 1995 and 1996; and the
agreements which the former Portuguese African colonies of Angola, Mozambique, Guine-
Bissau, Cape Verde and Sao Tome have with each other. Bilateral cooperation also takes place
when the newly liberated country wishes to enter into agreements with countries that had helped
them during their liberation struggle. This is due to the token of gratitude of the newly-liberated
country to its benefactor countries. The agreements so concluded become token of lasting
friendship. Examples under this category are the agreements signed by Namibia with Angola and
India; those concluded between Bangladesh and India; those concluded between Bangladesh and
India after the former’s liberation in 1971; and agreements between Angola and Cuba and those
between Mozambique and Zimbabwe after the Zimbabwean independence in 1980.
31.6 POSITION OF THE DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES IN TODAY’S WORLD
On the whole, the developing countries are becoming increasingly stronger. After the
establishment of the NAM and the different regional and sub-regional Associations, their weight
and voice count the most. The Big Powers and the former colonial powers have also realised the
power of the developing and the ex-colonized countries. However, there are opinion groups
within the developed countries that question the role of the UN in helping the developing
countries. The US administration, ever since Ronald Reagan’s Presidency, has been defaulting on
annual payment of dues to the UN and reducing the amount of assistance to the developing
countries. The USA has made it a condition that full payment of all its accumulated dues is
conditional on the UN agreeing to meet its demands of curtailment of staff and grants. Further,
the US wishes to save money for undertaking domestic programmes.
The developing countries thus face daunting challenges. They have been fighting against the
move of the developed countries to create trade barriers in international commerce and to
undervalue their exports. They have joined together in calling for expansion of the permanent
membership of the UN Security Council and are fighting against the present monopoly of the
Council’s Five Permanent members - the USA, UK, France, Russia and Peoples’ Republic of
China- in the UN’s decision making. They have been taking adequate steps to put the ideals of
South-South cooperation into practical action. The developing countries have also been
mobilizing liberal opinion in the west to their cause of building a just, equitable and peaceful new
world order.
31.6.1 An Appraisal
Although the struggle against colonialism has been resoundingly successful, the fight against the
effects of colonialism appears arduous and challenging. Thus, for instance, inspite of dismantling
of the Apartheid system in South Africa and Namibia, there have been difficulties in the political
integration of the long alienated communities. Likewise, there are difficulties in the redistribution
of these two countries’ wealth among the people. The new government of President Nelson
Mandela’s African Congress and its allies also face problems about solving the intra-societal
imbalances and tensions caused due to historical reasons. Having Africa’s most democratic
institutions, both the South Africa and Namibia, are in the midst of tensions associated with the
building of new states.
In brief, it is becoming evident that the developing countries are preparing themselves to protect
their own group interests by strengthening their mutual bonds, and by forming new result-
oriented groupings. Plans to form Regional Multi-National Corporations that will be region-
friendly to challenge the global MNCs testify to the resolve of this group of countries. Serious
efforts are underway to resolve bilateral and multilateral problems among themselves give
enough indication that the developing countries are readying themselves to enter the Twenty First
century with a record of success against colonialism, racism and imperialism of all brands. The
determination to be internationally equal partners with the developed countries drives them on.
India, as one of the foremost leaders of the developing countries, has been playing its notable
part. But it has to modify and improvise its methods in the context of new developments, if it is to
maintain its leadership position in the world, especially among the developing countries.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Name the methods being adopted by the developing and former colonized countries to
face the challenges of the developed countries.
2) What are the challenges the developing countries face in the present international order?
3) Tick Mark (&) the correct response:
The UNICEF is a UN Specialised Agency and is concerned with:
a) Environment
b) Education and Culture
c) Trade
d) None of the above
31.7 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit we discussed:
how the new forms of domination emerged replacing the earlier method, viz., colonialism.
how and in what way the new methods of domination influenced political, economic, military and
cultural systems of the newly independent and other developing countries.
how colonialist imperialism used racism to subjugate and segregate people and how racist
separation and discrimination was used by the Neo-colonialist powers to strengthen
themselves.
the methods being used by the developing countries to resist domination by the developed
countries, and
the challenges being face by the developing countries in their present struggle.

PROGRESS EXERCISES
1) `Neo-colonialism’ is a policy the ex-colonial and the dominant Super Powers adopt
to exercise their power and influence on the developing countries. Colonialism of acquiring
and controlling colonies has been replaced by dominance through different means, some
overt and others indirect. Political, military, economic and complete details, please refer to
Sub-sections 31.6.2 to 31.6.6.
2) d
3) See Sub-sub-section 31.5.4
The three main principles that made India to participate in the anti-apartheid movement are:
a) Racism was considered to be degrading the colonized people. Since
Mahatma Gandhi was himself ill-treated by the racists, Indians understood
how cruel racism was.
b) Racism was contrary to the religious beliefs and tradition of India. All the
people were urged to be treated as belonging to one large family.
c) Independent India’s strong adherence to the principles of the UN Charter.
1) Membership of the United Nations, formation of regional, sub-regional groupings,

by the MNCs; environmental pollution including depletion of the ozone layer of
atmosphere and nuclear weapon increase.
2) Unequal
3) Education and culture.
31.9 KEY WORDS

`Companion Movements’: When two or more liberation movements are engaged in fighting
against the same colonial or imperialist Power, the movements often coordinate their activities.
They usually share a similar ideological belief or programmes of action.
Diplomatic recognition: The act of acknowledging mutual ties between two governments. Very
often it entails establishing of embassies in the respective countries.
Economic and Military Sanctions: Measures intended to prohibit economic and military help
for a regime that had violated human rights or provisions of international law.
`Frontline’ States: Countries that are geographically located on the borders of a colonized
territory or a state where liberation struggle is in progress. For instance, when there was struggle
in South africa and Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Mozambique and Botswana were called the
Frontline countries.
`Hot Pursuit’ Raids: Armed attacks by a country’s defence forces on a neighbouring

independent country violating the latter’s boundaries. This action is a violation of international
law. The declared intention of the attackers is to punish the forces of liberation demanding a
change in the government of the attacking country. The motive is to force the independent
neighbouring country to desist from offering help or asylum to the attackers’ opponents.
Internal Colonisation: Domination and occupation of a territory by an independent

neighbouring country, after the territory has been duly decolonized by a colonial power, external
to the continent. In this type of colonisation, the exploiter also belongs to the same religion or
ethnicity or region as the exploited people.
Metropolitan Power(s): The former colonial country of countries of Europe such as the UK,
France, Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.
`Mother’ Country: The country from which a particular group of people has migrated and has
settled down in another land.
Multi-National Corporations: Private firms with international economic operations. Very often
in collusion with Western governments, these firms play a decisive role in the internal policies of
various national governments.
Observer Status: An honoured position or an invitation to an important conference given by the

organiser to a group or country because the invitee also shares the same feelings or believes in
similar ideology or supports the same principle as the host. This invitation is given by the
organiser even though the invitee does not belong to the same group. An expression of showing
solidarity.
Referendum: A method of knowing the opinion of the people on issues of public importance.
People are usually asked to vote whether or not they approve or support a policy or a legislation.
Settlers: Citizens of the colonial country encouraged and sponsored by their government to
emigrate and settle down in the colonies conquered or acquired by their governments.
Totalitarianism: An ideology of domination whereby the ruling party or power controls all
activities of citizens such as politics, economics, culture, media and social life.
UNIT 32 PROBLEMS OF PEACE IN A
NUCLEAR WORLD
Structured
32.0 Objectives
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Nature of Nuclear Weapons
32.2.1 Consequences of a Nuclear War
32.2.2 Nuclear Winter and its Effects
32.2.3 Nuclear Proliferation and Overkill
32.3 Super Powers and the World Military Order
32.4 Peace Movement and International Security
32.4.1 The Peace Movement in the West
32.4.2 Gandhiji’s View on War
32.5 Let Us Sum Up
32.6 Key Works
32.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we describe the importance of peace in a world that is characterised by a
proliferation of nuclear weapons endangering development. After you go through this unit, you
should be able to:
point out the dangers of the existing nuclear arsenals

estimate the extent of damage that could result after a nuclear war
explain the influence of the nuclear weapons powers on world military order
appreciate the importance of agreements on disarmament and
describe the significance of the steps taken by the UN and other non-governmental agencies in
building up a global movement for international peace and security.
32.1 INTRODUCTION
The world we presently live in is a society threatened by the presence of nuclear weapons. There
is a constant fear that uncontrolled use of this power could prove fatal to the very survival of life
on earth. The destruction and havoc caused by the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the
US are sufficient to convince any one that using these dangerous weapons once again would only
end up in the destruction of the entire human civilisation. Hence, the importance of strengthening
or building up of the Peace Movement. Also, a great deal of importance should be attached to the
inter-governmental agreements among nuclear weapon states on limiting of nuclear and
conventional armaments, as a first step towards complete nuclear disarmament and establishing
international peace and security.
But before we go into these aspects, let us have an idea of the very nature of nuclear weapons.
32.2 THE NATURE OF NUCLEAR
WEAPONS
The first experimental nuclear explosion took place in the State of New Mexico in the US on 16th
July 1945. It gave to the world a terrible weapon which has been known as the Ùniversal Death
Machine’ or `Doomsday Machine’. The first explosion produced a gigantic mushroom-shaped
cloud of fire which went up to 40,000 feet in the sky. This has come to be known as the `Nuclear
Mushroom’ or the `Mushroom Cloud’.
1. Atom cloud bursting over Hiroshima (8.17 A.M.,

6 August 1945 - 2 minutes after explosion).
Three weeks after this explosion, atom bombs were dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in Japan. This was done to force Japan to surrender and, thus, end World War II
2. 10 August 1945: The ruins of Nagasaki (The day after the Atom bomb fell)
The nine thousand pounds heavy uranium bomb, which was detonated 1,890 feet above
Hiroshima, produced a gigantic and glowing fireball half a mile in diameter. The temperature at
its core was 50 million degrees Fahrenheit.
It is hardly surprising that an explosion of this kind would do a number of things which no other
explosion in the entire history of warfare had ever done before. Among these, the most obvious is
the sheer amount of sudden destruction which it produced. Even so, no one knows or ever will, as
to how many people were actually killed or are still slowing dying by the bomb that was dropped
on Hiroshima just over four decades ago. Indeed, the estimates vary from less than 70,000 to
around 250,000; and the local authorities of the city of Hiroshima put the figure at 200,000.
Nagasaki also was drowned in sudden death and destruction on a vast scale; 75,000 killed and an
equal number wounded. However, because of its hills, the damage was confined to its northern
part where the bomb exploded. Even so, of its 55,000 buildings, 20,000 were demolished
altogether. (See illustration 3). In addition, the explosions released massive amounts of
radioactivity which I known to be a source of a variety of cancers and these in turn, would
continue to kill over the years slowly and painfully. That is why those who died immediately are
generally considered to have been far more lucky than the `survivors’ of the explosions who had
to suffer incurable illnesses for various periods of time.
The above description is meant to give only a broad nature of nuclear weapons and of the kind of
destruction that even a few of them might cause. The picture is grim enough; and what these bobs
did to Hiroshima and Nagasaki ought to have stopped any nation from producing ever increasing
stocks of them. But it did not. A few years after the United States used the nuclear weapons,
Soviet Union became a nuclear power. Britain, China and France subsequently joined the nuclear
club. The nuclear stocks of these great powers have continued to expand. These nations have
succeeded in the past four decades in producing nuclear bombs of vastly greater destructive
power, hydrogen bobs, neutron bombs, etc. There are about 50,000 nuclear weapons in existence
the world today and some of them have a destructive power equal to 20 million tons of TNT each.
The explosive power of a large hydrogen bomb in existence today is almost 1700 times the power
of the Hiroshima bomb.
3(a) Two brothers who survived the Nagasaki Bomb (10 August 1945)
3(b) Mother and Child - Struggle to go on living (2.30) P.M., 10 August 1945
3(c) Survivors of the Hiroshima bomb (12 August 1945)
32.2.1 Consequences of a Nuclear War

Since 1945 when the US developed the atom many other nations have acquired the know-how to
produce the bomb. However, only four other nations developed the nuclear. bomb. All the big
powers, who incidentally are the permanent members of the UN Security Council, have
stockpiles of them. In addition many smaller powers too are suspected to have produced their
own bombs. The nuclear weapons known to exist today have a total blast power of 20,000 million
tons of TNT. This is more than 1600 million times the blast power of the bomb dropped on
Hiroshima.
All this would be enough to blow up the world, many, many times over. Indeed, even a small
fraction of the nuclear blast power now available would be enough to destroy the Earth. In order
to be able to see that this in fact, would be so, we would do well to make a distinction between
the direct and the indirect consequences of a nuclear war. About twenty-five years ago, President
Kennedy drew attention to the possibility that a full-scale nuclear war between the superpowers
could wipe out more than 300 million Americans, Europeans and Russians in less than one hour.
Over the years the nuclear weapons have continued to become far more numerous and deadly.
Besides, the vehicles which would carry them are now much faster and more accurate than the
earlier models. This means that many more people than 300 million could be expected to be
killed within the first hour of the war. But, obviously, no precise figure can be given. Nor does it
matter. For what matters most is the totality of chaos and destruction which a nuclear war will
bring about. Indeed, it can only be misleading to try to make a process of another and far more
widespread destruction will start. This means that those who die after the war is over, could well
be far more numerous than those who die while it is still on. Besides, many more people can be
expected to die in, say, India or China taken separately than in the United States and the Soviet
Union taken together. This is so because India and China are more heavily populated than either
of the two superpowers.
32.2.2 The Nuclear Winter and its Effects

Therefore, it is extremely important to take the indirect consequences of a nuclear war also into
account. In order to see what kind of consequences they could be, let us try to understand the
nature of what is called the `Nuclear Winter. It gets its name from the very distinct possibility that
soon after the nuclear war, temperatures over many parts of the globe and probably over the
whole of it, will fall much below the freezing point. Why such a thing would happen is easy to
foresee. With thousands of nuclear bombs exploding, thousands o millions of tons of dust and
soot will be thrown several miles up into the atmosphere. These gigantic clouds of dust and
smoke will soon cover very large parts of the globe and perhaps the whole of it. They will, thus,
necessarily cut off most of the daylight from the Earth for several months. As a result, very sharp
reductions in temperatures will take place even during summer - that is, if the war takes place
during summer. In fact, any season during which it takes place would become one deep-frozen
and freezing winter lasting for several months. But this also means that for the duration of this
man-made `winter’, the normal cycle of day and night would be replaced by one long and
unending night. Indeed, as a leading German scientist, Paul Crutzen, has said: `When the nuclear
exchange ends, the sun will be hidden behind black clouds several kilometers thick, and darkness
and cold will descend upon the Earth for many months. All rivers and other bodies of water will
freeze over due to Nuclear glaciation , and animals and standing crops will perish. No one will
survive through the long, icy night.’
This will be followed by a new danger. For the ozone layer which now gives protection to
various life forms on the Earth will have been largely burnt out during the nuclear war. This
means that when the clouds of dust and soot settle down, whoever or whatever is still alive will
be exposed to the ultraviolet radiation of the sun. This is a very serious hazard. For this kind of
unfiltered sunlight can cause skin cancer and blindness, too.
Something like a mere one-fourth of the total nuclear blast power now available will be enough to
cause such devastation on a global scale. In fact, just one of the parties involved will be enough to
complete the job. For even if the side which is attacked does not hit back, the radio-active clouds
caused by the bombs of the attacking side alone will soon cover the entire globe and create the
conditions which have been described here. In this situation. It will be pointless to make any
distinction between the victorious and the defeated. Indeed, all will have been defeated. It is
difficult to imagine how anyone will be able to live through this war. But even if some scattered
bands and groups of individuals do manage to do so somehow, they will not make any kind of
organised society. Total anarchy and chaos will prevail. And yet all this need not happen.
32.2.3 Nuclear Proliferation and Overkill

By now, it should be clear that nuclear weapons do not and cannot possibly have any reasonable
military role to play. They destroy everything and kill everything. In fact, they have been
designated as òmnicides’ which means Àll-killers’. We may, therefore, designate them as `kill-
alls’. For, those who fire the weapons at others, cannot themselves escape being destroyed by
them. This mean that no military planner can afford to fire these weapons irrespective of the size
of their stocks.
One step which was taken in 968 to control and reduce the possibility of a nuclear war was to
offer a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). This treaty which was sponsored by the USA,
USSR and Britain, forbids the signatory nations from manufacturing nuclear weapons or carrying
on nuclear tests. In exchange they are offered protection from a nuclear attack. Limiting the
nuclear weapons owning nations, it is hoped, would reduce the chance of a nuclear war.
Strictly speaking, it is the continuous expansion of the nuclear arsenals of the superpowers in
particular which should be described as `Nuclear Proliferation’. For `proliferation’ literally means
àbundant Reproduction’. This only means that no treaty intended to prevent nuclear proliferation
can possibly mean anything, unless it seeks to stop the major nuclear powers from continuing to
acquire ever more of them. However, it is strange that the one non-proliferation treaty which
exists in the world today is meant only to stop non-nuclear powers from acquiring nuclear
weapons. This is certainly a laudable objective of the `NPT’. But without controlling the nuclear
hunger of the major powers at the same time, it would be pointless. For, it is the nuclear
programmes of these major powers which create conditions for the proliferation of a nuclear
weapons. The exclusive concern with what is called `Horizontal Proliferation’ and a total
neglect of what is called `Vertical proliferation’ should be impossible to justify.
Given such standards of international political morality, it is hardly surprising that the sponsors of
the non-proliferation treaty could not persuade a single country which had a clear nuclear
potential to agree not to produce nuclear weapons. For example, both India and Pakistan happen
to have the necessary technical and material resources available. And neither has agreed to sign
the treaty. India has strongly opposed it on the ground that while it does seek to stop the spread of
nuclear weapons to the non-nuclear states, it does not even try to prevent the nuclear states from
acquiring ever more of them.
Since the signing of the NPT, a few nations emerged as nuclear capable states but none of them
became nuclear powers. On the other hand, there was a manifold increase or proliferation of
nuclear weapons by the sponsors of the treaty. The two superpowers and
the other three nuclear states conducted several hundred nuclear tests to develop qualitatively
improved nuclear warheads. As a result, by the end of the 80’s, United States had stockpiled
23,400 warheads and the Soviet Union 35,000 warheads. Their ability to destroy the total world
population many times over is generally referred to as the `Nuclear Overkill’.

1) The cities destroyed in World War II by the atom bomb are:
a) ……………………………………………………………………………
b) ……………………………………………………………………………
2) What are the effects of nuclear bombing?
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
3) Define what is meant by Vertical Proliferation.
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
32.3 SUPER POWERS AND THE WORLD

MILITARY ORDER
The nature of nuclear weapons also determined the behaviour of superpowers and, therefore, the
world military order. In the immediate years after the war, the United States and the soviet Union,
which emerged as superpowers were locked in a political and ideological conflict. As leaders of
the capitalist and communist forces, they sought to extend their influence on other countries
through every means available. Although the Cold War conflict between the superpowers never
became a military conflict, it led to an unprecedented race for arms. Both the US and the Soviet
Union, sought to ensure their security through a balance of terror. That is, each of them tried to
have nuclear weapons sufficient to destroy the other, even if it happen to be attacked first. This
meant that each of the superpowers sought to deter a nuclear attack by (1) building a nuclear
retaliatory force that could not be destroyed by an enemy’s first strike, and (2) credibly promising
that a first strike would be followed by a nuclear retaliatory counter attack surpassing in horror
and loss and any possible gain anticipated by the initiator. This is known as the `Second Strike
Capacity’. This implies two things.
Firstly, to achieve this each must produce more and more sophisticated weapons. Bombs which
are more deadly, that is, having greater power of destruction have to be produced. They should be
capable of hitting precise targets. When one power does this, it has to be matched by the other.
Therefore, both the superpowers conduct several hundreds of underground nuclear tests.
Secondly, having produced such nuclear weapons they must be located at a place which will not
be accessible to the other. Hence, nuclear weapons they must be located at a place which will not
be accessible to the other. Hence, nuclear weapons are located underground or are carried by
moving submarines or bombers. The weapons can be launched by just pushing a button. Yet, both
the powers assure the world that the nuclear war will not start by accident. All this is to deter the
rival from using the nuclear weapons first. The system, therefore, ensures Mutually Assured
Destruction or MAD for short.
Since the World war II the US, USSR and their allies among the industrialised world account for
most of the military hardware production and export of arms. Most of the developing countries
which attained independence in the years after World War II began to emulate the major powers
in their search for security. Today, almost every developing country spends money on military
hardware and on maintaining a military establishment. Having a military force has become an
index of attainment of sovereign status.
Rivalries rooted in history, boundary disputes, ethnic conflicts have also contributed to tensions
in the Third World. Principally, Third world is the scene of armed conflicts since World War II.
All these are fought with imported weapons. Rivalries between Third World countries have led to
arms race among them. For example, between India and Pakistan, Iran and Iraq , Israel and the
Arabs, Thailand and Kampuchea, etc. The big powers fed this not only by export of weapons but
also by direct or indirect military support. Thus, both US and the Soviet Union built an intricate
chain of military bases, listing posts or defence alliances in this area. This has produced a
complicated set of patron-client relationship in international relations. Due to the development
and induction of sophisticated arms, the militarisation of society began to gather momentum. The
activities of medium and small states came to be based on military order. In this sense,
superpower arms race became a worldwide phenomenon.
This military order which had taken shape during a period of four decades since the Second
World War is now set to change. The Cold War conflict between the superpowers ended in the
early 1990s with the collapse of Soviet Union. Global environment became favourable for nuclear
restraint and disarmament. The legitimacy of the doctrines for the actual or deterrent use of
nuclear weapons has eroded. In 1992, the United States and Russia agreed to a substantial
reduction of their nuclear stockpiles under the Second Arms Reduction Treaty.
Despite these reductions, a substantial stockpile of nuclear bombs remain in the arsenals of the
United States and Russia. The stockpiles of other nuclear powers, although small remain
unaffected. The nuclear powers feel that the bombs provide unique security benefits and,
therefore, intend to keep them. In this context, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
which was approved in 1996 and the proposed Fissile Material Cut Off Treaty (FMCT) seek to
limit the addition of new bombs by banning testing of nuclear explosions and accumulation of
fissile material used in making bombs. But they do not address the problem of eliminating the
existing stockpiles. It is estimated that the present stockpile of nuclear weapons would last for
another 50 years even without the addition of a single new bomb. These treaties, therefore, appear
to freeze the nuclear status quo or legitimise the nuclear weapons of the big powers while putting
constraints on the development of nuclear weapons by nations. As long as nuclear states rely on
nuclear arsenals for their security, there is always the danger of proliferation. India has, therefore,
rejected the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) on the grounds that it is discriminatory. It
perpetuates the hegemony of the nuclear powers and does not address the security concerns of
non-nuclear antions.
32.4 PEACE MOVEMENT AND

INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
As a reaction to the dangers of nuclear armament to the environment from industrial growth, and
grave social and economic problems in the developed countries, a significant awareness among
the people about peace is growing. This has found its expression in peace movements which have
taken different forms in different countries.
32.4.1 Peace Movement in the West

Several important studies and books published in the 1970s first voiced these concerns. The Club
of Rome’s Limits to Growth, the British Blueprint for Survival and E.F. Schumacher’s Small
is Beautiful can be mentioned as some of these. But even before these, the Campaign for Nuclear
Disarmament (CND) founded in the early 1960s by a group around Bertrand Russell had shown
the way. However, the scope of the peace movements of the 1970s is much wider.
The peace movement, also sometimes called the `Green Movement’, Principally focuses attention
on four themes : ecology, special responsibility, grass-root democracy and non-violence.
Unrestrained industrial growth has led to industrial pollution, depletion of natural resources,
destruction of biosphere and unequal distribution of wealth. Acid rain, destroying of trees,
poisoning of river and sea waters and pollution of atmosphere are some of the examples of
ecological hazards. In this, an important role is played by multinational corporations. Maximising
profits, to the exclusion of other considerations, becomes the only goal of these corporate sectors.
They enjoy vast resources, sometimes greater than that of a small nation and are spread across
national boundaries. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy in which thousands died from an àccident’ in the
Union Carbide factory at Bhopal is a vivid example of this. The Greens, or the peace movement,
therefore, seeks to redefine development, not equating it with economic growth, Non-exploitative
and self sufficient economies are suggested as alternative models of development.
Achieving peace through security and security through armaments, still continues to rule the
minds of national politicians. The peace movements emphasises global security and peace
through citizens movements like the Àmnesty International’ or `Campaign for Nuclear
Disarmament’. Non-violence, freedom from military blocs and friendship between people and
ethnic groups hold the promise of a true peace rather than security based on military
establishments. The peace movements, therefore, favour nuclear disarmament and oppose nuclear
power plants as source of energy. They support the concept of non-violent resistance.
The peace movements also support the rights of women and the cause of social justice. In
international sphere, they support the developing countries in their attempts to bring about a new
international economic order aimed at reducing the disparities among nations.
32.4.2 Gandhiji’s View on War

In many ways, Gandhiji had voiced similar views in 1920s and early 1930s. He rejected violence
as a means to peace and advocated `Satyagraha’ or civil resistance. He argued, ”I see bravery in
neither destroying life or property, for offence or defence”. He even called for unilateral
disarmament.
For him, to be true to nature and to lie in harmony with it, was Non-Violence. His opposition to
large scale industry and machines makes sense when viewed in this lights. He advocated
decentralisation and wide autonomy to village communities. This would strengthen not only
grass-root democracy but make for a better man. Thus, in many ways, the concerns of the peace
movements reflect Gandhiji’s views.
Gandhiji saw the futility of war and violence. He said that `problems of war cannot be solved by
developing the art of war but only by developing the art of peace’. However, he did not defend
neutrality and thought it to be a moral right of a pacifist to decide which side is just in a military
contest. What he deplored was the use of to decide which side is just in a military contest. What
he deplored was the use of arms and violence. He was a war resister. He held that “war is wrong,
is an unmitigated evil ... it has got to go ... freedom won through blood-shed or fraud is no
freedom”.
In place of war, Gandhiji advocated non-violent civil resistance - “The only antidote to armament
which is the visible symbol of violence is Satyagraha - the visible symbol of non-violence.” It is
possible that in such an effort, all resisters are killed but he believed that the aggressor will, in
time, be mentally and even physically tired of killing non-violence resisters. He will try to
discover the source of their strength of will and stop further killing.

Notes: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
1) What is India’s stand on CTBT?
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
2) Comment on Gandhijis views on peace and non-violence.
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
32.5 LET US SUM UP

The devastating nuclear explosion over Japan caused a human holocaust and served as an eye
opener to the world, setting forth a continuous debate about the very usefulness of nuclear
energy. It focused attention on a global scale on the future of nuclear power.
The possible consequences of any similar future nuclear explosion would be nightmarish to say
the least, what with the advances in the nuclear weapon technology that has taken place in the last
four decades. Some of the possible consequences of the unharnessed utilisation of nuclear power
could be the onset of the nuclear winter - a condition indicated by the massive annihilation of life
on Earth.
Notwithstanding such a probable disaster, the policy of nuclear proliferation followed by the
major powers and their allies is bound to cause serious economic crisis even in their domestic
affairs, such as unemployment and arbitrarily increasing the cost of goods and services. This
would affect even those countries - the developing ones - which obsessed with the very security
of their territories. Obviously, this would compel them to spend their scarce resources on military
uses, with the diversion of resources from development of defence. Political instability is a
possible outcome, which these countries can ill afford.
In recent years, however, the nuclear powers and the rest of the world have realised the futility of
their mad rush to proliferate nuclear weapons. The UN has taken a lead in getting the nuclear
weapon states to negotiate many agreements to reduce the nuclear arsenal, both on the earth as
well as in space, oceans and underground. The emergence of global peace movements in various
countries also played an important role in this regard. With the collapse of one of the
superpowers, global environment has become more favourable for nuclear restraint had
disarmament. The focus of the peace movement should now be on creating a nuclear weapon free
world.
32.6 KEY WORDS

Freezing Point: The temperature at which water converts itself into ice, normally 0@C.
Militarism: Pursuit of military ideals.
Military Order: Relating to the armed services; war-life matters.
Nuclear Glaciation: The tendency which, when misused, freezes earth’s life and causes snow
fall, annihilating life.
Omnicide: Murder or destruction of life, including plants and animals alike by nuclear weapons.
Ozone: Colourless gas with a Chlorine-like smell, formed from Oxygen.
Ultraviolet radiation: The part of the electro-magnetic spectrum with wavelengths shorter than
light and longer than X-rays.

Barry Buzzan, 1983, People, States and Fear: The National Security Problem in
International Relations, Harvester Press, Sussex.
Howe O’ Connor, J., (ed.) 1984, Armed Peace: The Search For World Security, The
Macmillan Press Ltd., London.
Pascolini, A. and Robert J., 1984, The Arms Race At a Time of Decision, The Macmillan Press
Ltd., London.
T.T. Poulous, (ed.) 1988, The Future of Arms Control, ABC Pubs., New Delhi.
T.T. Poulouse, 1988, United Nations and Nuclear Proliferation, D.K. Pubs., New Delhi.
T.T. Poulouse, 1982, Nuclear Proliferation and the United World, ABC Pubs., New Delhi.

PROGRESS EXERCISES
1) a) Hiroshima
b)Nagasaki


UNIT 33 OUR ECOSYSTEM AND THE
THREATS TO IT
Structure
33.0 Objectives
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Earth - The Living Planet
33.2.1 The Environment
33.2.2 Organization of Life Forms
33.2.3 The Ecosystem Concepts
33.3 Global Environmental Issues
33.3.1 The Changing Atmosphere
33.3.2 Deforestation
33.3.3 Marine Pollution
33.3.4 Energy Needs
33.3.5 Population Pressure
33.4 Local Environmental Issues
33.4.1 Acidification
33.4.2 Eutrophication
33.4.3 Desertification
33.4.5 Pollution - Air, Water, Land
33.5 Contemporary and Emerging Environmental Issues
33.5.1 Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
33.5.2 Transportation
33.5.3 Loss of Biodiversity
33.5.3 Use of Non-degradable Materials
33.5.5 Lead Poisoning
33.5.6 Noise Pollution
33.6 Conservation Efforts
33.7 In the Future Ahead
33.8 Let Us Sum Up
33.9 Key Words
33.10 Some Useful References
33.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit you should be able to:
Conceptualize an ecosystem;
discuss the interrelations of the various components in our ecosystem;
explain the impacts of human society on the environment;
enumerate and discuss the current global, local, and the contemporary and emerging
environmental issues;
describe the salient conservation efforts in the light of sustainable developmental approach.
33.1 INTRODUCTION
The relationship between human society and the environment is of mutual dependence. The
earliest human society lived by hunting and gathering, and the effects of these activities on the
environment were either negligible or imperceptible. With the developing human society
beginning to use fire, domestication of grazing animals, and setting up of the permanent
agricultural systems about 10,000 years back - all their cumulative effect on the environment
began showing up. These effects were discernible largely in the form of disturbed vegetation and
animal life. Further, in the 18th century the industrial revolution and the use of fossil fuels, began
to dramatically change the environment. And the situation, as of today, is familiar to almost all of
us. There is hardly any one around the globe, who has not heard of or felt `concern’ for the `fast
changing’ environment. It is important to note that all the changes that have occurred in the
environment are not of anthropogenic origin. Several `changes’ have been going on naturally at a
slow pace, throughout the developmental history of the Earth. It is mainly due to these natural
`changes’ that favourable conditions for the survival and proliferation of amazingly diverse life
forms have resulted. Our worry is not for these slow, natural processes, but for some of the
activities of the human societies that are detrimental to the environment. These activities have
brought about changes in the environment that are either too fast for the environment to cope
with, or of such kinds that are very difficult if not impossible to rectify or remedy. It is not our
intention to make this unit another gloomy talk about environmental degradation. Instead we shall
make an objective analysis of the reasons and the ways of `development of the present state of the
environment’ which is described as grave ecological crises.
33.2 EARTH - THE LIVING PLANET

Earth is a unique planet in the entire solar system that supports life It has provided the right
environmental conditions for the survival, multiplication and evolution of amazingly diverse life
forms. All life forms are confined to a narrow zone of over a dozen kilometers broad, stretching
from the ocean depth to a few kilometer into the atmosphere, all round the globe. This zone is
known as biosphere (Fig. 1). To have a clearer mental picture imagine if the Earth were of the
size of an apple, the biosphere would be only as thick as its skin.
Fig. 1 : Diagrammatic representation of the extent of the biosphere. It extends from the
floor of the ocean, i.e., some 11000 meters below the Earth’s surface, to the top of the
highest mountain or about 9000 metros above the sea level. Life is scarce at the extremes of
the biosphere because of less-favourable environmental conditions.
33.2.1 The Environment

In the above paragraph, a reference has been made of the `right environment’. What is meant by
the term environment, and what are all the components that form it? This needs to be understood
first. The term environment is used in diverse ways, such as the `natural environment’, `man-
made environment’, `human environment’ and so on. Its usage in different contexts refers to
different situations, but in all the cases its basic constitutive elements remain the same. Three
basic elements comprise the environment - the physical, the chemical and the biological elements.
The first two elements are collectively described as the non-living elements. The environment in
the context of a particular living being, say a sparrow, refers to all the factors that affect it from
outside. These factors are Physical - light, temperature, moisture etc.; chemical - all the chemical
elements some of which form the nutrients; and biological - other living beings present around it.
It is the environment from which a living being derives all its requirements, be it food, nutrients
or energy.
Related to environment is another term - habitat, the meaning of which should also be clear to
us. Habitat refers to the place or the type of site where an organism or population naturally
occurs. In the subsequent sections of the unit you would come across a number of habitats that are
important to mankind in different ways.
33.2.2 Organization of Life Forms

The biosphere includes three distinct parts : (I) the atmosphere - air; (ii) the hydrosphere - water
bodies; and (iii) the lithosphere - land. These three parts overlap each other and are
interconnected through their inhabitant life forms as well as the processes associated with them.
The land portion or the lithosphere is divisible into a number of biomes. These represent large
region characterised by their climate, vegetation pattern, animal life and the general soil type.
About a dozen or more biomes spread over millions of square kilometers spanning the entire
continents. NO two biomes are alike, e.g., temperate forests are markedly different from deserts,
which in turn are clearly differentiable from tropical rain forests and grasslands (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 : Diagrammatic representation of four kinds of biomes. Note, each biome has a
distinctive set of features that enable one to differentiate one biome from the other. (a) The
temperate forest biome; (b) the desert biome; (c) The tropical rain forest biome; and (d)
The grassland biome.
Similarly, the sea is also divided into distinct life zones such as coral reefs, estuaries, deep ocean
and continental shelf. These regions like the biomes have varying physio-chemical conditions and
likewise the characteristic plant and animal life.
Coming back to the terrestrial biomes, let us take the example of a grassland. It may be further
subdivided into smaller units - such as areas having tall grasses, or water-logged areas having
different kinds of grasses and so on. In each of these two areas, specific kinds of animals based on
their preference for a particular kind of grass, are found. Similarly, two or more ecologically
different systems may exist in a biome.
Ecology: It is the science of the relations of the organisms to their surrounding exterior world.
33.2.3 The Ecosystem Concept

The biosphere, the biome and their constituent units, that we have discussed in the previous
section - each one of them is an ecological system, which in short form is written as ecosystem.
An ecosystem is defined as a dynamic complex of all the life forms and their non-living
environment interacting as a functional unit. These life forms include all the plants and
animals, and even the communities of microorganisms that inhabit the given area. In simpler
terms, ecosystem is a unit of nature that in itself is an independent functional entity (Fig. 3).
Going by definition, the biosphere, the Earth, a forest, a river and a small pond - each one is an
ecosystem. This means the complexity and size of ecosystem varies, and a larger ecosystem may
have smaller ecosystems. An ecosystem is what one chooses for one’s study.
Fig. 3 : A forest ecosystem. Note the different kinds of living beings and the non-living
environmental factors constituting it.
Ecologists recognise two types of ecosystems - Natural and anthropogenic ecosystems. The
former are those ecosystems that are undisturbed by humans. On the other hand anthropogenic
ecosystems are those that have been significantly altered by human beings through agriculture,
forestry, livestock, grazing, constructing home on green areas and many such activities. Of
course, the most severely altered ecosystems are the places where cities are built.
It is important to know that ècosystem’ is a concept, and no distinct ecosystems with sharp
boundaries exists in nature. The knowledge of an ecosystem enable one to understand the kind of
disturbance or an ècological problem’ of an area. If one knows how a particular ecosystem
functions in undisturbed conditions, what kinds of interactions exist amongst its life forms, and in
what manner the living beings are dependent on the physico-chemical or non-living factors,
proper remedial steps can be taken to restore normalcy in the disturbed ecosystem, or at least
further damage to the ecosystem can be prevented.

Complete the blank spaces given below:

a) Differentiate between the environment and the habitat?
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
b) Which of the following statements are true for an ecosystem? Choose the correct answer
from the codes given below:
i) Ecosystem is the short form of ecology.

ii) It is a dynamic entity of nature.
iii) It is composed of all the living and non-living components.
iv) Ecosystem by itself is an independent unit.
v) Ecosystems have distinct differentiating boundaries.
vi) Anything can be considered an ecosystem, e.g., a chair, a fountain pen or a room with
furniture and other accessories.
Codes
1) i ; v ; vi
2) iv only
3) ii; iii; iv
4) none
33.3 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

“The ability of our minds to imagine, coupled with the ability of our hands to devise
images brings us a power almost beyond our control” - Joan McIntyre.
The agricultural and industrial developments on one hand have ushered in food security and
comfortable living to human society, but on the other hand have also contributed in the
degradation of our environment in diverse ways. Any degradation or disruption of the
environment means degradation of the life support system. Since the last two decades our life
support system is being increasingly marginalised due to a number of environmental problems.
So much so that these have emerged as a potential threat to the existence of human society.
Never before has there been such pressing need to reconcile and analyse the environment-society
relationship, as for the last 20 years or so. For too long the environment was taken for granted,
natural resources were utilized as if they were infinite, and wastes were dumped indiscriminately
in the biosphere. But the biosphere like any container has a certain capacity to hold the wastes,
beyond which no more can be contained. Wastes generated by different activities of the human
society have been accumulating in the biosphere over the years, and their repercussions have
appeared as diverse kinds of environmental problems.
From this section onwards, we begin discussion on a range of environmental issues of present
times - local, associated with a particular region/nation, some of global occurrence and impact,
and the contemporary and emerging issues. The local environmental issues are as important as the
global ones, as the whole environment is a continuum. There are no water-tight compartments.
The air we breathe is common for all, and even all the oceans are connected. The natural
processes in one part of the globe have their governing factors located n some other region, e.g.,
the rain in this continent has its origin in another distant continent. This is just one example of the
intricate ecological networking. Several such instances are cited in the following sections. The
environmental issues whose repercussions are of global consequences, are discussed in this
subsection.
33.3.1 The Changing Atmosphere

This is emerging as the most threatening environmental issues of 1990s. The build-up of dust
veils; enhanced greenhouse gases; and ozone depletion are the three main agents of this change.
Dust is particulate matter that is temporarily suspended in the atmosphere
A) Dust Veils
Since the last century human activities involving combustion of fossil fuels, deforestation,
overgrazing, motor vehicles exhaust emissions and military practices have resulted in increased
dust loading in the atmosphere. Dust also gets loaded into the atmosphere due to the naturally
occurring volcanic activity. Now, the question arises that how is the dust veil responsible in
bringing about a change in the atmosphere? The dust particles suspended in the atmosphere act as
a blockade to the incoming solar radiations, and these are scattered back to the space.
Consequently, the Earth’s surface on not receiving the usual quota of sunshine becomes cooler.
Thus the role of dust is envisaged in causing global cooling. Such interpretations are based on the
computer assisted studies of climatic modelling. Credence is also lent to this deduction from the
role of dust in the Little Ice Age. So the far remains that are we in for another Ice Age?
B) The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon, whereby the `greenhouse gases’ present in the
atmosphere absorb radiant energy from the Sun - both incoming as well as some that is radiated
back from the Earth’s surface. These gases behave as a glass in the greenhouse or the glasshouse,
that lets in the heat from the Sun, but prevents some of it from being radiated out (Fig. 4). As a
result, the temperature inside the glasshouse is higher than outside it. Likewise this process keeps
the Earth at a higher temperature than it would be otherwise. Also this makes conditions
appropriate for existence of life on this planet. This is why some call Earth as The Greenhouse
Planet.
what are the greenhouse gases? Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the prime agent that is produced
naturally by volcanic activity and through respiration of living beings. In addition, it is generated
in huge amounts by several of the human activities such as burning of fossil fuels in different
sectors, from motor-vehicle emissions, and so on. The other one is methane (CH4) produced by
bacteria in swamps and marshes; and another is nitrous oxide (NO) that is generated by
denitrifying bacteria. IN addition, a new group of greenhouse gases were identified in the 1940’s.
These are the Chloro-fluoro-carbons, written in short form as the CFCs. Their role in ozone
depletion would be discussed below. The CFCs have been found to be 20,000 times more
effective in greenhouse activity than that of Carbon dioxide.
The data since the last century have shown a clear increase in the amounts of the greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. And these trends continuing, prediction is made of warmer climates for
the planetary ecosystem, by the mid of the next century. The resultant increase of about a mean of
3oC in global temperature is speculated. The overall break-up being as follows: an increase of 1oC
or slightly more at the equator, around 3oC in temperate latitudes, and from 4.5-7oC at the poles.
This much rise in temperature has not occurred in this planet since the Mesozoic era - the age of
dinosaurs.
Temperature shifts of this order could affect the rainfall patterns, overall climate change
accompanied by shifts in vegetation and agricultural pattern, disappearance of the ice peaks of the
Arctic Ocean during summers, resultant changes in the sea-levels, risk of losing many low-lying
areas such as portions of Calcutta, Florida, Tokyo, London, Stockholm, Glasgow, Osaka,
Montreal, parts of Bangladesh and many others.
You may be wondering that on one side we talk of global cooling and then of global warming,
wouldn’t these two processes counteract one another. This may be partly true, but the balance
could shift to the more weightier one, or towards the severest of the problem.
Fig. 4 : The Greenhouse effect - a diagrammatic representation. Note the role of

atmosphere in trapping heat radiation that would otherwise escape into the space.
C) Ozone Depletion
In the years 1984-85, another major environmental issue came to the fore, that is, the discovery of
the òzone holes’ over the Antartica. What are these Òzone holes’, let us understand it first.
Ozone (O3) is present in the stratospheric layer of the atmosphere between 20 to 30 km from the
sea level. Ozone formation and depletion goes on simultaneously in the atmosphere. It is formed
when the Ultraviolet solar radiations (UV) react with the oxygen (O2) of the atmosphere, and gets
depleted due to its participation in a number of reactions going on in the atmosphere.
Nevertheless, a `sheet’ of ozone remains in the atmosphere, which shields the living beings on the
Earth from the harmful effects of the solar radiations. In recent years, what has happened, and is
still happening,, is that the ozone depletion has been accelerated by several of the human
activities. Of which wide usage of the CFC is the main cause. In addition, bromine used in
industrial processes and fire extinguishers is yet another cause. The CFCs are produced from a
wide range of sources namely industries involved in preparing spray can propellants air
conditioners foam blowing agents, refrigerators, and foam-hard plastics. The large scale build up
of ozone destructors in the atmosphere has resulted in “gaps” the ozone shield, and these gaps are
termed as the ozone holes, which extend up to several square kilometers. And through these
regions, the harmful solar radiations mainly the UV radiations enter the atmosphere unchecked
and unfiltered. The harmful effects of the UV radiations include undesirable changes in the
genetic material of living beings, which in the human beings leads to the development of skin
cancer. Already there are reports of high incidence of skin cancer in the òzone-deficient’ areas.
Besides humans, recently it has been found that the genetic material of a species of icefish found
in the Antarctic region has been damaged. Even the tiny, single-celled plants of this area are also
not spared of the ill effects of the UV radiation pouring through the hole in the ozone layer.
The discovery of òzone hole’ became a matter of international concern. This resulted in the
signing of The Montreal Protocol in September 1987, and it took effect in 1989. This is the
first international agreement signed on an international issue. It makes it legally binding for
curbing all chloro-fluorocarbon emissions for the protection of the stratospheric ozone. Initially,
it aimed at a 50% cutback in the production of CFCs by 1999, but an interim review of the
situation, resulted in imposition of a total ban on CFC production by the year 2000.
Species - A population of individuals that resemble each other and are capable of interbreeding
with one another, but not with members of another populations (species).
33.3.2 Deforestation
The removal of plant cover whether in a forest or in a grassland or in any other area is another
major ecological problem of global dimension. The term deforestation is used to denote this
process. It is important to understand that this term is being used in a wider context, and it refers
to all kinds of biomes and not the forests alone.
The forests, as we all know, are vital organs of the biosphere. Besides maintaining the quality o
soil they also play a part in modulating the climate of this planet. In addition their economic
importance and aesthetic value is no less. They are also the homes of millions of people and a
huge pool of plant and animal species, many of which are yet unknown to us.
Deforestation is a rampant ecological problem that despite receiving a lot of attention during the
last decade, still continues at an alarming rate. This is especially true in the tropical regions where
some 154 million hectares were cleared during 1980 to 1990. This leaves only 1.75 billion
hectares of forests worldwide. India’s forest cover has declined from 50 per cent to about 19 per
cent since 1900.
What are the causes of deforestation? The commercial timber extraction and other forest products
go into various human uses. The richer nations and societies siphon out a larger chunk of these
resources. Forest clearing is also occurring in order to convert the land for farming and raising
livestock. Large tracts of vegetation get depleted as a result of mining activities, hydro-electric
power schemes, laying of roads and for military purposes.
Deforestation has both local as well as global consequences. The first consequence is demolition
of habitat of a number of species. Secondly, there is an increased exposure of Earth to the
mechanical effect of rain and run-off, this leads to soil erosion and reduced soil fertility due to
loss of nutrients and soil structure. Deforestation is intimately linked to disasters like downstream
flooding and flash-floods which have been of common occurrence in Bangladesh and Garhwal-
Himalayas respectively. Another important effect seen at local level is reduced local groundwater
levels and water shortages in local wells and springs. All this happens because in the absence of
vegetation cover, not much water is absorbed to the water table, but most of it just runs off. The
run-off also carries with it the fine soil particles - the silt to the rivers and the irrigation works.
The silting of reservoirs and lakes and that changes in river courses have become common in
recent years. Flooding and accompanying siltation affects fisheries, reduces the capacities of
dams and irrigation systems.
Deforestation has two serious repercussions at the global level. These are: firstly their role as
carbon sinks in the global carbon cycle, and secondly as pools of biodiversity. The implications
of the loss of biodiversity cannot be assessed, but loss of species lead to the loss of potentially
important genetic characteristics. For example, many of the world’s medicines come from pants
of tropical regions where large-scale deforestation is taking place. Also the success achieved
through breeding new strains of many important plants such as cocoa, rubber, coffee, rice and
corn has come about after incorporating genes from their relations growing in the wild.
33.3.3 Marine Pollution

The seas and oceans constitute a major component of our biosphere, and occupy about seventy
one per cent of the Earth’s surface. They are important to the human societies in several ways.
They are the resource base for food, metals and minerals; source of energy generation, for
fulfilment of water needs; as a medium for transportation; for military, tourism and recreation
purposes. In addition, they are also used as ènvironmental sink’ or as a sort of `waste-bin with
infinite capacity’ for disposal of any or almost every kind of waste. Though the seas and oceans
have immense containing capacity, but still it is finite. Innumerable kinds, and amounts of wastes
have been finding their `terminus’ in these huge `sinks’ for centuries. Now the situation has come
to a pass that no more could be taken in silently as various types of ecological disturbances in the
marine environment have started showing up. You may be thinking that why the seas or the
marine ecosystem have been treated in such a manner especially when the human society is
dependent on them in a number of ways? This is a complex issue involving a number of factors.
However, the prime factor for their misuse is that they being Common Property Resources
(CPR) are freely misused and mindlessly exploited with no one liable for the damage caused. The
areas beyond a country’s jurisdiction, that is, the high or open sea and the deep sea bed are the
actual CPR. These are the soft targets for all kinds of exploitation, that have resulted in a number
of ecological problems which are commonly referred to as marine pollution. What is marine
pollution? The GESAMP (United Nations Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Pollution) defines marine pollution? as “the introduction by the people directly or indirectly,
substances or energy into the marine environment resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to
living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fishing,
impairment of quality of use of sea water and reduction of amenities”. The next question that
follows is what are the chief sources of marine pollution? A variety of sources causing pollution
can be categorised as degradable and persistent wastes. Degradable wastes are derived from
food processing, brewing, pulp/paper/chemical industries, oil spillages, chemicals used in
agriculture, heat or cooling water discharges; whereas persistent wastes include heavy metals,
DDT and radioactive materials. Many of these wastes are dumped directly into the sea or some
are brought by the river flows. Some of these wastes are extremely harmful for example, routine
discharges of liquid radioactive effluent from the Sellafield Nuclear Reprocessing Plant have
made the Irish Sea the most radioactively contaminated the vicinity of the coastline, then most of
the sea-life of that area including the sea birds, local fisheries, and other life forms are destroyed.
The oil easily penetrates the plumage of sea birds making their flight impossible, therefore a large
number of them cannot swim or float and die due to drowning. In addition, oil is also highly
poisonous to the marine life, and a large number of them die after its ingestion. The unhygienic
conditions of sea water at the beaches due to tourism; and the coastal zones with large population
and industry contribute pollutants in the coastal water in a big way.
In the recent years, mariculture or aquaculture has brought in a `Blue Revolution’. It is an aquatic
resource-based industry involved in large-scale growing of marine organisms for human use.
Though it is a relatively new industry. It has generated enormous controversy because of the
resultant environmental damage it has caused to the coastal marine environment. It has resulted in
problems at the social front too. How? The mariculture industry being highly profitable, attracted
almost every large business house in India. Even middle level investors moved in to make a quick
buck. The mariculture- industrialists occupied the coastal land without any respect for the local
people’s rights. Even burial grounds were not spared. All the local resources were freely
“exploited” by this industry. And in several cases, fishermen were denied the traditional passage
to the
Accidental marine pollution caused by Supertanker disasters have resulted in serious ecological
crises disturbing vast areas of the seas. The oil spill figures of the following four Supertanker
disasters would give you an idea of the magnitude of the problem.
i) Torrey Canyon (Cornwall & Brittany, 1967), Oil spilling - 117000 tonnes;
ii) Amoco Cadiz (Brittany, 1978), Oil spilling 233000 tonnes;
iii) Exxon Valdez (Alaska, 1989), Oil leaking - 11.2 x 106 tonnes along 3800 km coastline;
iv) Mega Borg (Texas, 1990), Oil leaking, 500,000 gallons.
sea. In most areas of mari-farming, this industry was found to violate all basic principles of
sustainable development, that is, social acceptability, equity, economic viability, technical
appropriateness, environmental soundness and conservation of natural resources. They use all
natural resources with contempt without taking any responsibility for damage caused. Within a
short span of setting of these industries, a number of environmental problems came to light- the
fragile water balance both on the surface and in the underground acquifers were adversely
affected, vast tracts of land were rendered salinized; and coastal water became highly polluted
due to the largely organic-matter rich effluents from this industry. In view of the environmental
damage caused; the Supreme Court ordered in December, 1996 the closing down of all
commercial aquaculture farms in the five coastal states of our country. Not only that, the Court
also ordered strict compliance of the coastal Regulation Zone (CPZ) Act-19991. Under this Act,
aquaculture farms located within the 500 meters of the high tide line (HTL) are illegal and thus
the Court ordered them to be removed by April 15, 1997. Such a step had to be taken because the
damage caused was much higher than the sale of the coastal aquaculture produce. We hereby are
not advocating outright condemnation of aquaculture. But what is actually required is that while
learning from our experiences and errors, and keeping in mind the socio-economic ground
realities, a sustainable eco-friendly aquaculture should be practiced.
33.3.4 Energy Needs

For the modern, energy-intensive life style, there is a global requirement for cheap and plentiful
energy resources. The source and process of energy production and its subsequent uses have
resulted in a number of environmental problems. First let us have a glimpse at the world energy
picture, which is quite variable in different parts of the world. The developed world uses far more
enrage than the developing world - nearly twice as much, despite having far smaller population.
Each person in the developed world, uses on an average six times as much energy as a person
from the developing world. The ènergy use’ here refers to the overall usage - in work place,
domestic appliances, private cars and so on. You might have also observed that the more affluent
the people become, more energy they require. They have a fleet of private vehicles, all sorts of
luxury items including the while goods such as refrigerators, washing machines etc., and bigger
homes with more energy consuming devices.
Coming back to the various kinds of ènergy resources’ used all over the world, they are being
viewed with the following concerns; How long will they last? Will they be available for the
future generations? What are the by-products given out during energy production? And what is
the enrage cost on the economies of different parts of the world? The developed and developing
world use different resources or fuels for energy production. The biomass fuels are the major
source of energy for the developing world. Wood, charcoal, crop residues and other plant
residues, are the commonly used biomass fuels. Nearly half of world’s people depend on biomass
fuels to meet with their energy requirements, and they use very little or no oil, electricity and
other commercial fuels. A major portion of these fuels are used for cooking purposes, and are
usually gathered from the local environment.
The fossil fuels have been the most widely used energy resources since the industrial revolution.
Coal, oil and natural gas collectively constitute the fossil fuels and are produced in the Earth’s
crust by the process of fossilization. The fossil fuels, no doubt have higher energy yields as
compared to the biomass fuels, but they emit a variety of pollutants. Coal is not only dirty to
handle but is far more polluting than oil and natural gas. The large proportion of greenhouse
gases emitted into the atmosphere is attributed to the usage of coal. The acid-rain problem, you
will study in the following section, in Europe is associated with coal-fired power stations. Natural
gas is the cleanest of fossil fuels that gives higher energy yields. Also it emits lower levels of
pollutants as compared to other fossil fuels. In recent years two major concerns are being raised
the world over regarding the use of fossil fuels. The first of course, concern the environmental
implications of their usage. The second one is about the status of their natural stocks which would
govern their availability in the coming years. A number of studies in the recent years have raised
doubts about the availability of these resources to match the rising demands. This warns us on
two fronts, one judicious use of what is available to us, and second, its high time to search for
substitutes.
Nuclear energy constitutes another source of energy whose use is limited largely to a few
developed countries only. Safety, cost of production and disposal of nuclear wastes are the crucial
issues of nuclear energy production. Safety became the prime issue in nuclear energy generation
after the Chernobyl accident on April 26, 1986, in the former USSR. It is the worst nuclear
accident todate. The Chernobyl fallout caused contamination in the Soviet Union, and large areas
of Ukraine were rendered uninhabitable. Not only that, the nuclear fallouts carried by wind
affected vast areas of Europe. Across the Baltic Sea in Sweden, radiation brought large-scale
destruction to the home of nomadic Lapps, who follow the herds of reindeer which roam the
plains of Lapland. The dairy farming regions in the centre of the Sweden have been seriously
affected too. Back to the Soviet Union, the nuclear radiations consisting of large amounts of
Iodine-131 and Cesium-137 contaminated the soil and water resources and were also absorbed by
all forms of life. Whatever is absorbed by plants from the soil and water is passed on to animals
and finally the human beings, and leaves its legacy in the food chain - for such radiations have
active-life span over thousands of year. Not only these radiations are invisible but cannot be
immediately felt by touch or smell. The poor and uninformed people whom circumstances force
to live amid contamination are the worst hit.
The nuclear radiation cause irreparable damage to all kinds of life forms, some of the diseases
caused by exposure to radiations are: cataracts; bleeding gums; stomatitis, or mouth
inflammation; keloids, i.e., growth of scar tissues and contraction deformity; erythema or
reddening of skin; cancer of lungs, stomachs, breasts, colon; leukemia, bone marrow damage,
malignant lymphatic tumors and hyperthyroidism.
It is pertinent to mention here that the dangers of nuclear radiations are not only from the nuclear
power plants, but also from the atom bomb dropped from above, the atomic explosions conducted
in the atmosphere or underground, nuclear reprocessing plants, nuclear research centres, and the
mining and processing of nuclear materials. To put it in simple terms whether it is nuclear
weapons or production of electricity from nuclear sources, the dangers of nuclear radiation are
alike. The tragedy due to the atomic bomb dropped at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan is still
fresh in our minds. In 1946, a number of children in Japan were born with a condition known as
microcephaly. The children had abnormally small heads and were mentally disabled. This
condition resulted because their mothers who were pregnant were exposed to radiation near the
site of blasts in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
In the recent years, greater awareness has resulted in public opposition to nuclear power; so much
so that in U.S. and Western Europe it had forced cancellation of new nuclear power plant
construction.
While energy generation from fossil fuels and radioactive materials has been the conventional
mode, a large number of unconventional modes have also been successfully tried. These include
solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, tidal and biomass resources. Many of these have been found to
cause almost negligible environmental damages but these too can be taken care of at the project
design and construction stage.
The rising energy demands and projected energy needs in the coming years can not only solely be
met by constructing newer power plants, but the unconventional methods of power generation are
to be made more efficient and economical. There is also need of cutting down energy wastes by
using energy efficient appliances, avoiding wasteful practices and adapting/developing a
conservation attitude. There is also a compulsory need of energy auditing system. Japan has a
system of compulsory energy auditing for all business whereby they have to produce energy
efficiency plans which are approved by the government agency. In India too, it is mandatory
under Company’s Law that all manufacturing companies give information regarding the efforts
made for conservation of energy in their Annual Balance Sheets. The need is that such an
auditing system permeates to larger spheres, and if people voluntarily adopt the usage of this
introspective device a sustainable energy future is ensured.
33.3.5 Population Pressure

The population and environment have an intimate yet complex linkage. One may be tempted to
believe that there is a direct relationship between the two. That is, more the
In India the major nuclear energy plants are: Tarapur Atomic Power Plant (Near Mumbai),
Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Chennai), Narora (U.P.), Kakrapara (Gujarat); and in
Kaiga (Karnataka) the project is under construction.
people, more are the resources required, and consequently more wastes burden the environment.
It is not as simple as that. The socio-economic factors direct this relationship. According to an
estimate, the developed world containing a quarter of world’s population having little or no
growth, yet produces about three quarters of the world’s wastes. Why is it so? Actually, it is the
high living standards of the developed societies, which has a greater bearing on the state of the
environment. Their way of life is energy intensive as it involves high consumption of goods and
services. You may recall the environmental repercussion at the global scale, of various modes of
energy production, that is discussed in the previous sub-subsection. Therefore, it is not the
population growth, but the rise in living standards and the associated practices that accelerate
environmental degradation.
Another important factor in the relationship of population growth and environmental degradation
in increasing trend of growth of urban living. There is large scale movement of people n rural
areas to cities in search of jobs and better standards of living. A study by United Nations has
predicted that of the 24 cities with over 10 million inhabitants by the year 2000, 18 would be in
the developing world. It further points out that 60% of the population in the developing world
would be urbanized by the year 2025. In such situations where people concentrate in dense
settlements, not only there is a great pressure on the local environment, but also in rural areas,
both their economy and environment are adversely affected. It may be remembered that many of
the essential provisions for life, such as materials for food, shelter and clothing are obtained from
the rural areas only. Coming back to the burgeoning urban populations, through their diverse
production activities for earning money to buy items for sustenance, and luxurious lifestyles,
generate large, localized amounts of waste materials. The waste materials are difficult to deal
with, without environmental damage, especially in countries with scarce financial and technical
resources.
Poverty also has some bearing on the environment. The poor people, confined in large numbers in
the developing world, are forced to damage the environment in long-term to ensure their short-
term survival. Such an environmental damage is often an indicator of underdevelopment, and also
a cause of further underdevelopment as it damages both the means of production- the
environment, and the human beings which are dependent on, and use that environment, To sum
up, in the developed world the main force leading to environmental damage is the pressure to
consume and to increase consumption, whereas in the developing world the main force is the
pressure to produce to survive.
What are the casual agents of each of the following environmental problems? List them in the
blank space provided.
a) Dust veils
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
b) Greenhouse Effect
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
c) Ozone Depletion
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………
.

a) In what manner deforestation affects the ecosystem?
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
b) Comment on the use of Seas and Oceans as Ènvironmental Sinks’. Your answer
should include both the positive and negative aspects.
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
a) Complete the table given below. In case the space provided is not sufficient, you
may use a separate sheet.
Source Examples (materials Effect on the Rating*
used) environment
Biomass fuel ? ? ?
Fossil fuel ? ? ?
Nuclear Source ? ? ?
Unconventional ? ? ?
Sources
* Rate each source with + signs to show their relativeness as cleaner sources of energy.
b) Is there any link between population pressure and environmental quality? Discuss.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
33.4 LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

This Subsection deals with the environmental impacts that are of localized distribution. The use
and misuse of resources by industries and changing lifestyles have resulted in a variety of such
problems.
33.4.1 Acidification
The terms Àcidification’ or Àcid rain’ could startle anyone, if one goes by its literal meaning.
This is again a naturally occurring process going on at a very slow pace in the environment,
which has got accelerated during the last two decades or so, because of several of the
anthropogenic activities. How is acid rain formed? The sulphurous and nitrous gases formed or
added to the atmosphere by various means combines with the atmospheric moisture, forming acid
which makes the precipitation acidic. Natural rain water is also slightly acidic having a pH of
precipitation lowers down to 4.0 or even less when the concentration of these gases becomes
higher (Fig. 5). How? The above mentioned two gases constitute a major portion of the emissions
of industries and power stations based on fossil fuel combustion. Such areas are the production
centres of acid rain which necessarily are not the only receivers. Depending on the prevailing
wind directions, these acids can also be carried and deposited hundreds of kilometers from the
source area. The most severely affected areas world-wide are: Scandinavia, north Europe,
extending to the erstwhile USSR, part of China, North-east USA and eastern Canada. It is feared
that with the increase in industrialization and consumption of fossil fuels, more areas many
become members of this list.
A pH scale is used to define the levels of acidity or alkalinity. The value 7 on the pH values lower
than 7 fall in the acidic range, and values higher than 7 and upto 14 are alkaline.
Fig. 5 A pH Scale showing the levels of acidity of different substances. Note the pH range
of the acid rain.
Acidification has serious ecological repercussions. It affects both the terrestrial as well as the
aquatic ecosystems. Increased acidity sets in a chain of reactions that alter the chemistry of
ecosystem altogether. In terrestrial ecosystems acid rain water may either freeze as acidic snow in
colder regions, whereas in warmer areas it goes as surface run-off, some part is absorbed by soil
and some portion of it percolates down even to the water table. Thus the acid does not remain
confined to the soil surface only. It reaches to different soil strata and alters their pH. The
foremost effect of a changed pH is shift in the nutrient balance of the soil. Major nutrients
required for sustaining various life forms are no more retained by the soil and they get washed
off, thus these are not available to the various life forms. This results in degradation of soil
quality, damage to the leaves of trees (Fig. 6), constrained vegetative growth of plants, and decay
of vegetative parts of extreme cases. All these culminate in loss of vegetation and leave soil
vulnerable to erosion.
Fig. 6 : A part of a forest showing effects of acid rain. Note the trees are devoid of leaves.
The ecological impacts of acidification are more pronounced in the aquatic ecosystem. The
primary changes occur in the nutrient balance that have ramification for plant and animal growth
and their reproductive success. The acid tolerant species survive, whereas the less tolerant ones
are wiped off, many of which are food sources of different aquatic animals. The stress of
inadequate food supply takes its toll on the dependent animals species too. The fish stocks are
markedly affected as they are particularly vulnerable when pH is less the 5.0 and also when
acidification occurs in rapid pulses.
Can the acidified ecosystems ever recover? If yes, then how? Experiments have shown that
liming of lakes can restore the disrupted nutrient balance to some extent. But this is not a long-
term solution as its effect is short-lived. The only effective long-term solution is to curb emissions
of acid producing gases. This calls for reduction in fossil fuel combustion, and use of alternate
energy sources. Another option is to desulphurize fossil fuels for use. This would remove the
pollutants before they could reach the atmosphere. Desulphuriation can be easily achieved by the
application by biotechnology.
Acidification that has been on the increase since the last two decades is fast affecting larger and
larger areas. It has become a source of acrimony between the acid-producing and the àcid-
receiving’ regions of the world. This necessitated international action and The Convention on
the Long-range Transboundary Air pollution was signed in November 1979 in Geneva by 35
countries calling for collective action. In 1985 a new protocol was signed and the U.K. and USA
also joined the earlier signatory countries and agreed to reduce sulphurous emission by atleast
30% of the 1980 levels, by the year 1993. This group is also designated as the 30% club. Some
countries like Canada, West Germany, France and Norway agreed to reduce these emissions by
40-50%. In 1988 a second protocol was signed for curbing emissions of nitrous gases. These
agreements have not merely remained on paper, but have resulted in considerable reduction in
these gases. All this is very encouraging!!
33.4.2 Eutrophication
Eutrophication too is a natural phenomenon, which has got accelerated in the last two decades,
and has emerged as an important environmental concerns of present times. To distinguish the
naturally occurring, slow-paced eutrophication from the one with an accelerated pace due to
anthropogenic reasons, the latter is referred to as `cultural eutrophication’. Most of our
discussion here pertains to `cultural eutrophication’.
Unlike acidification that involves nutrient depletion, eutrophication occurs as a result of nutrient
enrichment of the water bodies. The nutrients involved are mainly phosphorus and nitrogen in the
forms of phosphates and nitrates. Their chief sources are : urban run-offs, sewage effluents,
industrial discharge, drainage from agricultural lands, and also from recreational use of water
bodies such as boating.
How does cultural eutrophication affect the water bodies? We shall discuss this in respect of lakes
and marine ecosystems. In lakes, it basically stimulates aging process by causing increase in
sediment accumulation. Which converts a water body into a terrestrial ecosystem in a matter of
few years. For sediment build-up, let us see how the cultural eutrophication affects an ecosystem?
The addition of excessive nutrients to a water body by various anthropogenic means makes
conditions highly favourable for algal growth. The growth of algae is so rapid that soon the
surface of the water body becomes covered with it. This stage is also commonly known as algal
bloom. This is quite a common sight and you might have also come across such a situation.
Along with the algal growth a large number of bacteria thriving on organic matter too make their
appearance in the water body. The profuse bacterial-algal growth has serious implications on the
rest of the ecosystem and its inhabitants. Besides enhancing sediment accumulation, the water
quality is also degraded. The bacteria utilize a major portion of dissolved oxygen of water to
break-down the organic matter present. This creates a biochemical oxygen demand (abbreviated
as BOD) in the water. Poor oxygen conditions develop as oxygen is not replaced sufficiently
rapidly from the atmosphere. Algal blooms also restrict oxygen replacement in water, especially
in the deeper layers. The deficiency of oxygen results in high rate of morality of fish and other
aquatic life forms.
Marine water bodies too are not spared of eutrophication. In the sea water near coasts, or in
enclosed basins with restricted water exchange, eutrophication is of common occurrence. The
nutrient rich waters promote growth of massive algal blooms that consists of diatoms and
dinoflagellates (Fig. 7). In extreme circumstances, the massive algal blooms are so prolific that
`red tides’ are created that extend up to 100 kilometers. The `red tides’ adversely affect tourism
and fishing industry due to noxious odours and poor quantity of dissolved oxygen. Besides these
are hazardous to human health too. The shellfish growing in such unhygienic conditions
accumulate large amounts of toxins, The consumption of such shellfish often results in nausea,
convulsions and even death.
Fig. 7 : Some forms of diatoms (a), and dinoflagellates (b). These microscopic, drifting
organisms occur in astronomical numbers in the marine waters. Some of these are also fresh
water inhabitants.
Associated with cultural entrophication is another problem, that is, of growth of water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes). It grows profusely in nutrient rich, fresh water. Their growth is also dense
so that most of the surface of the water bodies gets covered (Fig. 8). When it is well established it
consumes the oxygen that the fish need to survive, hinders fishing and navigation and stops water
flow to a trickle and the hydro-electric power plants become useless. Recently it has come to light
that the menacing weeds can be employed as cleaning agents of sewage-ridden water bodies. This
is based on the fact that the growing water hyacinths pick up a lot of unwanted nutrients that are
present in excessive amounts in the water bodies. The regular harvesting of these plants leaves the
waters `purer’. The organic matter of the dried plants can have wide usage such as in energy
generation and production of bio-fertilizers. This is a good example of turning a menace into a
profitable venture!
Cultural eutrophication, besides damaging the ecosystem is also found to cause serious human
health problems, Excessive nitrate build up inside the human body particularly the babies causes
“infant methaemoglobinaemia” or “blue baby syndrome”. The haemoglobin in such cases cannot
perform its usual function of carrying oxygen and in acute cases a blue skin coloration develops:
The build up of high nitrogen content is emerging as a major problem in USA and Europe.
Fig. 8 : Water Hyacinth. a) A portion of river Yamuna in Delhi, the surface is completely
covered by this weed. b) Water hyacinth, a flowering plant. It is a floating aquatic plant
with profuse rooting. It’s paddle-like leaves spread all round the plant. The connecting
portions of the leaves, that is, the petioles are swollen into green bladders that makes it very
distinct. Its flowers are very attractive. These occur in groups and are violet-blue in colour.
Photograph (a) Courtesy : The Hindu.
The extent of cultural eutrophication can be checked and with long-term solutions can also be
stopped. One measure, is dilution of nutrient-rich water emanating from various sources before
their release. This practice is compulsorily followed in the U.K. Second way is applying certain
treatment procedures to sewage to remove phosphorus and nitrogen constituents from it. Third, is
voluntary cutback on the use of substances that generate these two nutrients and use of non-
pollution causing alternatives for instance non-phosphate detergents, coupled with regulations to
limit these in industrial effluents can check this problem to some extent. Further, the voluntary
use of natural alternatives instead of the synthetic ones, especially in context of agriculture and
households would go a long way to curb this problem.
33.4.3 Desertification
Desertification is defined as land degradation in the arid, semi-arid and dry areas resulting from
various factors including climatic changes and human activities. The mere mention of this term
conjures up advancing desert engulfing huge chunks of fertile lands. According to estimates by
the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), one-quarter of the Earth’s land, or 3.6 billion
hectares, is threatened by desertification. The livelihoods of over 1 billion people in more than
100 countries are jeopardized by desertification as farming and grazing land becomes less
productive. UNEP estimates that desertification costs the world $42 billions (Rs. 1596 billions) a
year. Of the total Africa loses some $9 billions a year, Asia $21 billions, North America $5
billions, Australia and South America $3 billions each and Europe $1 billion.
There is no single cause for desertification. This results mainly in the dry land regions due to the
combination of a number of processes. These processes occur naturally and are aggravated under
adverse climatic conditions and in areas where population pressures are high. The main causes of
desertification are : overgrazing, overcultivation, deforestation, water-logging and salinization of
irrigated land. All the above mentioned processes just aid in hastening the degradation of soil
quality of areas leading to formation of deserts. What are the remedial measures? These can be
categorised as : (I) preventive measures, and; (ii) the restorative measures. The preventive
measures involve preserving the soil resource of an area while taking appropriate measures to
fulfil the social needs. That is, retaining/regenerating the vegetation destruction due to
overgrazing, and for fulfilling various human needs. This target can never be achieved unless
alternate arrangements are made for cattle feed and for the various human requirements.
Restorative measures include the application of scientific and technical research, in conjunction
with the contemporary socio-economic realities. Soil degradation due to overcultivation, water-
logging and salinization can now be recovered. It is lot more better to prevent than to cure. Isn’t
it? A United Nations Convention to cope with desertification took effect in December 196. Its
official name is the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries
Experiencing serious Drought and/or Desertification particularly in Africa.
33.4.4 Pollution : Air, Water, Land

Pollution is defined as an inadvertent/deliberate or accidental contamination of the environment
with the wastes generated by various human activities. A large number of these wastes harm vital
resources like air, water and soil which ultimately affects the living beings including humans. The
contamination of air, water and soil in different parts of the world is of different kinds, and at
varying rates. That is to say pollution problems in different locations are different, but their
cumulative effects over a period of time have serious global implications. Take the example of air
pollution. The localized and differential build up of excessive amounts of dust particles,
greenhouse gases, chloro-fluoro-carbons, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen affect the global
environment. Any local environmental issues should not be overlooked or considered trivial
because to tackle any global environmental problem, it is essential to attend to the local
problems first. The salient aspects of air pollution are covered under the headings - dust veils,
greenhouse effect, ozone depletion and acidification. One more important aspect, that is, of
vehicular pollution would be discussed under the heading of `Transportation’ shortly.
Likewise soil pollution, commonly referred to land pollution pertains to degradation of this
resource in various ways. Notable amongst these being due to deforestation, acidification and
desertification - all these have been discussed earlier. Land pollution due to excessive use of
fertilizers and pesticides, in the recent years resulted in a number of local environmental
problems. Though the role of fertilizers and pesticides was crucial in bringing a green revolution
in our country, but the environmental problems arising out of it were not foreseen. Not only there
has been an accumulation of these agro-chemicls in the soil reaching upto the ground water table,
these have also entered the food chain. Recent estimates have shown that the ground water in
many areas is so contaminated that it is not fit for human consumption. Higher concentration of
agro-chemicals like DDT have been detected in the milk of mothers from such areas. The harmful
effects of build up of DDT in human bodies leads to high incidence of cancers. This is one
example to show how the effects of pollution can be passed on from one generation to the other.
Another important aspect of land pollution results because of the use of soil for dumping all kinds
of wastes ranging from organic wastes from diverse sources; plastic, metallic, glass-wastes; and
various kinds of chemical and hazardous wastes. Some of these are used as land-fill sites. These
again result in leaching out of various toxins to different layers of soils.
The pollution of the third vital resource that is, water, is no less important. Some aspects like
acidification, eutrophication and marine pollution have been discussed above. Thermal pollution
affects the water bodies tremendously. This results due to accumulation of heat in the water body
from the discharges of power stations and industries. The sudden shock of high temperatures, or
persistence of higher temperatures beyond the tolerance range wipes out many water inhabitants.

a) Fill in the information pertaining to acid rain in the blank spaces given below.
(I) Its forming agents ................................................................................................
(ii) Its pH range ..................................................................................................................
(iii) Contributory production centres .....................................................................................
(iv) Who are the receivers? ..................................................................................................
(v) Ecological repercussions ...............................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................
(vi) Can the affected ecosystems be retrieved?.......................................................................

........................................................................................................................................
(vii) How?........................................................................................................................
(viii) Any collective action taken? ..................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................
b) Complete the following blank spaces with relevant information concerning

eutrophication.
i) The kind of ecosystems where it is prevalent................................................................

..................................................................................................................................
ii) The causal agents........................................................................................................
iii) Sources (of causal agents)............................................................................................
iv) Its overall effects in an ecosystem....................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................
v) Suggest remedial measures.....................................................................................
c) Would you recommend prevention over restoration in the eventuality of desertification,

or vice-versa? Give reasons.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................……
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………..
d) With the help of an example, discuss the importance of tackling a local environmental
problem to combat a global environmental problem.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................……
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………..
33.5 CONTEMPORARY AND EMERGING

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
In the discussion above, it has clearly emerged that many of the human activities have resulted in
fast degradation of the ecosystem. The pattern and kind of human activities is determined by the
life styles of the societies - all have two basic aims- comfortable and secure life. The fruits of
beneficial effects, both for the environment and humans may be visible soon, but it’s ill-effects on
the ecosystem take some time to show up, and to be perceived. In this section we have taken up
some such contemporary and emerging environmental issues.
33.5.1 Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

Human society has employed biotechnology for thousands of years in activities such as brewing,
wine-making; bread-making; food-preservation and modification by fermentation, e.g. cheese,
vinegar and soy sauce; the manufacture of soap from fats, primitive medication and waste
treatment. It is however, the discovery of genetic engineering techniques via recombinant DNA
technology which has set in the current not only helped in improving the existing processes and
products but have great potential in generating totally new products which were not previously
possible. And in context of environment it has a number of actual and potential applications. The
environment related aspects of biotechnology are fast developing into a new field of
Environmental Engineering. It is one of the most exciting and challenging fields of study today.
The application of biotechnology to our day to day life has increased tremendously in the recent
years. Some of its salient applications are discussed below.
Biotechnology - It is a term that refers to the industrial exploitation of biological systems or

processes so as to generate diverse kinds of products to fulfil human needs. It has wide
applications in areas like medicine, industry, agriculture, conservation, provision of food, and
energy.
Genetic Engineering is a specialized branch of biotechnology that involves manipulation of

genetic material of living organisms and these are abbreviated as GMOs.
(i) Waste disposal technology particularly for industrial and sewage effluents largely involve
treatment with microorganisms like bacteria and fungi that facilitates quick degradation
of wastes liberating harmless products.
(ii) Production of desired end products from wastes, is an offshoot of waste disposal
technology. Biological materials, such as sugarcane and cane molasses when
degraded by organisms like yeast, result in usable products such as ethanol. This method
is vastly employed in Brazil, where ethanol constitutes 30% of all fuel.
(iii) Biomining and resource recycling is another application of biotechnology. Harnessing the
ability of certain microorganisms to breakdown mineral ores and mine waters for metal
extraction and recovery has positive implications on environmental quality. The
organisms that affect metal extraction are termed as chemolithotrophs. This method has
been successfully employed in extraction of Copper and Uranium. Other metals like
Lead, Arsenic, Iron, Silver, Gold, Chromium and Cadmium can also be obtained
similarly. Such a method of metal extraction has several advantages over the
conventional recovery methods of minerals. For instance, it enables metal extraction from
deep-seated ores without large-scale excavation, which is environmentally detrimental. It
also aids in effective extraction of metals in pure forms from low-grade ores, as well as
mine-wastes.
(iv) The ability of microorganisms to scavenge metals has a number of other applications
which includes treatment of waste water. Bacteria such as Sphaerotilus natans, extract
and accumulated can be subsequently recovered from the bacteria and reused.
(iv) Biotechnology also has applications in the biological control of pests. There are a number
of bacteria, fungi and viruses that can produce fatal infections on any plant/animal pests.
This method of pest control is environmental friendly that unlike the chemical pesticides,
destroys the pests without leaving any harmful residues in the environment. Such a pest
control method has recently been discovered to be highly effective for the control of
mosquitoes where the microorganisms attack and kill the larvae of mosquitoes. This
method is currently being explored for application on a wider scale.
(vi) Certain bacteria known as nitrogen fixing bacteria have the ability to fix atmosphere
nitrogen. One example of such bacteria is Rhizobium that is associated with leguminous
plants. These bacteria have the capacity to convert some of the free atmospheric nitrogen
to a usable form for the plant’s nitrogen requirements thus avoiding the use of chemical
fertilizers and the consequent environmental problems.
Leguminous plants are the members belonging to the family Leguminosae whose modern name is
Fabaceae. Some common members of this family are : pea, groundnut and beans.
Talking in specific context of genetic engineering, this technology has been widely applied in the
medical field. Well-known products are : interferons -- the anticancer agents, human insulin and
many others. In relation to the environment the increasing applications of genetically-engineered
organism, also known as the trangenics, have raised many concerns and ethical issues. It is
widely felt that the genetically engineered organisms may become environmental threat or a
threat to public life. The potential use of such organisms in `biological warfares’ has hit the
headlines in most national and international dailies and magazines. All have expressed deep
concern about the possible `biological havoc’ these organisms could cause. It would be disastrous
if such organisms besides being fatal to the target pests in biological control programmes, are also
fatal to other life forms. This would replace/wipe out populations of several species thus causing
erosion of the biological diversity and the gene pool. In addition many new toxins of these
genetically engineered organisms could be added to the environment, the effects of which are
hitherto unknown. Many scientists working in this area too have expressed such concerns. For
instance, in 1974-75 scientists in USA working in the field of genetic engineering imposed a
voluntary moratorium on some aspects of their work. This was done to allow the government to
develop requisite safety procedures and guidelines for the use of transgenics. These guidelines
have been widely adopted by many nations carrying out such researches. In addition to the
guidelines, regulations and moratoria, it is utmost important to have stringent controls, reinforced
if necessary by legislation. In out country too, the department of Biotechnology, established by
Government of India in 1986 in addition to helping institutions to establish biotechnological
infrastructural support, is also keeping strict vigil on the research work of the laboratories
engaged in genetic engineering. The Government of India has evolved the `Recombinant DNA
Safety Guidelines’ and has notified these under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986, for
personnel and environmental safety in the use of genetically manipulated organisms in research,
manufacture and applications. Besides the various controls, the risks could also be minimised by
close cooperation between the industry, government and the regulatory organisations.
The other applications of genetic engineering involving cloning of adult animals, e.g., the
recently cloned sheep Dolly and animals that are genetically engineered for organ-transplants to
humans have also raised serious issues concerning the society and the environment as a whole.
Further research in some of these areas has been banned in many countries.
Clone - A clone is an organism which is genetically identical to the other.
33.5.2 Transportation
Looking at the history of development of human society, the transport factor has played a key
role in shaping the growth of various population centres including the cities. In a short span of
just about 150 years, from virtually no transport system to the present age of communication, this
development perhaps has only a few parallels. Today innumerable modes and varieties of
transport are available to reach any near or far place on the globe as well as other planets. Any
transport, in general, has two prime requirements.-- energy to drive it, and the physical space for
its movement. Several energy sources including steam, fossil fuels and electricity have been
deployed to power various transports. Similarly, to facilitate movement on land, in air and on
water networks of roads, railway lines, sub-ways, landing strips and harbours were created and
developed. From where did all these energy sources come, similarly the space for roads and
railway-lines and harbours? From the natural environment itself! Excavation, offshore drillings as
well as clearing off of huge tracts of land only destroy the nature, and impinge on the natural
habitat of innumerable species residing in those areas. This destruction story does not stop here.
The ill, after-effects of use of energy sources and the roads and railway-lines carry the destruction
tale further. In the previous sections, you have come across a number of environmental problems
arising out of the vehicular use. These are the build up of dust veils, smogs and other forms of
atmospheric pollution. With the growing up transport demand, this problem has emerged as a
major environmental issue. The air pollution in cities with heavy transport load is such that no
citizen can be unaware of this problem. Air pollution levels in Delhi and Calcutta are presently
six times the world Health Organisation (WHO) standards. In certain parts of Delhi they exceed
20 times the WHO level. The results are widely publicised and experienced. The decline in
health, rising incidence of respiratory disease and premature deaths in such conditions has
promoted us all to pause and think about this fast multiplying problem.
In the present situation. It is difficult to think of a life without various transport means. Especially
when places are located in far-flung areas, public transport services are poor, and the pace of life
is fast. In view of these constraints the personal transport culture is fast emerging. For it provides
comport and convenience at a bearable price. Everyday, yes, everyday hundreds or more cars and
scooters are being added to the roads. Similarly, there is all round pressure for increasing air, and
water transport services. All boils down to more pressure on the environment. More areas need
clearing for building roads and laying rail-lines, and the harmful emissions further load the
atmosphere with poisonous gases. What is the solution? Is raising the price of private motoring
the answer? or the development of effective, fast-circulating, low-priced public transport system?
A decision has to be taken by the regulating agencies as well as by each of the citizen. Those who
feel more responsible should come forward spreading awareness such as, the need of keeping
vehicular emissions to the minimum by proper maintenance: and the advantages of sharing a
vehicle for common destination. In addition, the search for newer, environmental alternative
should go on. The newly discovered phenomenon of superconductivity, introduction of unleaded
petrol, and the preliminary research findings in the development of unconventional fuels, have
shown that all is not dark yet, a ray of hope is still there!
33.5.3 Loss of Biodiversity

Biological diversity, written in short form as biodiversity refers to the total variability among
living organisms that inhabit all forms of terrestrial and aquatic habitats of the entire ecosystem.
In ecological terms, it includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. Since
the last three to four decades, the loss of biodiversity n various quarters of the world has posed
serious threat to the global ecology. Thus, it has emerged as a serious environmental concerns of
modern times. The causes of loss of biodiversity are manifold. Among these are the rapid
expansion of industry and agriculture; urbanization; development projects like dams, highways,
mining; increased expansion and intensification of human activities like poaching and trade of
wildlife products; and the introduction and promotion of few introduced `High Yielding
Varieties’ of crops and livestock. all of these have led to the destruction of habitats - the areas
with high biodiversity, pollution and over-utilization of biological resources which have resulted
in fast depletion of biodiversity. Why is biodiversity important to us and the entire ecosystem?
Biodiversity, is not only important for its intrinsic value, but is highly valuable for its ecological,
genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values. The
concern for arresting harm to biodiversity was discussed widely at the UNCED Earth summit
held at Rio De Janerio in June 1992. This resulted in the signing of the International
Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD, by 171 signatories. This convention has entered into
force from December 29, 1993. It breaks fresh ground in many ways. I acknowledges that genetic
resources are no longer to be treated as a common heritage of mankind, but as the sovereign
property of the country of origin. It also envisages a reciprocity of arrangements between the
developed and developing country parties. the countries of origin with prior information and
consent on mutually agreed terms, are expected to make access to these resources. This may be
utilized for development of technologies preferably within countries of origin and transfer of
technology based on these resources at concessional terms. The value of conservation practices,
and knowledge of tribals, herders, peasants and other communities of people who are not part of
modern scientific technical establishment - are also acknowledged under this convention. Further,
it calls for mechanisms for sharing the benefits from commercial utilisation of resources they
have helped conserve or augment, and of knowledge they have developed.
India, by virtue of the vast variety in physiography and climatic conditions, is blessed with
enormous biological diversity, in fact, a mega-biodiversity. The number of plant species is
estimated to be over 45,000 representing about 7 present of the world’s flora. Out of these some
4900 species of flowering plants are endemic to the country. The faunal wealth is equally diverse.
The total number of animal species is estimated at 81,000 representing about 6.4 percent of the
world’s fauna.
Endemic (species)-The species restricted to area or part of the world e.g., Azadirachta Indica is
subcontinent.
India is also considered one of the world’s 12 centres of origin of cultivated plants. Farmers
have over centuries developed a rich store o germplasm that includes 51 species of cereals and
millets, 104 species of fruits, 27 species of spices and condiments, 55 species of vegetables and
pulses, 24 species of fibre crops, 12 species of oil seeds, and various wild strains of tea, coffee,
tobacco and sugarcane. Several hundred species of wild crop relatives are distributed all over the
country especially in the Western and eastern Himalayas, in the Western Peninsula and the
Malabar Coast, North-Eastern India, the Gangetic and the Indus Plains and in the eastern
Peninsular area. wild maize relatives occur in the humid and semi-humid tracts of the Eastern and
Western Peninsular areas extending to the North-East regions of the country. Wild relatives of
wheat and barley have been located in the western and North-Western Himalayas.
Survey Agencies - Surveys of floral and faunal resources in the country are undertaken by the
Botanical Survey of India (BSI) established in 1890, and the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)
established in 1916. BSI and ZSI have the headquarters in Calcutta and network of centres
located all over India. The forest Survey of India, established in 1981 uses satellite imagery, area
photography and ground truth verification to assess forest wealth, in order to develop as
accurate database for planning and monitoring.
Likewise, India’s ancient practice of domesticating animals has resulted in diverse breeds of
livestock, poultry and other animals. This represents a significant percentage of world’s diversity.
India’s eight breeds of buffalo represent the entire range of genetic diversity of buffaloes in the
world. Besides there are 26 breeds of cattle. 40 of sheep, 20 goats, 8 of camels, 6 of horses,
donkeys and 18 types of poultry. Yak, mithun, geese and ducks have also been domesticated.
For the translation of the International Convention on Biological Diversity provisions into
concrete gains, a number of measures have taken by the Ministry of Environment and forests,
Government of India. some of these are: conservation of species in their natural habitat, i.e., in
situ conservation as well as outside their natural habitat, i.e., ex situ conservation. `Project Tiger’
`Save the Barasingha’ campaign and `project on the asiatic elephant’ are the species-directed
protection efforts.. Under the ex situ conservation measures a number of botanical gardens and
Zoological parks have played an important role. The 200 year old Indian Botanical Garden in
Howrah, West Bengal; and the ones at Bangalore and Lucknow are notable. The zoological
parks have played important role in species conservation and captive breeding of species such as
Manipur Thamin deer, White-winged Wood duck, gharial, turtles and white tiger. In addition, a
network of Protected Areas comprising of 85 National Parks and 448 Wildlife Sanctuaries
covering about 1418, 194 sq km area* in all biogeographic zones of the country, are the measures
for wildlife conservation. Under the UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme
initiated in 1971, 8 Biosphere Reserves have been set in the country (Table 1) to conserve parts of
natural ecosystems in totality.
Table 1 : The Biosphere Reserves of India.
Name of Biosphere Reserve

s. no. and state
1 Nanda Devi -- U.P
2 Nokrek -- Meghalaya
3 Manas -- Assam
4 Sunderbans -- West
Bengal
5 Gulf of Mannar --
Tamil Nadu
6 Nilgiri -- Karnataka, Kerala

and Tamil Nadu
7 Great Nicobar
8 Similipal -- Orissa
The collection and preservation of genetic resources is done through the National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, for wild crop plants; the National Bureau of Animal
Genetic Resources (NBAGER), Karnal for domesticated animals; the National Bureau of Fish
Genetic Resources (NBFGR), Lucknow for economically valuable fish species.
For effective implementation of Conservation measures the legal and policy framework includes
the Forest Act, 1927; Forest (Conservation) Act 1980; the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972; and
the umbrella provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. These are supported in the
different states, by a number of laws and statues related to the management of land, water, forests
and other habitats. India is also a signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Wild
Species of Endangered Flora and Fauna (CITES) to effectively regulate/ban trade in these
species.
Despite a policy framework, programmes, legislative support, Non-Government Organizations
and a network of extension workers, the problem of dwindling biological resources calls for
immediate attention. The implementation of conservation measures needs to strengthened.
Shifting responsibilities will be of no consequence. And more and more Conferences and Earth
Summits, alone are not going to solve the problem. What ultimately is required is a clear line of
action.
The biodiversity concerns need to be integrated into environmental impact assessment

procedures for all activities, programmes and policies that are likely to have significant effect on
the biodiversity, with mandatory participation of those affected by it. The line of action should
also look into the problem of biopiracy -- that is, free use and exploitation of India’s biodiversity
resources and knowledge by foreign enterprises. The gaps in legal provision need to be bridged
for effective enforcement. And above all, the extent of involvement of each and every citizen
understanding his/her role in the ecosystem is the main tool.
Materials33.5.4 Use of Non-degradable

The increasing use of non-degradable materials in the recent years has become a modern trend in
the society. Just count how many things are there around you that have their origins in plastics.
This in fact is a reflection of the throw-away culture that our society is fast adopting. The good-
old tiffin boxes made of metals were there till two decades ago but now a rare specimen of it may
be seen. There has been increasing use of fancy items, that are low-priced to suit any one’s
pocket. The recycled goods are available at still lower prices. Another `good’ thing about plastic-
ware is, one does not mind discarding it in the waste-bins when one is tired of their use as they
are more durable. Similarly, the good old cloth-bags used for carrying groceries and shopping
items also seem to have gone. Why should one bother carrying it when plastic carry bags are
available. Have you ever thought what happens to these items when these cease to serve us and
find their way to the garbage pool and the dumping sites? If you have had a chance to visit such
an area, or see any picture of it, all looks very colourful from a distance. On going nearer one
finds only plastic and plastic in all hues and colours every where. So much so these fill and block
the drainage pipes, and sewage
overflowing the drains create unhygienic conditions. Another growing practice of discarding
household wasted in such bags and dumping it anywhere, is being adopted by a large number of
city-dweller. It is a common sight to see a large number of such bags in open spaces and even
hanging on trees all along the roads. So much so this has become a major environmental problem
in areas that surround the favourite tourist spot-Shimla. What are the results of the accumulation
of such non-degradable wastes? Even a layman knows, we clean our house and dump filth
outside it, but it remains in your, ours and everyone’s environment. Isn’t it high time to think
what are we doing to our ecosystem?
33.5.5 Lead Poisoning

The problem is associated largely with the developed and developing societies. In recent times
health problems associated with Lead poisoning are on the rise. Lead finds way into the human
body through two channels -- from the atmosphere and drinking waters. Forming a part of
vehicular emissions, it originates from the anti-knock agents added to the petrol. Lead is also
added to the atmosphere from burning of oil, smelters producing ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
However, natural emissions from volcanoes also produce negligible amounts of the total Lead.
And the Lead content in drinking water results as it flows through the Lead pipelines, Lead when
absorbed by the blood-stream harms the central nervous system and is particularly likely to cause
brain damage in children. Inhalation of toxic fumes of vehicular emissions containing high
dosage of Lead, cause toxic Lead encephalitis, i.e., inflammation of the brain, which causes
depression, headache and fatigue. The mitigation measures include cut in vehicular and other
emissions containing Lead. Use of unleaded petrol in cars has shown marked reduction in the lead
content in the ambient air.**
33.5.6 Noise Pollution

Noise pollution is also considered part of air pollution as it travels through the air. But it is a
different kind of pollution, that is, it does not accumulate in the environment. Ring a bell or talk
to someone, and in a faction of a second he sound is gone. When is sound a noise? In simple
terms when the sound becomes unbearably loud it is termed as noise. Noise is defined as any
unwanted
.sound(s) of a duration, intensity or other quality that causes some kind of physiological or
psychological harms to humans and other living beings.
Sound intensity is measured on a scale of values called Decibel (abbreviated as db) Scale. The
softest sound that can be heard by humans is called 0 db. The faintest audible sound has about
10db value. Some common sound intensities are represented on the Decibel Scale in Fig. 9.
Noise causes stress to the human body. The general level of city noise, example, is high enough
to deafen us gradually as we grow older. In the absence of noise the hearing ability is generally
not deteriorated with advancing age. It is important to know that the most instances of loss of
hearing resulting from high environmental noise are not immediately noticeable. One is usually
unaware that his hearing ability is losing slowly. Noise pollution is also an occupational health
hazards. High intensity noises produced by bulldozers, hammers, heavy vehicles and aircraft are
deafening many millions of workers. How does noise affect a human? The first effects are anxiety
and stress or in extreme cases, fright. These reactions lead to increased rate of heartbeat
constriction of blood vessels, digestive spasms, and dilation of the pupils of the eyes.
Psychologists have found that the work efficiency of people goes down as noise levels go up.
Three broad kinds of measures can help in combating this problem; one, reduction in origin of
noise by proper maintenance of machines/gadgets and other means involved; two, interruption in
the path of sound transmission, and; three, protecting the receiver of sound by putting hands over
ears or using some protective devices.
** Annual Report 1995-96 Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

a) Mention a few actual and potential applications of biotechnology.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
b) Which modes of transport are prevalent in your city/village? List them and classify
them as environment-friendly and non-friendly.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
c) Have a look around the place where you live, for various naturally occurring life
forms. Try to recall if there has been any changes in their distribution in the last
five years? If yes, mention giving reasons as to what sort of changes have occurred?
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
d) How prevalent have been non-degradable materials in your day to day use?
Mention a few examples of articles made of non-degradable materials that you
think you can do away with.
....................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
e) How prone is human health to Lead poisoning in your area; represent it with a
number of + signs.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
f) Make a list of five most distressing noises that you heard on any particular day.
Suggest how can each one he reduced or eliminated?
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
33.6 CONSERVATION EFFORTS

The respect and fascination for its natural heritage has been deeply etched in Indian history.
the ancient records about the conservation methods adopted are the proofs of this. World’s first
recorded conservation measures especially for wildlife, were enacted in India during the third
century B.C. when Eemperor Ashok’s benevolence was extended to all living beings. He not
only set up hospitals and reserves for wild animals and birds, but implemented various species-
specific protection measures. But it was not only the rulers of India who protected and preserved
their heritage, common people were also involved in conservation. For example, the followers of
Bishnoi faith ,also known as Bishnois respect all living beings and emphasize on non-violent
way of life. Each and every member of this faith protects wildlife and do not permit felling of
trees in their area. There is a well known incidence connected to this. In 1730, the maharaja of
jodhpur ordered his men to fetch some wood from a Bishnoi area. Bishnois women and children
all gathered at that area and hugged the trees to save them. Over 360 of these women and children
were hacked to death in this process by the king’s men and they finally had to give up and return
empty handed. These principles are being practiced by them till now. This is the reasons that the
Bishnoi lands stand apart as oases in the vast deserts of Rajasthan.
In various parts of the country, sacred groves exists. These by tradition protect pockets of
natural biodiversity. These areas are part of a temple or some sacred region. Thus they have
original flora preserved in its natural form. The animal species such as snakes and monkeys
inhabiting this area too are considered sacred and worshipped by people. Many such groups occur
in the Western Ghats and north-east India.
The famous Chipko Movement, active since 1973 in U.P., is known the world over. It is one of
the real-life examples showing showing how the collective strength of people can restore
environment. Chipko - means `to hug’ and it was the principle weapon for the group of protesters
to hug trees to prevent them from being felled. It grew out of local opposition to the
discriminatory practices of the State Government and the private companies towards the local hill
people. Contracts were awarded to large commercial companies for use of timber and resin, while
local people were dependent on them for fuel, fodder and other provisions. This movement that
started with the aims of protecting trees has now broadened its aims to preserve forest cover,
prevent soil erosion and landslides and create forests that can be used in sustainable ways.
Women suffered more than men from the destruction of forests. With forests intact fuel wood
could be collected from nearby areas, otherwise they had to walk several kilometers to fetch
wood. From UP this movement also spread to other parts of the country. A similar movement
named Appiko movement was launched in the tropical forests of the Western Ghats. It simplicity
and non-violent approach became very popular and a large number of people joined this
movement.
Going back to the 1960s, increasing environmental repercussions were perceived by the human
society as ominous signs of the brewing crises in the ecosystem and the imminent threat to the
survival of human society. By then a gradual shift in the thinking of the society had begun. A
shift from the belief that `nature has been made to serve the mankind so it is free to use if in the
way it wants’ towards the ideology that `humans must live with rather than exploit nature’
became clearly visible. People all over the world now realised that Environment is common for
all and it has no transnational boundaries. This was the right. This was the right time for
peoples of the world gathered together for environments cause. The United Nations Conference
on Human Environment was held at Stockholm in 1972, with India taking a lead in it. Mrs.
Indira Gandhi, then Prime Minister of India was the only visiting head of the government to
attend this UN conference. This conference produced a declaration of Principles, a plan to deal
with certain environmental programmes. Following this, the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) initiated a monitoring system to detect global pollution that might affect
the weather and climate.
And back home, at the initiative of Mrs. Indira Gandhi in 1972, a National Council of
Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) was set up to identify and investigate
the problems of preserving or improving the human environment, and to propose solutions to the
various environmental problems in our country. Subsequently, a full-fledged Ministry of
Environment and Forest was set up in 1985. It is the apex body under the Government of India
for planning, promotion and coordination of environmental and forestry programmes. The
National Wasteland Development Board and the Ganga Project Directorate are major
components of the Ministry. Its activities are : survey and conservation of flora and fauna;
prevention and control of pollution; afforestation and regeneration of degraded areas;
environmental impact assessment; forest conservation and research; environmental information
and education.
Twenty years after the Stockholm conference, a united Nations conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) also known as the UNCED Earth Summit or the Rio conference
was held at Rio de Janerio, Brazil in 1992. A mention of this has already been made earlier in the
Subsection 33.5.3. It was the world’s largest ever gathering of leaders to discuss the threat to
global ecology. It was also billed as the “last chance to save the earth.” The much talked about
`Convention on biological diversity’ is the outcome of this conference that entered into force
from December 29, 1993. It made legally binding for the signatory countries to bring about
legislative, administrative and policy regime regarding biological diversity in tune with the
Articles of this convention. After the UN General Assembly proclamation, 29th December of the
year is celebrated as the International Day for Biological diversity. It is pertinent to mention
here that the 5th of June of every year is celebrated as the World Environment day. Five years
after the historic Earth summit in Rio de Janerio in 1992, a special session of the General
Assembly of the United Nations known as UNGASS/Rio+5/Earth Summit plus 5, was held in
June, 1997 to review the progress made. This has also ended as an apparent failure as both the
developing and the developed nations stuck to their known positions. In the absence of political
will, should all hopes be given up? Not yet. There is immense potential power in the willing
people, yes, the people of the whole world. Their collective strength can swing the balance of
environment from total disaster to prosperity. Three Indian examples, discussed below would
prove this point.
Our first example is of the joint protest by the people in a village in Dharwad, Karnataka against
the polluting industries. People in this area spearheaded a movement against two synthetic fibre
manufacturing units for polluting the Tungabhadra river with coloured effluents. It was largely
because of their efforts that the State Pollution Control Board decided in September 1990 to
prosecute the two units.
The second example is of quarrying in the Doon valley. It had seriously damaged the scenic
beauty of the Mussoorie Hills, and has left barely 12 percent tree over, whereas the recommended
cover is 60 percent. In February, 1983, the Government decided to not to renew the quarrying
leases. However, the lessees obtained stay orders and resumed mining operations at an increased
pace. A number of citizens organisations like the `Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra’,
`Friends of the Doon Society’ and the `Save Mussoorie Society’ filed a writ petition in the
Supreme Court against the quarrying activities. The Supreme Court passed an interim order
declaring the closure of mines and also classified these as extremely dangerous. It also ordered a
total ban on the use of chemical explosives for extracting limestone.
The third example is of the recent Supreme Court’s decision regarding the ban on all aquaculture
in mangrove swamps, estuaries, wetlands, and on public land, as well as a prohibition converting
agricultural land into shrimp farms. This aspect has been discussed earlier in subsection 33.3.3.
also. The point that we wish to make here is that the court has ordered the closure after a long
campaign by environmentalist groups. Their protest focused or the repercussions of aquafarming,
i.e., the contamination of land and drinking water from the discharge of toxic effluents.
Like in India, a number of environmental organizations and movements are operative at the
international arena. The names of Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth are known world over
for their environmental conservation activities. Greenpeace was founded in Vancouver in 1970.
This group with their motto of non-violent confrontation initially sought to prevent nuclear
testing in the Pacific by sailing right into the danger zone. Similarly, this group also campaigned
actively for preservation of whales. Their subsequent conservation activities were extended to
protect North Sea, the Great lakes and Antartica. This group has now established over 35 main
branches in 22 countries. `Friends of the Earth’ began in the United States as a splinter group
from the noted Sierra Club in `1970 and became involved in a number of environmental issues
including the antinuclear movement.
The efforts of individuals have been also as effective in generating environmental awareness in
the society as well as implementing conservation measures. One is only but inspired by the
persistent efforts and contributions made by social workers and environmentalists like Sunderland
Bahuguna, Anna Hazare, M. C. Mehta, Anil Agarwal, Medha Patker, Vandana Shiva and several
others. All one needs is the will to act for the environment’s cause. This is now Anna Hazare in
1976 after retirement began changing the environmental fortunes of this village was a picture of
economic stagnation. Hazare resolved to change things. Realising that water was the key issues,
he studied the topography of the village and initiated steps to conserve rain water. Next, he took
up the area of soil conservation under the state government’s Wasteland Development
Programme. Massive tree plantation was taken up, their dogged efforts raised the survival rates of
plantations to 90 percent as compared to 50-60 percent in official programmes. Also Biogas
Plants and smokeless chulhas were installed. Today, the village has proved its capability to
withstand drought and now it presents a picture of prosperity. This example clearly illustrates that
provided the will, it is not impossible to avert ecological crises and retrieve the ecosystem.
Several incentives and awards have been instituted to encourage and promote working for
environmental cause. Some notable awards in our country are:
1. Indira Gandhi Parayavaran Puraskar (IGPP),
2. Indira Priyadarshini Vrikshamitra Awards (IVPM),
3. Mahavriksha Puraskar,
4. National Award for Prevention of Polltuion,
5. Pitamber Pant National Environment Fellowship Award, and
6. B. Pal National Environment Fellowship Award for Biodiversity.
How far has the society reached on the road to resolve various ecosystem crises? There has been
certain progress which is reflected by the fact that more and more people are becoming aware of
the problems, their role in it, and what is expected of them. Consequently recycled papers and
goods, the appearance of the ECOMARK label to environmental-friendly household and other
consumer products are the positive indications of the society adopting Green ways of life. The
progress should not stop here. Still we have a long way to go.
33.7 IN THE FUTURE AHEAD

After looking at the picture of the environment in totality and taking into account the emerging
concerns one may wonder, which way to choose? Would a reversion to the practices prevalent
two hundred years back is the right choice? Or some other alternatives should be explored. The
likely reaction of most people to the first question would be loud No. But why? The very thought
of uncertainties and insecurities of life in available then.
The environmental awareness in the recent years has drawn a definite attention of the society.
And there is increasing realization that most of these problems have resulted due to wasteful ways
of the life that the society has chosen and adopted over the years. It is also becoming clearer that
in the continuance of the present trends, not only would the existence of ecosystem be imperilled
but the very survival of human race is also threatened. As a result, the appraisal of the existing
ways of resource use and their environmental consequence in light of the social realities such as
poverty, economic change and developments began. `Sustainable development’ emerged as its
answer. It is a unifying approach having a blend of environmental, developmental and
economic imperatives. To understand the meaning of the term `sustainable’ let us consider an
example of a forest. The forest as a resource can be made productive and environmentally
sustainable if it is utilized in a way which works within the limits of the system’s capacity to
reproduce itself. The sustainable development approach in the national context has two goals:
restoration of past ecological damage and insulation of the country from the damage as a
consequence of future development, To achieve these goals both long- as well as short-term
policies are to be framed and implemented. The journey to sustainable future looks long and
difficult. But remember most difficult journeys start with the first step. The difficult journeys can
be more easily undertaken if broken into smaller, less tedious stages. The task is not impossible
afterall.
As you begin to untake your journey in this venture always remember that the whole
ecosystem is a unit with innumerable interlinks. Touch one link. it affects all in some way.
Relating this to the environmental problems, do not view an environmental problem say ozone
depletion or increase in greenhouse gases in isolation. There are some causes common for
both. Any remedial measures should be holistic. We should aim not to merely address to the
symptoms of the problem, but attempt to set the whole system right. The measures selected
should not protect environment from people, but for the people. The journey is tough and
long. But clear vision and determination should see us win.
33.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have studied that:
Life on this planet is confined to the biosphere which extends from the oceanic depths upto a
certain height in the atmosphere.
Environment represents a sum total of all the living and non-living factors surrounding an
organism.
Ecosystem is an ecological unit of nature. It consists of inter linked species and the physical
factors surrounding them.
Over the recent years, our atmosphere has been undergoing rapid changes which are degenerative
for not only the living beings beings but the entire life support system. The build up of dust
veils, acceleration of greenhouse effect, and ozone destruction are the major contributors in
bringing about the change.
Deforestation is a rampant ecological problem, with a series of global consequences. Habitat

destruction ,soil becoming vulnerable to the physical forces such as wind and rain thereby
causing soil degradation, disturbance of the water balance and the climate, and several kinds
of ecological disasters are linked to deforestation.
The oceans and seas that are the common property resources, have been mindlessly exploited for
hundreds of years. These have been used for dumping all kinds of wastes; as a source for
cheap and bulk transport of goods; meeting food requirements of human society and for
recreational purposes . All these have taken a toll of the marine ecosystem.
A variety f energy resources are employed all over the world to meet the high energy demands of
the modern world. Seeing the modern trends, the future agenda in the energy sector calls for
strategies ensuring continual availability of plenty, cheap and environmental friendly sources
of energy .
Population pressure does have a contribution in the degradation of the environment. There exist
important differences between the developing and the developed world in the links between
population change and environmental damage.
Acidification and eutrophication are environmental problems that have arisen due to non-
judicious use of resources, changes life styles, abnormal population growth and distribution.
Interestingly, both of these problems can be arrested, and their earlier effects reversed by
adopting certain short-term as well as long-term measures.
Desertification although is a natural process, but is accelerated by adverse climatic conditions and
human activities. Many solutions to this problem exist, but their implementation is dependent
on many socio-economic factors.
Most forms of the air-, water- and soil-pollution at local level have long-term implications at the
global level.
Environmental degradation, increasing pollution levels, release of hazardous wastes and other
such problems have resulted in the development of a new field of environmental engineering.
It has a number of applications with actual and potential use in environmental improvement.
Many recent developments in genetic engineering, besides their positive implications to
humans as well as the environment, are being assessed all over the world for the risks and
hazards to the human society.
A large number of applications of biotechnology and genetic engineering, increasing

transportation, loss of biodiversity, wide-scale use of goods made out of non-degradable
materials, Lead poisoning and noise pollution are some of emerging environmental issues.
Conservation efforts at the levels of organizations and individuals, both at national as well as
international arenas need to be strengthened further for tangible results.
The concept of sustainable development is intended to provide a framework within which people
can begin to develop more sensible ways of organizing global, national and local economic
decisions making.
33.9 KEY WORDS

Acid Rain : a condition in which natural precipitation becomes acidic
after reacting chemically with pollutants in the air.
Atmosphere : layer of air surrounding the Earth’s surface.
Aquaculture : growing and harvesting of fish and shellfish for human use
in freshwater ponds, irrigation ditches, and lakes or fenced-
in portions of coastal lagoons and estuaries.
Aquatic : pertaining to water.
Aquifer : water-bearing layer of the Earth’s crust; water in an aquifer

is known as groundwater.
Arid : dry, parched with heat.
Biodegradable : material that can be broken down into simple substances,

that is, elements and compounds, by bacteria or other
decomposers.
Biodiversity : different species in an ecosystem.
Biomass : total dry weight of all living organisms in a given area.
Biome : a group of ecosystems characterized by similar vegetation

and climate, and that are collectively recognizable as a
single large community unit, e.g., tropical rainforest,
grassland, forest and others.
Biosphere : that part of the Earth and its atmosphere that can support
life
Bloom : a rapid and often unpredictable growth of a single species

in an ecosystem.
Biotechnology : the use of living organisms, often but not always microbes,
in industrial processes; the scientific manipulation of living
organisms, at the molecular genetic level, to produce useful
products.
Clone : a population of identical cells, generally those containing

identical, manipulated genetic material or the recombinant
DNA molecules.
Coral reef : shallow area near the coast of a warm tropical or

subtropical ocean consisting of Calcium containing material
secreted by photosynthesizing red and green algae and
small coral animals.
Crust (of the Earth) : solid, outer layer of the Earth.
Cultural : overnourishment of aquatic ecosystems with plant nutrients

Eutrophication resulting from human activities such as agriculture,
urbanization and industrial discharge.
Dust (Veil) : an airborne substance that consists of solid particles

typically having diameters greater than 1 ^ (micron). One
micron is equal to 10-6 of a meter; large amount of dust
particles form a veil in the atmosphere.
Ecology : the study of the inter-relationship among plants and

animals, and the interaction between the living organisms
and their physical environment.
Ecosystem : a functional unit of the environment comprising the

interactions of all organisms and physical components
within a given area.
Environment : all of the external conditions that affect on organisms or

other specified system during its lifetime; everything outside
of a specified system.
Environmental : depletion or destruction of natural resource by using it at a

degradation faster rate than it is naturally replenished, along with the
subsequent production of wastes, that accumulate in the
atmosphere.
Eutrophication : enrichment of water by nutrients required for plant growth,

often over-enrichment caused by sewage and runoff from
fertilized agricultural lands, resulting in excessive bacterial
growth and oxygen depletion.
Fossil fuels : buried deposits of decayed plants and animals that have
been converted to crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils
by exposure to heat and pressure of Earth’s crust over
hundreds of millions of years.
Greenhouse effect : the warming principle of greenhouses in which high energy

solar rays enter easily, while less energetic heat weaves are
not radiated outward; now especially applied to the
analogous effect of increasing atmospheric concentrations of
carbon dioxide through the burning of fossil fuels and
forests.
Gene pool : total genetic information possessed by a given reproducing

population.
Hydrosphere : region that includes all the Earth’s moisture as liquid water
(oceans, smaller bodies of fresh water, and underground
aquifers), frozen water (polar ice caps, floating ice, and
frozen upper layer of soil known as permafrost), and small
amounts of water vapour in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Leaching : process in which various soil components found in upper

layers are dissolved and carried to lower layer and in some
cases to groundwater.
Lithosphere : region of soil and rock consisting of the Earth’s upper

surface or crust and the upper portion of the mantle of
partially molten rock beneath this crust.
National Parks : lands regulated for the preservation of some natural feature
as well as for the educational and recreational needs of the
general public.
Ozone layer : layer of gaseous ozone (O3) in the upper atmosphere that
protects life on Earth by filtering out harmful ultraviolet
radiations from the Sun.
Overgrazing : excessive grazing of grasslands by livestock, and to the
point at which it cannot be renewed or is renewed slowly
because of damage to the root system.
Pollution : a change in the physical, chemical or biological

characteristics of the air, water or soil that can affect the
health, survival or activities of human beings and other
living organisms in a harmful way.
Runoff : surface water entering rivers, fresh water lakes, or

reservoirs from land surfaces.
Sustainable : society based on working with nature by recycling and

(Earth society) reusing discarded matter, conserving matter and energy
resources by reducing unnecessary waste and use, and
building items that are easy to recycle, reuse and repair.
33.10 SOME USEFUL REFERENCES

1. Agarwal, a. And Narain, Sunita 1989. Towards Green Villages. Centre of Science and
Environment, New Delhi.
2. Agarwal, A. and Narain, Sunita 1991. `Global Warming in an Unequal World’. Centre of
Science and Environment, New Delhi.
3. D’ Monte, D. 1985. `Temples or Tombs’. Centre of Science and Environment. New Delhi.
4. Khoshoo, T. N. 1988. Ènvironmental Concerns and Strategies’. Ashish Publishing House,

New Delhi.
5. Pachauri, R.K. 1992. `Population and Energy’ In science, Population and Development (ed)
Gowariker V., Unmesh Communications: New Delhi.
6. Parikh J.; Parikh K.; Gokarn S.; Painuly J.P.; Saha B. and Shukla V. 1991 `Consumption
Patterns : The driving force of environmental stress’. Indira Gandhi Institute of Development
Research, Bombay.
7. Saxena, G. 1990. `The Forest Crises’. Natraj Publishers. Dehra Dun.
8. Singh, S. 1986, `Conserning Indian National Heritage’ Natraj Publishers, Dehradun.
9. Swaminathan, M.S. 1991. `From Stockholm Rio De Janerio : The road to sustainable
agriculture.’ Monograph No. 4. Swaminathan, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation,
Madras.
10. Vohra, B. 1985. Land and Water, INTACH, New Delhi
11. Our Common Future 1987. World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford
University Press. Delhi.
PROGRESS EXERCISES
a) atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere
b) ?1 Environment
?2 Light/temperature/water
?3 Carbon/Hydrogen/Nitrogen and others
?4 Any living being/plant/animal/microorganism

2. a) Environment includes all the living and non-living factors that surround and
affect an organism. Habitat refers to the physical site where an organism or a
population occurs naturally.
b) 3.

a) Dust from various activities/sources such as fossil-fuel combustion, deforestation,
overgrazing, vehicular exhaust emissions, and various military activities.
b) Carbondioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chloro-fluoro-carbons.
c) Chloro-fluoro-carbons, bromine.

a) Hint : Mention both the local and the global consequences, Reference subsection
33.3.2.
b) Reference : Subsection 33.3.3.
a) Hint : One example is being given below. You may add more examples to this
list, and like-wise complete the remaining table.
Biomass fuel Crop residue emission of ++ relatively
carbon dioxide clean
and other gases
b) Hint : Touch upon the population pressures in the developed and the developing
world. Reference - Subsection 33.3.5.

a) i) Sulphurous and nitrous gases
ii) Less than 5.6 (also see Fig. 5)
iii) Industries/Power stations/ and all those involving large scale fossil fuel
combustion.
iv) The production centres and the adjoining areas, their extent depend on
prevailing wind directions.
v) Mention its effect on the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Reference

ubsection 33.4.1.
vi) Yes
vii) Hint: Mention the short-term and long-term measures. Reference Subsection
33.4.1
viii) Hint : Signing of Protocol. Reference Subsection 33.4.1
b) i) Aquatic ecosystems
ii) Excessive amounts of the phosphates and nitrates.
iii) Hints : Runoffs from urban centres and agricultural lands, industrial effluents,
sewage, recreational areas. You may add more of this list.
iv) Hint : Check on the activities contributing to nutrient enrichment of water

bodies.
c) Write your viewpoint. Reference Subsection 33.4.3.
d) Elaborate any one example. Reference Section 33.4. particularly subsection 33.4.4.

a) List actual and potential applications under separate heads. Reference Subsection
33.5.1.
b) Write you observations.

c) You can also consult your family members as well as neighbours and friends to
ascertain the kind of change in biodiversity in the past five years.
d) Write from your experience.
e) Represent with different number of + signs, e.g., ++++ may be used to denote
`highly prone’, +++ for `fairly prone’, and so on.
f) Note down any five examples on a particular day, and suggest measures for their
reduction/elimination.
UNIT 34 SCIENCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD
AND PROMOTION OF
SCIENTIFIC TEMPER
Structure
34.0 Objectives
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Broad Perception of Science
34.3 Aspects and Applications of Science
34.3.1 Dynamic Nature of Science
34.3.2 Research as an Aspect in Science
34.3.3 Science as an Agent of Change in Society
34.4 Science and Scientific Method
34.4.1 Objectivity
34.3.2 Experimentation
34.5 Scientific Temper and Jawaharlal Nehru
34.5.1 Essential Requirements of Scientific Temper
34.6 Let Us Sum up
34.7 Key Words
34.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit on “Science, Scientific Method and The Promotion of Scientific Temper” is the last
in this block. In the earlier units in this block, i.e., Units 31, 32 and 33 you had studied
problems relating to the international environment to which our country has to react, and by
which it is significantly affected. In this unit, you will study as to what makes for a scientific
attitude (or `temper’) on the basis of which we can objectively and scientifically examine the
major problems of the world and how they affect our country.
• The objectives of this unit are:
• to acquaint you with the concepts of science, scientific method and temper
• to explain the possible attributes of scientific temper, and
• to briefly illustrate the benefits of science, scientific temper and scientific method to society.
34.1 INTRODUCTION
Article 51 A of our constitution which deals with fundamental duties makes it a duty of every
citizen to develop a scientific temper. This is a good enough reason for young citizens to first
of all, find out what exactly is scientific temper, and then to try and cultivate it. But, even
though it is important to carry out the duties laid down in the constitution, there are reasons
other than formal and legal for understanding and practising scientific temper. If you have a
scientific temper, you can understand and solve your problems with much less difficulty or
stress, and you would be reasonable in your decisions and creative in your activities.
However, scientific temper is no magical formula for success in life; nor can it be acquired
suddenly by going through a lesson; it may, infact, take a life time of careful attention and
examination of your own motivations and actions to acquire it.
Since a number of those reading this course would not be very familiar with science, we will first
discuss - of course, very briefly - what is science? Even though we may not arrive at a clear cut
definition of science, we should have some idea of the meaning and scope of this term. This will
lead us to the second step of explaining what is called “scientific method” - and then, what may
be called scientific temper. You will again find, perhaps to your surprise, that neither science nor
scientific method are cut and dried simple terms possessing attributes which we can enumerate
(and reproduce in an examination). In fact, there can be differences of opinion, and even
disagreements about the meanings of these terms and some people may go so far as to say that
neither scientific method nor scientific temper exist! Our idea is that the present study should
enable you to judge for yourself and if you feel interested, you can read other books on this
subject. If you are convinced that it makes sense, then you can perhaps start to practise it in your
day to day life.
34.2 BROAD PERCEPTION OF SCIENCE

Can we define science? A layman or even an illiterate person has some vague idea about science.
Perhaps, in his mind such marvels as transmission of music and pictures to great distances, huge
aeroplanes transporting hundreds of people from one place to another, brilliant man-made
satellites crossing the sky at night are in some way related to science. Some may rightly think of
life saving drugs being related to science, and others may think of life saving drugs being related
to science, and others may think of all the materials which we use everyday, from the bath mug to
the ball-point pen, which have something to do with science. In fact, how intensely our life
depends on modern discoveries is brought out very well in a small paragraph in a book by Nail
Postmen and Charles Weingartner entitled Teaching as a Subversive Activity. This is the
quotation:
“.... a lot of things have happened in this century and most of them plug into the wall. ...Imagine
that your home, and all other homes and buildings in your neighbourhood have been cordoned
off, and from them will be removed all the electric and electronic inventions that have appeared
in the last 50 years... But there won’t be any (movies). Nor will there be L.P. records, tapes, radio,
telephone, or telegraph. If you are thinking that the absence of the media would only affect your
entertainment and information, remember that, at some point, your electric lights would be
removed, your refrigerator and your heating system, and your airconditions. In short, you would
have to be a totally different person from what you are, in order to survive for more than a day.”
But, this feel for science or the dependence of our life on science, does not constitute a definition
of science. Science and related technology have so seeped through every aspect of our life that we
sometimes take them for granted and do not know how things we use are produced. How many of
you wonder how black lead is put inside the pencils we use, or how the tiny round balls used in
ball point pens are produced so perfectly. But all such processes as well as products involve
science.
If in search of a definition, we examine history and see when “science” was born, we will again
not be successful because no sooner had the human species evolved about a hundred thousand
years ago, then men and women started looking at their environment and doing things, consisting
of differentiating between edible and non-edible fruits, leaves, barks and roots. Man was driven
by necessity as well as curiosity to explore, discover, experiment and explain things that
happened to be around him. Thus, scientific activity was an integral part of human existence. No
doubt, some specialization must have started quite early so that some became craftsmen of
different kinds, some were attracted by priesthood, while others became healers and later medical
men, astrologers and later astronomers, or alchemists and their modern versions. But, today, we
are again witnessing, through the pervasion of science in every aspect of life, that every one of us
is engaged in some activity related to science. Naturally, such a wide ranging human activity can
hardly be confined or described in a few lines or defined.
In fact, one of the most outstanding scientists and historians of science, Prof. J.D. Bernal says in
his book Science in History: “My experience and knowledge have convinced me that my
attempted definition, and there have been many, can only express more or less inadequately one
of the aspects, often a minor one, that it has had at some period of its growth.... to a human
activity which is itself only an inseparable aspects of the unique and unrepeatable process of
social evolution, the idea of definition does not strictly apply.”
34.3 ASPECTS AND APPLICATIONS OF

SCIENCE
In order to have a better grasp of what we might mean when we use the word science, we can
look at various aspect of science.
The first and the most obvious aspect is that science refers to a tremendous fund of systematised
knowledge that the human race has built up over the entire period of its existence, but perhaps,
more so in the ten thousand years of civilization. In fact, the most dramatic advances have been
made in the last few hundred years. This knowledge covers everything from particles smaller than
the atom to the great system of planets, stars and galaxies in the sky. It covers all plants and
animals, everything about health and disease, about food and medicine. It encompasses extensive
knowledge of the human body and the mind. Since the test of the pudding is said to be in the
eating, the dependability of scientific knowledge and the wonderful generalizations and “laws”
made therefrom, is tested by the various applications of science - flying aeroplanes, growing
food, producing thousands of articles used by us in daily life and harnessing energy in a great
variety of forms. A remarkable feature of this wealth of knowledge is that it is incomplete. The
more we know, the more questions arise about things which are on the boundary line between the
known and the unknown. New facts are, thus, continuously discovered and new theories are often
needed to explain these new facts together with the old ones. Knowledge is, therefore, growing
fat, in proportion to the existing body of knowledge. It is said that the growth of scientific
knowledge is “exponential”. Some estimates express the idea differently ; they say that at present
knowledge is doubling itself in about ten years.
34.3.1 Dynamic Nature of Science

It is obvious that scientific knowledge is not at a standstill; on the contrary, it is dynamic. And the
best scientific workers are those who are doing the most of alter, modify or totally re-explain
scientific knowledge. This is infact, what creativity is all about and is much valued. Such is not
often the case with other kinds of knowledge - where being stationary or immutable may be
considered a virtue; with regard to religious knowledge, for example; those who are constantly
trying to alter or modify it may get into trouble.
34.3.2 Research as an Aspect in Science

The second aspect is related to the first, because the unending search for new knowledge, which
cannot be carried on without taking into account what knowledge already exists, required a vast
network of institutions devoted to scientific education and research. For an individual, getting
into the scientific stream means many years of education, and those human qualities which may
be called dedication and commitment to learning. Those who superficially know a few facts, or
perhaps cram them in order to pass examinations can really not learn science; they cannot get into
its spirit, and of course, they can hardly apply it for the batterment of society.
Education and research require communication. Therefore, publication of scientific books and
journals (carrying research information) is a big industry. Millions of books and tens of thousands
of journals are published in all languages every year. And now, for the education of the public,
video and audio cassettes are made and shown and broadcast in practically every country.
Millions of scientists are involved in this activity, this trade or this profession. Furthermore,
scientific equipment is needed for the classroom as also for the research establishments. Some of
the sophisticated equipment is extremely expensive and it is increasingly the practice to set up
cooperative laboratories - for example, large telescopes, machines to accelerate charged particles,
or to develop high power lasers - with the participation of several countries on several research
agencies. In Geneva, for example, the European countries have a Common Centre for Nuclear
Research (CERN); in India the University Grants Commission has created a centre for research in
nuclear science by the universities of the country. This Nuclear Science Centre is in Delhi. This
vast network of communication of results of scientific research, and of cooperation in performing
expensive or special experiments gives an international character to scientific activity and
requires freedom of transferring scientific information and knowledge.
34.3.3 Science as an Agent of Change in Society

A third aspect of science is the use that society makes of it. Science and technology are at the
back of producing every single article that man uses today. Science is indeed at the root of all
productive activity. Look at agriculture, which is perhaps closest to nature, and your may think
that wheat, rice or vegetables perhaps grow “naturally”. In the present stage of our civilization,
they do not. One needs the proper seed which is carefully produced by experts. The land, if it is
large, requires machines to plough it. Fertilizers and pesticides are produced in big factories
before they are used in agriculture. Water is often provided from tube wells which require electric
power. The storage of grain again requires the help of science and technology so that termites and
rodents do not ruin what has been so laboriously produced.
Science and technology are being constantly and deliberately used to improve products or to
reduce the cost of producing articles which are traded. Cloth produced by technologies such as
the “charkha” is arguably, neither cheap nor as fine as that produced by modern fibres in modern
mills. Therefore, if any country wishes to sell its products in the national or international market,
it will have to so arrange matters that the best of science and technology are available for the
improvement of its products. Research and development are necessary for this purpose, and these
improvements in products not only provide advantages in trade, but in turn, lead to further
development and growth of science. It is said, by at least some experts in sociology and
economics, that it is the means of productions. For example, in old fashioned agriculture, people
had to live where the fields were - social and civic life which could be possible under those
conditions (which we call rural) is very different from city life which is based on production by
machines set up in a factory, requiring workers, engineers, administrators, etc., to live altogether
in cities. In this sense, when science changes the means of production, it forces social and
economic changes to occur. Of course, not all these changes may really be in our interest.
Unfortunately, different human societies have also fought each other. At first, it might have been
to capture fertile fields, pastures, forests or mineral deposits. For the last few centuries, wars have
been fought to capture entire countries so as to benefit from their natural wealth, and the arts and
crafts of their people, and for “marketing” the products of the victorious countries at highly
favourable terms. India became a “colony” of the British in this sense. But, wars require weapons
- which also have to be continuously improved upon - from the sword to the gun and the machine
gun, from the old catapults to cannons and missiles - and bombs carried by aeroplanes and
rockets.
The ultimate weapon is the nuclear bomb which is so destructive that just a 100 big ones can wipe
out all life from the earth. Here too, science and technology are crucial. A country backward in
science will only have to depend on the mercy of others, or it will have to obtain weapons from
others who will then dominate it. That is, lack of science and related efforts to develop
technology, agriculture and industry would mean loss of sovereignty - independence in name, but
not in reality. All the developing and poor countries are facing this dilemma and threat.
The power and scope of science will, perhaps, become clear to you from this brief discussion.

Note: I) Use the space given below for your answers.
1) What does Science mean to you? Explain in your words.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
2) Briefly comment on different aspects of science.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
34.4 SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD
One wonders how scientific knowledge has grown so rapidly, and how economic and social life
and even politics have been so much influenced by the realistic and reliable knowledge of
science. The answer lies in the method and processes by which scientific knowledge is acquired
and rigorously tested. This method will be explained below, and you will see that it is essentially
simple, although, in the beginning, over a period of many centuries, it had to compete and
contend with other methods of arriving at new knowledge.
34.4.1 Objectivity
The method of science depends firmly on most carefully observing things, phenomena or
happenings, and keeping a record of the conditions under which the observations are made. For
example, movements of planets and stars were observed for long periods, year after year, by
people situated in different parts of the world, and from this information, the movements of the
heavenly bodies were constructed so as to be able to calculate positions, velocities and either
regularities or irregularities of their passage. Another example; when someone is ill, all symptoms
are carefully noted and if any food, medicine or treatment makes the patient feel better or worse,
it is also recorded. The observations have to be entirely “objective”: that is, if there is a traditional
belief about what is being observed, it is not allowed to affect the observations. If the observer
has personal views for prejudices they are also put aside. This objectivity tends to ensure for
example that, for a given disease many observers in different parts of the world will have similar
findings. It increases the reliability of the knowledge thus gained.
34.4.2 Experimentation
Sometimes, it is possible to increase the scope of the observations by going to the field, moving
around to different places and exploring. One can look for plants as they exist in different
environments, or for minerals on the surface or below the ground. At other times, a situation can
be artificially created and the consequences carefully observed. For example, a plant may be kept
away from sunlight, in the dark, and its behaviour or condition may be watched. This kind of
process is called Èxperimentation’. Nowadays, of course, there are instruments which greatly
enhance human capacity to observe. Telescopes or microscopes may enable us to see things
which are otherwise invisible or cannot be seen clearly enough in details. Experiments can be of
great many kinds, including such extraordinary things as watching the behaviour of human beings
when they are put in a rocket and suddenly accelerated to fly at great speeds, or under unnatural
conditions - such as without the gravitational force of the earth.
5 What do you mean, will it work? How do we know, young man, till we test it!
Experimenting, exploring and observing leads to collection of a lot of information - some of

which may be descriptive, and some quantitative or a set of measurements. All such information
may be called “Data”, and it leads to the next step, which is very important. The step is
“Analysis” of the data. The data is examined, put in tabular form, or graphical form or fed to a
computer, but ultimately human reasoning is exercised to draw conclusions from it. Sometimes,
the data shows discrepancies and makes it necessary to make further observations; at other times,
it may contradict what was known earlier and may lead to rethinking about old theories. General
rules of behaviour are often deduced, leading to the formulation of conclusions which are called
`Hypotheses’. The important feature is that, what is really happening is, established without
overlooking any facts or observations, particularly the inconvenient facts or observations.
In scientific work, there is usually another round of observations or experiments to verify the
conclusions or the hypotheses - before giving out an authentic law of any behaviour of a living or
non-living thing. We use the tentative law to predict some new observation and see if it really
happens. If it does, the law is confirmed. Of course, a even a well established law, may be
challenged if new evidence or observation is reported. Hence, improvement and refinement is
going on all the time as knowledge grows.
You may not that scientific knowledge is deeply related to reality or to the actual way things are
and how they behave. This is the reason why knowledge can be applied to design new products
and processes, whether they be aeroplanes, or submarines, or lifesaving drugs, or new breeds of
plants and animals.
Before the establishment of the scientific method of acquiring knowledge, some believed that
knowledge is really “revealed”; that it comes as an inspiration from within. Others believed that if
we contemplated enough or perhaps retired from life, went into seclusion, and thought hard, we
would get knowledge. Imagination and speculation were considered to be another source of
knowledge. Of course, imagination and speculation, hard thinking as well as inspiration or
inspiration or intuition are all necessary, but, access to a lot of objective information,
systematically gathered and analysed have to be the foundation of any piece of reliable
knowledge. The test of reliability is application and practice.
The scientific method which we have just described has not only advanced science and its
application in our society, but it has also been used in social sciences and humanities. More
interestingly, we use it every day in all aspects of our life, without realising that we are using the
method of science. We observe traffic on a road, mentally analyse the data and predict that
crossing the road is possible at such and such speed and direction. We observe around ourselves
and plan a course of action in short or even long term future. Only when proper information or
data is missing, we “guess” what we ought to do and our action may be called inspirational, or an
act of faith. However, human behaviour is usually a curious mix of the rational and the irrational,
the sensible and the senseless. This is because most people are not clearly aware of the scientific
method so that they can reduce the scope of irrational behaviour. They are unable to check and
scrutinize their private conduct. We have, therefore, to look for human characteristics or attitudes
or the mental frame which corresponds to the scientific method.

1) Mention some of the changes in everyday life brought about by the development
of science.
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
2) Mention a few incidents in every life where you find unscientific thinking
predominates.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
34.5 SCIENTIFIC TEMPER AND

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
The mental attitude which is behind the method of acquiring reliable and practical knowledge
may be called the “Scientific Temper”. This phrase has been used in India perhaps because our
first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru was very fond of using it. He was keen that we should not
learn science superficially; i.e. just the facts of biology or chemistry and physics. He wanted
people to possess scientific temper so that they could be better scientists, better citizens and
capable of governing their personal thoughts and actions in a scientific manner.
It would, perhaps, interest you to read just a short extract from the Presidential address given by
Nehru to the Indian Science Congress session held in Delhi in 1947. The whole context is very
significant. To quote:
“It is a tragedy that when these enormous forces (of science) are available in the world for
beneficial purposes and for raising human standards to undreamt of heights, people should still
think of war and conflict and should still maintain social and economic structures which promote
monopoly and create differences in standards of wealth between various groups and people. I
invite all of you who are present here, young men and old in the field of science to think in these
larger terms of India’s future and become crusaders for a rapid bettering of the (condition) of the
400 millions in India. I do believe firmly that the only right approach to the world problems and
to our national problems is the approach of science, that is to say, of the spirit and method of
science”.
34.5.1 Essential Requirements of Scientific Temper

So what are some of the attitudes of mind that lead to the establishment of the scientific method
and hence, to the rapid growth of science and its applications?
The starting point may be an attitude of mental activism, as opposed to mental lethargy. This
activism leads to a certain restlessness and curiosity, the spirit or the urge to find and discover.
The world is full of mysteries, of unanswered questions, of problems that are awaiting solution
and the mind should be keyed not towards passivity and resignation, but towards venturing out
and striving to discover and do. In every day life, it would mean a deep interest in whatever
activity one is engaged in and making an effort to understand, by asking searching questions and
seeking their answer.
This is related to another attitude, and that is of not accepting answers without scrutiny. You will
find the tendency is very common to accept views and opinions simply,because tradionally we
have accepted these views, or some very important persons or say a book which is highly
esteemed has expressed the views. But, the scientific method requires solid information and
incontrovertible data, and then suitable analysis before accepting anything. We all know that we
knew much less a hundred years ago or a thousand years ago; hence, all views handed down to us
by tradition are not to be unquestioningly accepted. One would certainly find many of traditional
ideas to be sound because they were based on a lot of observation, but this does not make all
traditional ideas to be reasonable and sound. So, one has to be critical and selective in examining
and accepting readily available ideas, theories and explanations. It is common knowledge that a
lot of prejudice about other people speaking other languages, living in distant parts of the country
or the world, belonging to different religions or castes or races is passed on from generation to
generation, family to family through its uncritical acceptance.Many beliefs and superstitions fall
in this category. The scientific attitude requires objectively, not rushing into ready made opinions
but patient observation and exploration and then by only forming an opinion. Scientific attitude
is, thus, more flexible and open. If you are inquisitive and ask questions, then you should
examine the data or evidence, and you cannot afford to be dogmatic and single-minded in such a
case. You have to be open to change your opinion if the evidence takes you in that direction.
A great British scientist who voluntarily settled down in India and died here serving our people,
J.B.S. Haldane, wrote a book called Possible Worlds where he wrote as follows:
“We are taught that faith is virtue. This is obviously true in some cases, and to my mind false in
others... Nevertheless, at the present time I believe that mankind is suffering from too much,
rather than too little faith, and it is doubt rather than faith that must be preached. I am not thinking
wholly or even mainly of faith in any religion but simply of the habit of taking things for granted
... Modern science began with great acts of doubt. Copernicus doubted that the sun went round
the earth. Galileo that heavy bodies fell faster than light ones. Harvey that the blood flowed into
the tissues through the veins....”.
Questioning and doubt should not lead to suspense and inaction, but to greater activity in looking
for evidence, exploration and analysis in order to formulate dependable opinions and hypotheses.
Analysis is again a rational process- reasoning is applied to examine the data and draw
conclusions from it. First of all there should be enough data to arrive at a general conclusion. It
should not be like the old saying” an Englishman saw an Indian spitting in London and concluded
that all Indians are dirty.” in practice, we do a lot of this kind of false generalisation; for instance,
our opinions about the living styles and social practices of people of the minority groups are often
based on slender evidence. opinions about sikhs or Gorkhas or Muslims or Parses in our country
are often like that.
You should be prepared to accept the conclusions which are derived from sound application of
reason, even though they may go against your favourite ideas or ideas widely held by people. In
other words, one should not be inhibited, or should not shy away, from accepting ideas based on
reason. Openness of mind and absence of dogmatism are the hall marks of the scientific temper.
Lastly, knowing that the world is so varied and we continue to live in a period when a great deal
is not clearly known or understood, it would be part of a scientific attitude to have humility rather
than arrogance in holding and expressing views. We cannot be too cocksure about many things
and hence, there should be no obstinacy in holding on to a view; instead, one should be prepared
to change one’s view of a particular thing or matter. On the other hand, all the past centuries of
human achievement should give us confidence in the ability of science to remove ignorance and
to solve perhaps tomorrow, the problems which seem unsolvable today. Nothing, in that sense, is
beyond our power. Confidence in human endeavour is also the basis of all active work to
discover, explore and create. This is a far cry from fatalism according to which our lives are not
made by us but by forces beyond our control, and we are helpless pawns in a game played by the
creator. These are some of the attributes of a scientific temper - in addition to such obvious things
as hard and sustained work, and integrity in one’s dealings and actions.
It is appropriate to close this unit with another eloquent quotation from Nehru. This I from his
celebrated book Discovery of India.
“The applications of science are inevitable and unavoidable for all countries and peoples today.
But something more than its applications is necessary. It is the scientific approach, the
adventurous and yet critical temper of science, the search for truth and new knowledge, the
refusal to accept anything without testing and trial, the capacity to change previous conclusions in
the face of new evidence, the reliance on observed fact and not on pre-conceived theory, the hard
discipline of the mind- all this is necessary, not merely for the application of science but for life
itself and the solution of its many problems.”

1) What is `Scientific Temper’?
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
2) Comment in a few words on Negro’s views on the scientific temper.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
3) What qualities do your think are necessary for acquiring a scientific temper?
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................…
……………………………………………………..
34.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have deliberated upon what scientific temper is, and why it is so important for
every citizen of our country. As we have been reading, science has changed our life in almost
every possible way, but many of our attitudes are unscientific or pre-scientific. These unscientific
or even anti-scientific values and attitudes are often the basis of very serious negative social
developments and processes e.g. communal or reactionary ideas or attitudes. It is with this in
mind that leaders of our national movement, including our first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru,
stressed the importance of acquiring a scientific temper.
34.7 KEY WORDS

Data: a series of observations, measurements or facts; information that is recorded.
Galaxy: a group of stars held together by gravitational attraction.
Hypothesis: a suggested explanation for a group of facts or phenomena, either accepted as a basis
for further verification or accepted as likely to be true.
Pesticide: a chemical used for killing pests, esp. insects.

Satellite: a celestial body or man-made device orbiting around a planet or as a star.

Bernal J.D., 1968, The Social Function of Science, M.I.I. Press.
David, Ben, J., 1973, The Scientists Role in Society, Prentice Hall.
Haldane, J.B.S., 1958, The Unity and Diversity of Life, New Delhi, (Ministry of Information
and Broadcasting, Publication Division).
Malhotra, P.L. (ed), 1984 Nehru: An Anthology for Young Readers, New Delhi, NCERT, pp.
183-210.
Narasimhaiah, H., 1987, Science, Nonscience and the Paranormal, The Bangalore Science
Forum, Bangalore.
Ravety, J.R. 1973, Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems, London, Penguin.
UNESCO, 1971, An Essay on the Origin and Organisation of National Science Policies, Part
I.

PROGRESS EXERCISES
1) See Sections 3.2 and 34.3.
2) See Section 34.3

1) The development of science has led to a tremendous expansion of our knowledge. It has
also led to an enhanced degree or orderliness and predictability in our day to day affairs.
On a more tangible level, it has brought benefits such as an increased life span. The
changes are negative also; viz., pollution of the environment, etc.
2) The various rituals, belief in mysticism and occultism could be cited as some instances of
unscientific thinking predominating in our day to day life. Of course, many in our
country and elsewhere would not agree with this!
1) It is an orientation of mind that aims at taking an objective view of life.

2) Nehru was against the largely ritualistic and fatalistic mental framework of his
countrymen and women. He emphasised mental activitism and dynamism.
3) Curiosity, independent bent on mind, ability to rise above one’s personal belief system,
etc.

BSHF 101 PDF

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

BSHF 101 PDF

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE

STUDY OF HUMAN BEINGS

1.2.1 Social Science as a Reflective Critique

1.2.2 Human Being as a Creative Agent

1.2.3 Science as Empathic and Critical Reflection

1.3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PROCEDURE

1.3.1 Understanding Human Beings in their Social Setting

1.3.2 Science as Critique of Human Conditions

Check Your Progress I

1) Which of the Following statements are correct7 Tick ( ) or (x).

2) Write about 50 words on the creative ability of human beings.

1.4 RACIAL DIFFERENTIATION AND THE UNITY

i) Division on the basis of Race

ii) Race and Racism

iii) Misconceptions about Racism

1.5 SOCIAL ROOTS AND FORMS OF PREJUDICE

1.5.1 Prejudice in Science

Check Your Progress 2

3) Which of the following statements are correct? Tick ( ) or (x).

1.6 KNOWLEDGE AND SOCIETY

i) To make knowledge is to disturb previous knowledge, and

1.6.1 Information Society

b) A technocracy will emerge to rule.

1.7 UNIVERSALITIES AND SPECIFICITIES OF

Check Your Progress 3

1) Which of the following statements are correct? Tick ( ) or (x)

i) The each is delicately balanced on the horns of a mighty bull.

2) What is the role of theorisation in society? Write in about 50 words.

1.8 LET US SUM UP

1.9 KEY WORDS

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) (i) (ii) X (iii)

2) Sec. Sub-sec. 1.2.2

Check Your Progress 2

Check Your Progress 3

I) (i) x (ii) (iii) X (iv) X

2.2.1 The Old Stone Age

2.3.1 Social institutions and interactions

2.4.1 Patterns of Adaptation

2.5.1 Unique Capabilities of Thinking Human Beings

2.6.1 Growth of Two Cultures

2.2 TOOL MAKING/USING: AN

2.2.1 The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic)

In cultural evolution, this period is described as a stage of savagery as depicted by

2.2.2 The New Stone Age (Neolithic)

(B) Unfinished Hand Axe (Kenya, 8000,000) years

2.2.3 The Bronze Age

No. 4: Chariot from Indus Valley (3500 BC 2500 B.C.)

No. 5: Iron Tools from Taxila ( 1-5 Century A.D.)

Check Your Progress 1

1) During Old Stone Age people procured food

i) no surplus food was available after self- consumption

3) The Bronze tools were made by

I) Old Stone Age.

5) During Iron Age, iron was used for

2.3.1 Social institutions and Interactions

2.3.2 Specialisation and Division of Labour

2.3.4 Rise of Great Religions

Check Your Progress 2

2) Which of the following statements are right? Tick (9) or (x)

3) Write five lines on what you know about Urban Revolution.

2.4 NATURE AND HUMAN BEINGS:

2.4.2 Tribes and their Patterns of Adaptation