EP1027 (Maxwell Equations and Electromagnetic waves)

Final Exam
IITH/Spring 2019/Shubho Roy

(Duration: 3 hours, Total Marks: 100)

May 1, 2019

1. Maxwell Equations: State the Maxwell Equations for electric and magnetic fields in vacuum
(with sources) and in media (with free charges), the boundary conditions at the interface of two
media as well as any other condition(s) or relations between the fields needed to make the system
soluble. (4 + 4 + 4 + 2 = 14)

Solution:
Maxwell Equations in vacuum,
ρ
∇·E= , ∇ · B = 0,
0
∂B 1 ∂E
∇×E=− , ∇ × B = µ0 j + 2 ,
∂t c ∂t
where ρ, j are the source charge density and current density respectively.
Maxwell Equations in media.
∇ · D = ρf , ∇ · B = 0,
∂B ∂D
∇×E=− , ∇ × H = jf + ,
∂t ∂t
where ρf , jf are free charge density and free current density respectively. The boundary conditions
to be satisfied at the interface of two media (denoted by the subscripts 1 and 2) are

D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σf , B1⊥ = B2⊥ ,

k k k k
E1 = E2 , H1 − H2 = Kf × n̂,
where n̂ is the unit normal at the interface (pointing towards media 1) and σf , Kf are surface
density of free charge and free current respectively at the interface. In addition, we need to specify
constitutive relations, D = D(E) and H = H(B) to bring down the number of independent variables
equal to the number of equations (both equal to six). In particular, for linear isotropic media
the constitutive relations are,

D(E) =  E,
1
H(B) = B.
µ

1
2. Write down the expression for electric and magnetic fields in terms of the scalar and vector potential.
What is the gauge symmetry property of electromagnetism (state with equations). Write down the
Maxwell equations in terms of potentials along with the appropriate boundary conditions.
(2 + 3 + 2 + 3 = 10)
Solution: In terms of potentials,
∂A
E = −∇Φ − ,
∂t
B = ∇ × A.

The gauge symmetry property of electromagnetism is the fact that given electric and magnetic
fields, the corresponding potentials are non-unique. The many different potentials representing the
same E, B fields are related via the gauge transformation,
A → A0 = A + ∇λ,
∂λ
Φ → Φ0 = Φ − ,
∂t
where λ = λ(t, x) is an arbitrary function of space and time.

Maxwell equations in terms of potentials,

∂ ρ
∇2 Φ + (∇ · A) = − ,
∂t ε0
 
1 ∂Φ
A + ∇ ∇ · A + 2 = µ0 j.
c ∂t
Since the Maxwell equations in terms of potentials is second order in derivatives, we need boundary
conditions for the potentials as well as first derivatives,
Φ, A are continuous
 
∂Φ  ∂Φ  σ
− = .
∂n 1 ∂n 2 ε0
(∇ × A)1 − (∇ × A)2 = µ0 K × n̂.
Here n̂ is the unit normal at the boundary directed from medium (region) 2 to medium (region) 1.

3. A. Check whether or not E = 4yx̂ − 2xŷ + ẑ is an allowed electrostatic field.

B. The electric field in a region is given by, E = 2a xx̂ + b yŷ, where a, b are constants. Find the
charge density which created this field. (3 + 3 = 6)

Solution:
A. Electrostatic field must have a vanishing curl (conservative). So let’s compute the curl.
 
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ × (4yx̂ − 2xŷ + ẑ) =  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 4y −2x 1 
     
∂(1) ∂(−2x) ∂(4y) ∂(1) ∂(−2x) ∂(4y)
= − x̂ + − ŷ + − ẑ
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
= −6ẑ 6= 0.

2
 Thus, the field, E = 4yx̂ − 2xŷ + ẑ cannot be an electric field.

B. We use Gauss law,

ρ(x) = 0 ∇ · E
= 0 ∇ · (2a xx̂ + b yŷ)
 
∂(2a x) ∂(b y)
= 0 +
∂x ∂y
= 0 (2a + b) .

Thus this field was created by an uniform charge density all over space.

4. Using Gauss/Stokes theorem, prove the following

˚ "
d3 x ∇ × A = dS A × n̂
V
S

where V is some volume and S is the closed surface bounding V . (4)

Solution:
We apply Gauss divergence theorem to the field, B = c × Awhere c is a vector with constant
components. ˚ "
3
d x∇·B= dS n̂ · B (1)
V
S

Next we simplify,

∇ · B = ∇ · (c × A)
:0
× · A − c · (∇ × A)

=(∇ c)


= −c · (∇ × A) .

(curl of a constant vector vanishes).

Similarly,
n̂ · B = n̂ · (c × A) = c · (A × n̂) .
Using these results in the Gauss theorem (1) we get,
˚ "
− d3 x c · (∇ × A) = dS c · (A × n̂)
V
S

Since c is a constant vector we can take it out of the integrals on both sides,
˚ "
 

c· d3 x (∇ × A) − dS (n̂ × A) = 0.

V
S

3
 Since this is true for arbitrary different constant vectors c’s, it is obvious (e.g. by choosing c = x̂,
then c = ŷand finally, c = ẑ) this equation can only be satisfied if the following vector is null,
˚ "
3
d x (∇ × A) − dS (n̂ × A) = 0,
V
S

from which the result follows.

5. Prove that
1
δ 3 (x) = δ(r),
4πr2
where r = |x|, is the radial coordinate in spherical polar coordinate system. (4)

Solution: We first note that by definition,

ˆ a
δ(r) dr = 1 (2)
0

for the integration region being 0 to some finite value of r = a.

Next we integrate δ 3 (x) over a ball of arbitrary finite radius a centered around the origin ,
ˆ
δ 3 (x) dxdydz = 1.
|x|≤a

Now we switch to spherical polar coordinates. The spherically symmetric volume element of this
ball is, dxdydz = 4πr2 dr. Thus we have,
ˆ ˆ a
3
4πr2 δ 3 (x) dr = 1.


δ (x) dxdydz = (3)
|x|≤a 0

Thus, comparing the equations (2) and (3), since the measure and range of the two LHS match as
we as well the RHS match, then the integrands must be equal,

4πr2 δ 3 (x) = δ(r)

or,
δ(r)
δ 2 (x) = .
4πr2

6. Verify that for a uniform magnetic field, B, the magnetic vector potential everywhere can be given
by,
1
A(x) = B × x.
2
(5)

Solution:
To prove that,
1
A(x) = B × x
2

4
 can be a vector potential for a constant/uniform magnetic field, we take curl of the rhs and consider
the k-th component of that curl,
  k  j
1 ijk i 1
∇× B×x =  ∇ B×x
2 2
 j
ijk ∂ 1
=  B×x
∂xi 2
 
ijk ∂ 1 lmj l m
=   Bx
∂xi 2
1 lmj ijk l ∂xm
=   B
2 ∂xi
1 lmj kij l mi
=   Bδ
2
1 lij kij l
=   B
2 !
1 lk ii li ik
= δ −δ δ
δ |{z} Bl
2
=3
1  lk 
= 3δ − δ lk B l
2
= Bk.

7. Show that for magnetostatics, the components of the vector potential obeys the Poisson equation
provided we also impose ∇ · A = 0. Then from formal analogy with scalar potential from elec-
trostatics, show that for a generic localized current distribution, j(x0 ), the magnetostatic vector
potential is given by, ˆ
µ0 j(x0 )
A(x) = d3 x0 .
4π |x − x0 |
Explicitly check that this potential reproduces reproduces the Biot-Savart law upon taking curl.
Then show ∇ · A = 0 is satisfied by the above expression. (2 + 1 + 3 + 4 = 10)

Solution:
Ampere’s law in magnetostatics is,
∇ × B = µ0 j
In terms of potential, B = ∇ × A, and Ampere’s law is,
∇ × (∇ × A) = µ0 j.
Using the identity,
∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A,
in the LHS of Ampere’s law one has,
∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A = µ0 j
Now choosing the additional condition, ∇ · A = 0, this becomes,
∇2 A = −µ0 j.

5
This is a set of 3 Poisson’s equations, one for each component, x, y, z. (2 points for showing this).

In electrostatics the scalar potential also obeys the Poisson equation,

ρ
∇2 Φ = − ,
ε0
for which the formal solution is known to be,
ˆ
1 ρ(x0 )
Φ= d3 x0 .
4πε0 |x − x0 |

So by analogy, the solution to the Poisson equation satisfied by the magnetic vector potential is,
ˆ
µ0 j(x0 )
A(x) = d3 x0 .
4π |x − x0 |

(1 point for writing the above solution).

Reproducing Biot-Savart law:
ˆ
j(x0 )
 
µ0
∇×A= d3 x0 ∇×
4π |x − x0 |
ˆ  
µ0 1
= d3 x0 ∇ × j(x )0
4π |x − x0 |
ˆ
x − x0
 
µ0
= d3 x0 − × j(x ) 0
4π |x − x0 |3
ˆ
x − x0
 
µ0
= d3 x0 j(x0 ) × .
4π |x − x0 |3

This is the Biot-Savart expression for the magnetic field of a steady current distribution. (3 points
for this)
Check of ∇ · A = 0: We take divergence, ∇·, of both sides of the above equation and notice that
on the right hand the divergence does not act on j(x0 ) because it is not a function of x. Thus,
ˆ
µ0 1
∇·A= d3 x0 j(x0 ) · ∇
4π |x − x0 |

Next we realize that we can replace

1 1
∇ = −∇0
|x − x0 | |x − x0 |

giving us, ˆ
µ0 1
∇·A=− d3 x0 j(x0 ) · ∇0 .
4π |x − x0 |
Now we use product rule to replace

j(x0 ) ∇0 · j(x0 )
 
0 0 1
j(x ) · ∇ = ∇0 · −
|x − x0 | |x − x0 | |x − x0 |

6
 and get,
ˆ
µ0 1
∇·A=− d3 x0 j(x0 ) · ∇0
4π |x − x0 |
ˆ ˆ 0
j(x0 ) 0
 
µ0 3 0 0 µ0 3 0 ∇ · j(x )
=− d x ∇ · + d x .
4π |x − x0 | 4π |x − x0 |

The first term is a volume integral of a divergence and can be converted into a surface integral at
infinity using Gauss theorem,
ˆ  ˆ
j(x0 ) j(x0 )
  
3 0 0 0
d x ∇ · = dS n̂ · .
|x − x0 | S∞ |x − x0 |

But for localized current at infinity j = 0. Hence this term vanishes. Thus we now have,
ˆ
µ0 ∇0 · j(x0 )
∇·A= d3 x0 .
4π |x − x0 |

Using continuity equation,

∂ρ0
∇0 · j(x0 ) = − =0
∂t0
∂ρ0
since in magnetostatics, ∂t0 = 0! (4 points for this part)

8. Poynting vector and energy density for media: Starting from the expression for work done
(per unit volume) on free charges by the electric and magnetic fields in a dielectric medium, show
that and the Poynting vector (energy current density) in a general dielectric is,

S = E × H.

Also show that the energy density stored in EM fields in linear dielectric medium is
1
uEM = (E · D + B · H)
2
(5 + 2 = 7)
Solution:
The force on a free charge element, dqf ree = ρf ree (x) d3 x moving with velocity v due to electric and
magnetic fields is,
F = dqf ree E(x) + dqf ree v × B(x)
and the work done is,

dW = F · dx = F · vdt = dqf ree E(x) vdt

= d3 x ρf ree (x) v · E(x) dt
= d3 x jf ree (x) · E(x) dt

7
Using Ampere-Maxwell equation, jf ree = ∇ × H − ∂D
∂t , we get,
 
3 ∂D
dW = d x ∇ × H − · E dt
∂t
∂D
= d3 x (∇ × H) · E − · E dt
∂t
Next we use the identity,

∇ · (E × H) = (∇ × E) · H − E · (∇ × H)

to get,  
3 ∂D
dW = d x (∇ × E) · H − ∇ · (E × H) − · E dt
∂t
Using Faraday’s law, ∇ × E = − ∂B
∂t we get,
  
3 ∂B ∂D
dW = d x −∇ · (E × H) − ·H+ ·E dt
∂t ∂t
By work energy theorem, the work done on free charges, dW is equal to their increase in kinetic
energy, dUkin ,
dW = dUkin
so we have,   
3 ∂B ∂D
dUkin = d x −∇ · (E × H) − ·H+ ·E dt.
∂t ∂t
Now, dUkin = d3 x0 dukin , where dukin is the kinetic energy increase per unit volume, and we thus
have   
∂B ∂D
dukin = −∇ · (E × H) − ·H+ ·E dt
∂t ∂t
or,  
∂ukin ∂B ∂D
= −∇ · (E × H) − ·H+ ·E (4)
∂t ∂t ∂t
We identify the term
∂B ∂D ∂uEM
·H+ ·E=
∂t ∂t ∂t
as the rate of increase of energy per unit volume in the EM fields, and so we have,
∂ukin ∂uEM
= −∇ · (E × H) − ,
∂t ∂t
which can be arranged in the form,
∂u
+∇·S=0
∂t
where, u = ukin + uEM is the total energy density in charged particles as well as EM fields, and,

S=E×H

is the Poynting’s vector.

For linear media (doesn’t have to be isotropic),

B = µH, D = εE,

8
 and hence,
 
∂uEM ∂B ∂D ∂H ∂E ∂ 1
= ·H+ ·E=µ ·H+ ·E= B·H
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t 2
 
1 ∂H ∂E
= µ ·H+ ·E
2 ∂t ∂t
 
∂ µ 1
= H·H+ E·E
∂t 2 2
 
∂ B·H+D·E
=
∂t 2

Thus for linear media

1
uEM = (E · D + B · H) .
2

9. Momentum density and Maxwell stress tensor for media: Starting from the expression
for the total electric and magnetic force acting on free charges per unit volume inside a (dielectric
paradigmatic) medium, show that the (linear) momentum contained in the EM fields is given by,

π EM = D × B

and the stress tensor for a linear media is,

1
Tij = δij (B · H + D · E) − Ei Dj − Hi Bj .
2
Hint: Use identity

∇ (A · B) = (A · ∇) B + (B · ∇) A + A × (∇ × B) + B × (∇ × A)

to simplify the Maxwell Stress tensor piece. (5 + 5 = 10)

Solution: The force on free charges and free currents is,

ˆ
F = d3 x [ρf ree (x) E(x) + ρf ree (x) v × B(x)]
ˆ
= d3 x [ρf ree (x) E(x) + jf ree (x) × B(x)]

So the force per unit volume,

f = ρf ree E + jf ree × B
Using Maxwell equations to replace,
∂D
ρf ree = ∇ · D, jf ree = ∇ × H −
∂t

9
we get,

f = ρf ree E + jf ree × B
 
∂D
= E (∇ · D) + ∇ × H − ×B
∂t
∂D
= E (∇ · D) + (∇ × H) × B − ×B
∂t
∂ (D × B) ∂B
= E (∇ · D) + (∇ × H) × B − +D×
∂t ∂t
∂B
Using Faraday-Lenz law, i.e ∂t = −∇ × E, we get,

∂ (D × B)
f = E (∇ · D) − B × (∇ × H) − D × (∇ × E) −
∂t
∂ (D × B)
= E (∇ · D) + H (∇ · B) − B × (∇ × H) − D × (∇ × E) −
∂t
Now from Newton’s second law, force on charges is same as the rate of change of linear momentum
of the charges, call it π charges i.e.,
∂π charges
f=
∂t
Thus we have,

∂π charges ∂ (D × B)
= E (∇ · D) + H (∇ · B) − B × (∇ × H) − D × (∇ × E) − ,
∂t ∂t
or, equivalently,
∂
(π charges + D × B) + B × (∇ × H) + D × (∇ × E) − E (∇ · D) − H (∇ · B) = 0.
∂t
Clearly this equation is the form,
∂πi
+ ∂j Tij = 0
∂t
where,πi is the total linear momentum contained in the charges as well as the EM fields, and ∂j Tij
is the i-th component of the term containing the spatial derivatives:

∂j Tij = [B × (∇ × H) + D × (∇ × E) − E (∇ · D) − H (∇ · B)]i .

Since = π charges + D × B is the total linear momentum contained in the charges as well as the EM
fields, it follows the linear momentum density in the EM field is,

π EM = D × B.

For linear media,

B = µH, D = εE,
hence, one can write,
1
B × (∇ × H) = [B × (∇ × H) + H × (∇ × B)] ,
2

10
 And then using identity in problem 2(B),
1
B × (∇ × H) = [B × (∇ × H) + H × (∇ × B)]
2
1 1 1
= ∇ (B · H) − (H · ∇) B − (B · ∇) H
2 2 2
1
= ∇ (B · H) − (B · ∇) H
2
Same goes for,
1
D × (∇ × E) = ∇ (D · E) − (D · ∇) E
2
So we have the equation,
∂π 1
+ ∇ (B · H + D · E) − (D · ∇) E − E (∇ · D) − (B · ∇) H − H (∇ · B) = 0,
∂t 2
which can be rewritten in index notation as,
∂πi
+ ∂j Tii = 0
∂t
where now for linear media
1
Tij = δij (B · H + D · E) − Ei Dj − Hi Bj .
2

10. In class I claimed that the expression for retarded potential(s) can be obtained by solving the
inhomogeneous wave equation using a Green’s function. Here check that the retarded scalar potential
expression satisfies the inhomogeneous wave equation, namely,
ρ
Φ = ,
ε0
2 2
where  ≡ c12 ∂t
∂
2 − ∇ . (10)
Solution:
First we work out the scalar potential case, i.e. when µ = 0 component. The retarded scalar
potential is given by the expression,
ˆ
1 ρ(t0 , x0 )
Φ(t, x) = d3 x0
4πε0 |x − x0 |
|x−x0 |
where t = t − c , is the retarded time. Since we will need them throughout first we compute,

∂t0 ∇|x − x0 | 1 x − x0
= 1, ∇t0 = − =− ,
∂t c c |x − x0 |

∂ 2 t0 1 x − x0 1 2
= 1, ∇2 t0 = − ∇ · 0
=− .
∂t2 c |x − x | c |x − x0 |
Then,
ˆ ∂ 2 ρ(t0 ,x0 ) ˆ
1 ∂2Φ 1 3 0 ∂t2 1 1 ∂ 2 ρ(t0 , x0 )
= d x = d3 x0 , (5)
2
c ∂t2 4πε0 c2 |x − x0 | 4πε0 c2 |x − x0 | ∂t02

11
Here we have used the fact that
∂ρ(t0 , x0 ) ∂ρ(t0 , x0 ) ∂t0 ∂ρ(t0 , x0 )
= = !
∂t ∂t0 ∂t ∂t0
Next we compute,
ˆ
1 ρ(t0 , x0 )
∇2 Φ = d3 x0 ∇2
4πε0 |x − x0 |
ˆ  2 0 0 
1 3 0 ∇ ρ(t , x ) 0 0 1 0 0 2 1
= d x + 2∇ρ(t , x ) · ∇ + ρ(t , x )∇ (6)
4πε0 |x − x0 | |x − x0 | |x − x0 |

We use chain to simplify,

∂ρ(t0 , x0 ) 1 x − x0 ∂ρ(t0 , x0 )
∇ρ(t0 , x0 ) = ∇t0 = − ,
∂t0 c |x − x0 | ∂t0

and
0 0
 
2 0 0 0 ∂ρ(t , x )
∇ ρ(t , x ) = ∇ · ∇t
∂t0
∂ρ(t0 , x0 ) 2 0 0
0 2 ∂ ρ(t , x )
= ∇2 t0


+ ∇t
∂t0 ∂t02
1 2 0
∂ρ(t , x ) 0 1 ∂ ρ(t0 , x0 )
2
=− + .
c |x − x0 | ∂t0 c2 ∂t02

Also we compute,
1 x − x0
∇ = −
|x − x0 | |x − x0 |3
1
∇2 = −4πδ 3 (x − x0 )
|x − x0 |
Substituting these in (6), we get,
ˆ  2 0 0 
2 1 3 0 ∇ ρ(t , x ) 0 0 1 0 0 2 1
∇ Φ= d x + 2∇ρ(t , x ) · ∇ + ρ(t , x )∇
4πε0 |x − x0 | |x − x0 | |x − x0 |
ˆ 0, 0) ∂ 2 ρ(t0 , x0 ) 0 x
0)
 
1 3 0 2/c  ∂ρ(t  x 1 2/c ∂ρ(t , 3 0 0 0
= d x − 2  + 2 +   − 4πδ (x − x )ρ(t , x )
|x − x0 | ∂t0 c |x − x0 | ∂t02 −x0 |2 ∂t0

4πε0  |x
ˆ ˆ

1 3 0 1 ∂ 2 ρ(t0 , x0 ) 1
= d x 2 − d3 x0 4πδ 3 (x − x0 )ρ(t0 , x0 )
4πε0 c |x − x0 | ∂t02 4πε0
ˆ
1 3 0 1 ∂ 2 ρ(t0 , x0 ) ρ(t, x)
= d x − . (7)
4πε0 c2 |x − x0 | ∂t02 ε0

Gathering both contributions, (5) and (7), we get,

1 ∂2Φ ρ
Φ = − ∇2 Φ = − .
c2 ∂t2 ε0

12
11. Derive Fresnel equations for EM waves incident on the interface of two dielectrics for both “in plane”
and “off plane” polarizations. From the Fresnel equations find out the expression for the Brewster
angle. How is the light reflected at Brewster angle different from the incident light. Work with the
convention that the z-axis is normal to the interface.
(5 + 5 + 2 + 1 = 13)
Solution: In general boundary conditions for electric and magnetic fields across an interface of two
media  
3
1 Ẽ0I 3
+ Ẽ0R 3
= 2 Ẽ0T ,
3 3 3
B̃0I + B̃0R = B̃0T ,
1,2 1,2 1,2
Ẽ0I + Ẽ0R = Ẽ0T ,
1 
1,2 1,2
 1 1,2
B̃0I + B̃0R = B̃ .
µ1 µ2 0T
For the “In plane” polarization, these become
       
1 − Ẽ0I  sin θI + Ẽ0R  sin θR = −2 Ẽ0T  sin θT
     

     
Ẽ0I  cos θI + Ẽ0R  cos θR = Ẽ0T  cos θT
     

1     1  
Ẽ −
 0I   0R  =
Ẽ  0T  .
Ẽ
    
µ 1 v1 µ2 v 2
Since θI = θR , we have the second and third equation simplify to,
      µ1 v 1 µ1 n 2
Ẽ0I  − Ẽ0R  = β Ẽ0T  , β = =
     
µ2 v 2 µ2 n 1
      cos θT
Ẽ0I  + Ẽ0R  = α Ẽ0T  , α = .
     
cos θI
Solving these we obtain the Fresnel’s Equations for “in plane” component of polarization
 
Ẽ0R 
 
α−β
  = ,
Ẽ0I 
  α+β

 
Ẽ0T 
 
2
  = .
Ẽ0I 
  α + β

Off-plane case: Since the electric field is “off-plane” is oscillating in a direction perpendicular to
the yz-plane, we can take,
1
EI,R,T = ẼI,R,T x̂
i.e. the electric field is entirely tangential to the interface, y = 0. The first boundary condition we
have for electric fields is that their tangential components must remain continuous, i.e. in this case
the whole field,
1 1 1
Ẽ0I + Ẽ0R = Ẽ0T . (8)

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The normal component of the electric displacement field is continuous as well, however for off-plane
electric field polarization, this equation is zero equals to zero and we can forget it. The mag-
netic fields (incident, reflected, transmitted) however has both tangential and normal components.
Continuity of tangential component of the auxiliary field, H gives,
1  2 2
 1 2
B̃0I + B̃0R = B̃ , (9)
µ1 µ2 0T

where the superscript, 2 means it is the y-component. From the figure, the y-components are (note
that the up direction is the positive y-axis)
     
2 2 2
B̃0I = − B̃0I  cos θI , B̃0R = B̃0R  cos θR , B̃0T = − B̃0T  cos θT .
     

Also, recall,
  1   Ẽ 1
0I,R
B̃0I,R  = Ẽ0I,R  = ,
  
v1 v1
while,
  1   Ẽ 1
B̃0T  = Ẽ0T  = 0T ,
  
v2 v2
so Eq. (9) becomes,
!
1 Ẽ 1 Ẽ 1 1
1 Ẽ0T
− 0I cos θI + 0R cos θR =− cos θT ,
µ1 v1 v1 µ2 v 2

or,
  
1 1 µ1 v 1 cos θT 1
Ẽ0I − Ẽ0R = Ẽ0T
µ 2 v2 cos θI
1
= αβ Ẽ0T . (10)

From (8) and (10), we get the Fresnel equations for the off-plane electric polarization,

|Ẽ0R | 1 − αβ |Ẽ0T | 2
= , = .
|Ẽ0I | 1 + αβ |Ẽ0I | 1 + αβ

Brewster angle: The angle of incidence of an “in-plane” (electric field) polarized electromagnetic
wave on an interface of two media, for which the wave is fully transmitted into the second media,
i.e. without any reflection. In slides for lecture 11, the Fresnel equation for reflection of in-plane
polarization is,
EOR α−β
=
EOI α+β
where,
cos θT µ1 n 2
α= ,β =
cos θI µ2 n 1
Brewster angle is given by the condition,
EOR
= 0 =⇒ α = β
EOI

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 i.e.,
cos θT µ 1 n2
= .
cos θB µ 2 n1
Using Snell’s law,
sin θB n2
=
sin θT n1
,we get, p
β2 − 1 µ 1 n2
sin θB = r  2 , β = µ 2 n 1 .
β 2 − nn12

For incidence at the Brewster angle, the incident light is unpolarized but the reflected light is strictly
linearly polarized in the off-plane direction (i.e. in the direction orthogonal to the plane of inci-
dence).

12. Starting from Maxwell equations obtain the dissipative wave equations inside an Ohmic conductor.
By plugging a plane wave ansatz in the dissipative wave equations, obtain an expression for the skin
depth. (4 + 3 = 7)

Solution: The Maxwell equation for linear dielectrics is,

∂B ∂E
∇ · E = 0, ∇×E=− , ∇ · B = 0, ∇ × B = µj + µ .
∂t ∂t
For Ohmic conductors, we can replace, j = σE and obtain,
∂B ∂E
∇ · E = 0, ∇×E=− , ∇ · B = 0, ∇ × B = µσE + µ .
∂t ∂t
Taking curl of both sides of the second equation, we get,
∂B
∇ × (∇ × E) = −∇ × .
∂t
The LHS of this equation simplifies to,
2 2
∇ × (∇ × E) = ∇(∇
| {z· E}) − ∇ E = −∇ E.
=0

The first terms goes to zero due to the first Maxwell equation (Gauss law). The RHS simplifies to,
∂B ∂
−∇ × = − (∇ × B)
∂t ∂t  
∂ ∂E
=− µσE + µ
∂t ∂t
∂E 2
∂ E
= −µσ − µσ 2 .
∂t ∂t
Here in going from the first to second line we have used the 4th Maxwell equation. Now equating
the LHS and RHS back, we get,
∂E ∂2E
−∇2 E = −µσ − µσ 2 ,
∂t ∂t

15
or,
∂2
 
2 ∂E
µσ 2 − ∇ E = −µσ . (11)
∂t ∂t
q
1
This is wave equation with wave-speed, v = µ and there is a dissipative term on the RHS.

Now we consider plane wave solutions as an ansatz of the form,

E = Ẽ0 ei(k̃z−ωt)

i.e. waves moving along the z-axis, with wavefronts being parallel to the xy-plane and substitute
∂ ∂
on both sides of (11). We get, by replacing, ∂t → −iω, ∂z → ik̃

−µσω 2 + k̃ 2 = iµσω,

or,
k̃ 2 = µσω 2 + iµσω.
This equation implies, k̃ must now be complex. Say k̃ = k + iκ. Then solving the above quadratic
equation we can obtain the imaginary part which drives the decay/attenuation of the wave,
r !1
2
r
µ  σ 2
κ=ω 1+ −1
2 ω
r
µσω
≈
2
q
1 2
for σ  ω. Thus skin depth is, dskin = κ ≈ µσω .

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