Anthropogenic Influences and how they affect

the Water Quality in the Santa Ana River

Watershed

Maysa Rizk
Professor Carlin
GEOL 381
18 December 2019
 Rizk 2

ABSTRACT

Watersheds play a huge part in the ecosystem of the area it is located in, by providing water

and food sources to the inhabits around it. Anthropogenic activities throughout a watershed can

have major impacts on water quality and it is uncertain how these activities can influence different

areas in the Santa Ana Watershed. Given this uncertainty, the objective of this study is to better

understand how various parameters around the Santa Ana River Watershed affects water quality.

We collected water samples from 17 locations throughout the Santa Ana River Watershed and

measured: bed type, temperature, TDS and velocity. Those water samples were then analyzed for

Nitrate levels. TDS and Nitrates showed a general downward trend, that the further down the

locations were located in the watershed, the more influence of stream order and land types had.

Temperature and Velocity showed a general downward trend as the water flowed through modified

bed types and urban developed areas. Temperatures generally had a downward trend, when the

same water samples were taken later in the water season, while it had little effect on the amount

of TDS in the water. Spatial controls, such as stream order and land types, affected TDS and

Nitrates as the water flows from the top of the watershed to the bottom. Anthropogenic influences,

such as modified bed types and urban area development, affect temperature and velocity as the

water flows through less shady areas and basin areas. Seasonal effects, such as taking samples at

different times in the water season, affect temperature but has little effect on TDS, which is more

affected by the localized change. Overall, the negative effects on the water in the watershed could

potentially have negative effects on animals and humans in the future, if nothing is done to stop it.
 Rizk 3

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Watersheds are an important part of a region’s landscape; they provide water and nutrients

to the organisms around it. As humans, we use the water from watersheds to use for drinking water,

agricultural and industrial use. The water quality in these watersheds need to have a certain level

of contaminates so that it doesn’t have negative effects when it is being used. There are many

factors that can affect water quality in a watershed: climate of the region the watershed is located

in, the land types that are surrounding the watershed, etc.

As previously stated, the Santa Ana River is located in a Mediterranean climate and has

multiple land types that it passes through. This is important because the water in the Santa Ana

River Watershed is mainly used as a source for drinking water for the residents in this area. The

Santa Ana River Watershed is located in a region that consists of different land types. The different

land types are Natural, Residential, Industrial/Commercial and Agricultural. These play an

important role in influencing the water quality in the watershed. Anthropogenic activities

throughout a watershed can have a major impact on water quality, but as the increase in urban

development continues, it is uncertain how this can influence different areas in the Santa Ana River

Watershed.

The goal of this study is to see how these different parameters around the watershed affect

the water quality in the Santa Ana River Watershed. The time period of this study took place

between September through November of 2019. Those water samples were then analyzed for

TDS, Temperature, Velocity, and Nitrate. The study also collected Strahler Order, Shreve

Magnitude, channel width and distance from the mouth. We then assessed how TDS, temperature,

velocity, and Nitrate are impacted by elevation, land use, stream order, Shreve magnitude and

location within the watershed.

 Rizk 4

2.0 BACKGROUND

Watersheds are regions of land that separate smaller bodies of water (i.e. streams) that drain

into a larger body of water (i.e. river or ocean). Watersheds and rivers in California respond to

unique climate settings. For instance, there is a watershed in California called the Upper Feather

River which is located in the Sierra Nevada Mountains (Huang et al., 2012). Since this watershed

is in California, it experiences a Mediterranean climate, which consists of cold moist winters and

springs and temperate summers (Huang et al., 2012). Subsequently, the Upper Feather River

watershed is also located in a mountain range, which means that its water flow is impacted by

melting snow. The amount of precipitation and the amount of snow melting results in the change

of Streamflow percentage to relatively increase (Huang et al., 2012). This means that the extra

water from the melting snow and precipitation adds to the rate of the streamflow. Watersheds in

different parts of the country can be located in different climates. For instance, there is a watershed

in Tifton, Georgia, U.S. called Little River Experimental (Pan et al., 2011). The Little River

Experimental Watershed is situated in the Gulf-Atlantic coastal Plain where the weather conditions

are humid (Pan et al., 2011). Another example of a watershed in a different climate is in North

Danville, Vermont, U.S. and it is called the Sleepers River Experimental (Pan et al., 2011). The

Sleepers River Experimental Watershed is situated in a glacial upland area, where the weather

conditions for this area of the U.S. are continentally humid (Pan et al., 2011). This means that there

is a wider variety of temperatures that can affect this watershed.

As previously mentioned, watersheds in different parts of the country are affected by

different types of climates. The location of the Santa Ana River Watershed is also affected by its

location. The Watershed is located in the high mountains of San Bernardino, passes through

riverside, Corona and a wide variety of different areas. Part of the watershed is also situated in the
 Rizk 5

Northern area of Orange County, Ca (Ding et al., 1999). The mouth of the watershed drains into

the Pacific Ocean in Huntington Beach. Approximately 3 huge precipitation events help to add

about 50% of the yearly precipitation that the Santa Ana River Watershed receives (Cannon et al.,

2018). Since California is a Mediterranean climate (temperate summers), these 3 precipitation

events are significant to the watershed’s streamflow.

Although the whole Santa Ana River Watershed covers a huge portion of land, the sub-

basins and sampling locations help narrow down the portions of the watershed that we are focusing

on. The Santa Ana River watershed is divided into 5 different sub-basins. The first sub-basin is

located in the mountainous area of San Bernardino County, CA. The second sub-basin is still

located in the mountainous area of the San Bernardino area, but about half of the sub-basin is in

the city area. The third basin is the largest of the sub-basins and it covers an area from Corona, CA

to right before Palm Springs, CA. The fourth basin area spans from Mount Baldy, CA all the way

to the Prado Dam in Corona CA. The final basin begins at the southeastern edge of the Chino Hills

State Park and ends when the mouth of the river reaches the Pacific Ocean in Huntington Beach.

Certain locations were selected for sampling in the Santa Ana River Watershed, which

would give a small representation of the area it was taken from. The only sample that was taken

from the first sub-basin was SAR-HW. Samples that were taken from the second sub-basin

included: LT, LT-B, CJC, CJC-B, TC, CC, and STC. Samples that were taken from the fourth sub-

basin included: SAC, CUC, CHC, SAR-N, and SAR-UP. Samples that were taken from the fifth

sub-basin included: SAR-LP, SAR-YB, SAR-O, and SAR-HB.

 Rizk 6

3.0 METHODS

3.1 Sample Locations and Stream Analysis

There was a total of 17 locations that were sampled. However, 4 locations were sampled

twice to see how the effect of time has on samples. The sampled locations were chosen based on

their positions in the 10 sub-basins throughout the Santa Ana River Watershed. The SAR-HW

location was sampled near the top of the Upper San Bernardino Mountain sub-basin. The STC

sampled location was sampled near the bottom of the San Timoteo Creek sub-basin. The TC and

CC sampled locations were sampled in the Western San Bernardino Mountain sub-basin. The LT,

LT-B, CJC, and CJC-B sampled locations were sampled in the Eastern San Gabriel Mountain sub-

basin. The SAC and CHC sampled locations were sampled in the Eastern San Gabriel and Chino

sub-basin. The CUC sampled location was sampled in the Cucamonga Basin sub-basin. The SAR-

N and SAR-UP sampled locations were sampled in the IE SAR Basin sub-basin. The SAR-LP,

SAR-YB, and SAR-O sampled locations were sampled in the Upper OC Basin sub-basin. The

SAR-HB was sampled in the Lower OC Basin sub-basin.

We collected the samples between the time period between the middle of September to the

middle of November in 2019. Samples were chosen based on where they were located in the Santa

Ana River Water Shed. SAR-HW, LT, LT-B, CJC, CJC-B, and SAC were chosen because they

represented the pure water that comes from the melted snow in the mountains. TC, CC, and STC

were chosen because they were on the edge of the mountain area that meets the urban areas. CUC,

SAR-N, CHC, SAR-UP, SAR-LP, SAR-YB, and SAR-O were chosen because they are in the

center of highly urban and commercial areas. SAR-HB was chosen because it was the closest to

the mouth of the Santa Ana River.

 Rizk 7

The sampled locations were then plotted in Google Earth to determine Strahler Stream

Order and Shreve Magnitude. Google Earth was set up with the entire Santa Ana River Watershed,

the main stem of river and tributaries color-coded. The Strahler Stream Order was then determined

by following the tributaries from the top of the watershed until the mouth of the river was reached.

Then every stream/creek was labeled with either 1, 2, 3 or 4. Where 1 is where the furthest

tributaries are and increases until 4 which is closer to the mouth of the Santa Ana River. Shreve

Magnitude was also determined in a similar manner. However, Shreve magnitude is counting the

number of tributaries from the top of the watershed, counting all the way to the mouth of the Santa

Ana River. Google Earth was also used to determine Channel Width (m) and Distance from the

mouth of the Santa Ana River (km).

3.2 Field Measurements and Sample Collection

At the sampled locations bed type, velocity, bed elevation, temperature, and TDS were

determined. The bed type was determined by using a meter stick with black tape every 10 cm. For

every 10 cm marked was passed, it would count as 10% of the bed type. Velocity was then

determined by using a current meter. The current meter was placed in the middle of the stream to

get a better representation of the velocity, which was measured in m/s. The bed elevation was

measured was a GPS device and it also provided the latitude and longitude for each location. The

temperature was taken in the river using a thermometer in ℃. TDS was taken in the river using a

TDS meter in mg/l.

At each of the sampled locations, approximately 1 L of water was taken for further tests.

Most of the water sample were easily taken from the rivers. However, some samples had to be

taken from a bridge as some locations were hard to access, for instance, CHC and CUC. For those
 Rizk 8

samples, a retrieval apparatus was hung at the top of the bridge and lowered to the source of water.

Prior to analyses, the collected water samples were stored in a completely dark container. So that

none of the Nitrates can be lost due to the exposure to sunlight.

3.3 Laboratory Analysis

All water samples were tested for their Nitrate levels with the Nitrate testing kits by

LaMotte. 5 ml of the water from each of the water samples were tested. Each of the water samples

changed color after the testing, which indicated the ratio of Nitrate to Nitrogen (ppm). The colors

of the water samples were then compared to the Comparator that was included in the kit. The scale

on the Comparator ranged from 0.0 to 15.0 of Nitrate to Nitrogen (ppm). The divisions on the

Comparator were as follows: 0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0, and 15.0. Where 0.0 indicated zero

of the ratios of Nitrate to Nitrogen and 15.0 indicated high amounts of the ratio of Nitrate to

Nitrogen. After each of the water samples had their respective Nitrate to Nitrogen number. Those

numbers were then multiplied by 4.4 to get the actual Nitrate levels in ppm for each of the water

samples.
 Rizk 9

4.0 RESULTS
4.1 Station Locations and Channel Parameters

4 SAR-O SAR-LP
SAR-HB SAR-YB

SAR-UP
3
Strahler Stream Order

SAR-N

CHC TC LT-B
2 STC

CUC SAC CC LT SAR-HW

1 CJC
CJC-B

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance from Mouth (km)

Figure 1. Graph of Strahler Stream Order versus Distance from the Mouth (km).
The data shows a slight trend that when Strahler Stream Order decreases, the
distance from the mouth also increases.

Out of the sampled locations, the Strahler Stream Order ranged from 1 to 4. There was a

slight trend that Strahler Stream Order decreased as the distance from the mouth increased. SAR-

HB, SAR-O, and SAR-YB were < 40 km from the mouth and had a Strahler Order of 4. Locations

that had a Strahler Order of 1, ranged from > 60 km to <150km from the mouth of the river.
 Rizk 10

70
SAR-HB
60
SAR-O SAR-LP
50
SAR-YB
Shreve Magnitude

40
SAR-UP
30
SAR-N

20

10 CHC
CUC SAC TC LTCJC-B SAR-HW
LT-B
0 STC
CJC
0 20 40 60 80 100 CC 120 140 160
Distance from Mouth (km)

Figure 2. Graph of Shreve Magnitude versus Distance from Mouth (km). The data
shows a noticeable trend that when Shreve Magnitude increases, the distance from
the mouth decreases.

Out of the sampled locations, the Shreve Magnitude ranged from 1 to 61. There was a

noticeable trend as Shreve Magnitude increased the distance from the mouth decreased. Locations

that were < 40 km from the mouth of the river had a Magnitude > 50. SAR-HB had a Shreve

Magnitude of 61 and was 4 km from the distance of the mouth. The outliers are CUC with a Shreve

Magnitude of 2 and was 65.3 km from the mouth and CHC with a Shreve Magnitude of 4 and was

56 km from the mouth. Since other locations at a similar distance had a Shreve Magnitude of

around 30.
 Rizk 11

SAR-HW
1900
1700

1500

1300
Bed Elevation (m)

1100
LT
900 SAC
CJC CJC-B
700
500 TC
LT-B
STC
300 SAR-LP
SAR-YB CUC CC
100 SAR-HB
CHC SAR-N
SAR-LP
-100 0 20SAR-O 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance from Mouth (km)

Figure 3. Graph of Bed Elevation (m) versus Distance from Mouth (km). The
data shows a noticeable trend as the bed elevation increases, so does the distance
from the mouth.

Out of the sampled locations, the bed elevations ranged from -6 m to 1869 m. There was a

noticeable trend as the bed elevation increased, so did the distance from the mouth. SAR-HW had

the highest bed elevation of 1869 m and was 144 km from the mouth of the river. SAR-HB had

the lowest bed elevation of -6 m and was 4 km from the mouth of the river. One outlier was SAC,

which had a bed elevation of 738 m and was 84.4 km from the mouth.
 Rizk 12

100%
90% SAR-O SAC LT-B
80% CHC
Bed Type (% Coarse)
70%
60% CC LT
50% SAR-HW
40% CJC
30%
20%
10% SAR-HB CJC-B
SAR-YB SAR-N STC
0% CUC TC
0 20 40SAR-UP 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance from Mouth (km)

Figure 4. Graph of Bed Type (% coarse: gravel, pebble, cobble and boulder)
versus Distance from Mouth (km). The data shows no noticeable trend. SAR-UP
was excluded from figure, as the bed type was not determined.

Out of the sampled locations, the bed type ranged from boulder to sand. However, Figure

4 focused on the percent coarse, which included gravel, pebble, cobble, and boulder. There was no

noticeable trend from this data. SAR-O, SAC, and LT-B all had 100% coarse but were spread out

throughout the watershed. Locations that were > 120 km from the mouth of the river, all had

greater than or equal to 50% coarse. Sample locations that were 0% coarse had bed types made of

cement, concrete, sand or mud.

 Rizk 13

4.2 Water Parameters

35
SAR-HB CUC
30

SAR-UP STC
25 SAR-YB
SAR-O CC
Temperature (℃)

CHC TC CJC
20 SAR-LP SAR-N
SAC CJC-B
SAR-HW
15 LT-B LT
10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance from Mouth (km)

Figure 5. Graph of Temperature (℃) versus Distance from Mouth (km). The
data shows a noticeable trend temperature increases as the distance from the
mouth also increases.

Out of the sampled locations, the temperature ranged from 14℃ to 29.8℃. There was a

noticeable trend the temperature increased as the distance from the mouth increased. CUC had the

highest temperature of 29.8℃ but was 65.3 km from the mouth of the river. SAR-HW had the

lowest temperature of 14℃ and was 144 km from the mouth of the river.
 Rizk 14

0.9
LT
0.8

0.7

0.6
Velocity (m/s)

SAR-HW
0.5 SAR-UP TC

0.4 SAR-N

0.3 CJC
SAR-O CC CJC-B
0.2
SAR-LP
SAR-HB STC
0.1 SAR-YB CHC LT-B
SAC
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance from Mouth (km)

Figure 6. Graph of Velocity (m/s) versus Distance from Mouth (km). The data
shows a slight trend as velocity increases, so does the distance from mouth. CUC
was excluded was from this figure, since velocity couldn’t be determined.

Out of the sampled locations, the velocity ranged from 0.03 m/s to 0.81 m/s. There was a slight

trend that the velocity increased when the distance from the mouth increased. LT had the highest

velocity of 0.81 m/s and was 123 km from the mouth of the river. SAC had the lowest velocity of

0.03 m/s. CUC was excluded from this figure since the velocity couldn’t be determined.
 Rizk 15

4.3 Water Quality

700
SAR-LP
600 SAR-N
500 SAR-UP CJC
TDS (mg/L)

400 SAR-YB
CHC
300 CUC
SAC LT
CC
200 SAR-HW
STC
SAR-O TC
100 CJC-B
LT-B
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance from Mouth (km)

Figure 7. Graph of TDS (mg/L) versus Distance from Mouth (km). The data shows
a noticeable trend as the distance from the mouth increases, so does the amount of
TDS. SAR-HB is excluded from this figure, as it contains saltwater instead of fresh
water.

Out of the sampled locations, the TDS ranged from 13.3 mg/L to 591 mg/L. There was a

noticeable trend when the Distance from the mouth increased so did the amount of TDS. SAR-LP

had the highest amount of TDS with 591 mg/L and was 46 km from the mouth of the river. LT-B

had the lowest amount of TDS with 13.3 mg/L and was 119 km from the mouth of the river. SAR-

HB was excluded since it contained ocean water that would skew our data.
 Rizk 16

45 CHC
40
SAR-N
35 SAR-UP

30
Nitrates (ppm)

25
SAR-YB SAR-LP CJC-B
20
SAR-O CJC
15
SAR-HB
10 STC
CUC SAC LT
5 SAR-HW
TC
LT-B
0 CC
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance from Mouth (km)

Figure 8. Graph of Nitrates (ppm) versus Distance from Mouth (km). The data
shows no noticeable trend.

Out of the sampled locations, the nitrates ranged from 0 ppm to 41.25 ppm. There was no

trend for those data points. Most of the sampled locations had a nitrate level of below < 20 ppm.

CHC was 56 km from the mouth and had the highest level of nitrates, 41.25 ppm. LT-B was 119

km from the mouth and had the lowest level of nitrates, 0 ppm. There was a huge increase of 31.16

ppm from CUC to SAR-N.

5.0 DISCUSSION

5.1 Spatial Controls on Water Quality

Stream Order (Figure 1) has a substantial influence on TDS (Figure 7) because lower-order

streams are located in “pristine locations” and higher-order streams are located in urban areas.

CJC-B (36 mg/L) and SAR-HW (136 mg/L) have a stream order of 1 and also contain low amounts

of TDS. SAR-LP has a stream order of 4 and has the highest TDS level of 591 mg/L. However,
 Rizk 17

SAR-O is considered an outlier, since it has a stream order of 4 but has a low TDS level of 60

mg/L. This might due to the fact that this sample was taken from an area of the stream where there

wasn’t an accurate TDS measurement. CJC is also an outlier has it had a spike in TDS but is

located in a lower stream order. This may due to the fact that there was a homeless encampment

near the sampling area.

Stream Order (Figure 1) and Shreve Magnitude (Figure 2) didn’t have an important

influence on Nitrates (Figure 8), whereas land type does have a significant influence because of

the runoff of fertilizers and other contaminates. CHC (41.25 ppm) and SAR-UP (32.32 ppm) are

located in areas of residential, commercial and agricultural and contain two of the highest levels

of Nitrate. The samples with the three highest Nitrate levels are all right before the Prado Dam.

While the sample locations after the dam, SAR-YB, SAR-LP, and SAR-O have drastically lower

Nitrate levels like they were reset after the dam.

5.2 Water Parameters Reflects the Anthropogenic Influences

Channel bank vegetation and shade play a more important role in temperature (Figure 5),

then modified bed types (Figure 4) have. The bed types of SAR-YB and SAR-N are 100% cement

and CUC and CHC are 100% concrete. The temperature drops 10.9 ℃ from CUC to SAR-N, but

then slightly increase by 4.35 ℃ from SAR-N to CHC and then decreases by 0.7 ℃ from CHC to

SAR-YB. Instead, there is an increase in temperature from SAR-HW to CC of 10.2 ℃. SAR-HW

is located in a natural area and consists of 40% boulders, 50% mud, and 10% cobble and CC is

located in a transition zone from natural to residential and consists of 40% boulders and 60% sand.

However, CUC could also be considered as an outlier, since it has the highest temperature and is

also in a man-made environment.

 Rizk 18

Velocity (Figure 6) decreases in urban areas because of the impact of modified channels

and widened channels that are built as you get closer to the mouth of the river. As the water gets

closer to the mouth of the river, it has to go through urban areas, that will not have the same slope

or paths like that of the nature areas. Natural areas are located at higher elevations (Figure 3), while

as the locations are closer to the mouth of the river, the elevation decreases. Sample locations that

are ~110 km and below are decreasing in velocity in urban areas. SAC, CHC, SAR-YB, and SAR-

HB are closer to the mouth of the river than some of the other sample locations and they also are

the sample locations that had the lowest velocity. SAC had a velocity of 0.03 m/s, CHC had 0.05

m/s, SAR-YB had 0.055 m/s and SAR-HB had 0.07 m/s. However, there is an outlier, SAR-UP,

that is the fourth highest velocity, but it is less than 60 km from the mouth of the river.

5.3 Seasonal Effects on Water Qualities and Parameters

Temperature is one of the most sensitive water parameters that can change through time

because of changes in weather and different times during the water year. Four sample locations

were resampled in November and they all experienced a drop-in temperature (Figure 9). In the

middle of September, STC had a temperature of 31.8 ℃, but then in November the temperature

dropped 15.3 ℃ and was 16.5 ℃. However, some of the new sampled locations had around the

same temperature ranges, compared to the other sample locations that were measured earlier in the

year. For instance, SAR-O had a temperature of 23.7 ℃, which is similar to CC who had a

temperature of 24.2 ℃.
 Rizk 19

35 800
STC
*STC
30 700
SAR-YB
SAR-UP
SAR-YB 600
25 CHC
*SAR-UP
Temperature (℃)

CHC *SAR-UP *CHC 500

TDS (mg/L)
20
400
*STC
15 STC SAR-UP *SAR-YB
300
10
200

5 100
*SAR-YB *CHC
0 0
9/2/19 9/12/19 9/22/19 10/2/19 10/12/19 10/22/19 11/1/19 11/11/19 11/21/19
Time (m/dd/yy)

Temperature ℃ TDS (mg/L)

Figure 9. Graph of Temperature (℃) versus TDS (mg/L) versus Time (m/dd/yy). The
Temperature data set shows a noticeable trend, as time increases, the temperature decreases.
The TDS data set shows no noticeable trend. If the location name has a (*), then that means
that was the second time the location was sampled.

TDS (Figure 9) is more influenced by local changes that occur over time rather than

seasonal because of the different localized conditions at each resample location. In the middle of

September, SAR-YB had a TDS of 599 mg/L, but then in November the TDS dropped 534 mg/L

and was 65 mg/L. However, STC had a TDS of 340 mg/L in September but then increased by 416

mg/L and was 756 mg/L. Out of the four resampled locations, two decreased in TDS and the other

two increased in TDS. This could be due to the fact that some locations might have had more

precipitation than others, which would wash some of the TDS away.
 Rizk 20

6.0 CONCLUSION

In closing, anthropogenic influences have major effects on the water in the Santa Ana River

Watershed. Sample locations in natural areas had lower Nitrate levels, lower TDS levels, and lower

temperature levels. While sample locations in urbanized areas had relatively higher Nitrate levels,

higher TDS levels, and higher temperature levels. When water passes from natural areas into

urbanized areas, the water quality becomes contaminated from the localized runoff from these

areas. As the rate of urbanization increases, it is important to keep track of the impacts it has on

the local water quality.

 Rizk 21

REFERENCES

Cannon, Forest, et al. 28 Dec. 2018. Synoptic and Mesoscale Forcing of Southern California
Extreme Precipitation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, vol. 123, no. 24,
pp. 13,714–13,730., doi:10.1029/2018jd029045.

Ding, Wang-Hsien, et al. 24 Feb. 1999. Occurrence and Behavior of Wastewater Indicators in
the Santa Ana River and the Underlying Aquifers. Chemosphere, vol. 39, no. 11, pp.
1781–1794., doi:10.1016/s0045-6535(99)00072-7.

Huang, Guobiao, et al. 2 Feb. 2012. Hydrological Response to Climate Warming: The Upper
Feather River Watershed. Journal of Hydrology, vol. 426-427, pp. 138–150.,
doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.01.034.

Pan, Feng, et al. 25 Oct. 2011. Scale Effects on Information Theory-Based Measures Applied to
Streamflow Patterns in Two Rural Watersheds. Journal of Hydrology, vol. 414-415, pp.
99–107., doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.10.018.