It is the study of diseases by scientific methods , and basically it

really describes the individual reaction of injury and it’s effect in

the body , so when you have an injury in the body however what is
the type of deficiency , you will have responses in the body , they
change from the normal Physiology to an abnormal Physiology .

And in this case , what you will be studying is the abnormal

correlated to the normal , and this is recognized by both the
structural and functional changes .
The structural changes : you look at the changes in the cells , and
in some cases it may involve electron microscopic deficiency . And
also , you will study some of the changes like Biochemical changes
and Hematological changes , happening once alone or happening
together , all of this is called Phathophysiology because it is an
abnormal Physiological . The result of this injury it could be
compensated , decompensated or it could be Death . Compensated :
the patient will recover and the case will be well , or partially
recovering with residual disfunction or being die .
All of this means , that Phathological studying will be described to
clinical practice .

We in the hospital when receive a sample from a patient , we

usually study tissues , and get up with the results , and based on
this diagnosis the finishing will be a Surgery or medication or
together . So , it is a link to the clinical theory .
 Branches of pathology

Anatomic pathology : Study of tissues or cells , and this includes a

number of things:

- Postmortem Examination ( autopsy ) : [ is a medical procedure

that consists of a thorough examination to determine the cause
and manner of death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may
be present ] …… (wikipedia) .

- Forensic Pathology (‫ )الطب الشرعي‬: If anyone wants to

investigate the cause of the death , if it is because of another
reason than the normal .

- Surgically removed specimens : A small piece of tissue taken

from the body , and making our Diagnosis on it , or we can take the
hollow organ .

- Cytology : It is the study of individual cells , it can seen in a

smear from any area , or by Needle Aspiration , this by a fine
needle , sticking it into the area , and then remove cells , looking to
them by the Microscope , and it give probably in some cases a rapid
diagnosis not like the other ways . Actually , one of the other ways
to do that is what we called “ Frozen Sections “ .
Clinical pathology : It deals with clinical Chemistry , Biochemistry ,
Hematology , Microbiology , Immunology and Genetics .
Now ,
- Clinical chemistry : deals with sugar , lipids .
- Immunology : deals with Hemoglobin , Nutrophiles and so on , and
by the level of these component we can know the causes of the
diseases .
- Microbiology : deals with bacteria , viruses , fungi and so on .

Now about general pathology : It studies mechanism & the

characteristics of principle types of disease processes for
example cell injury inflammation and neoplasia

Then in the systemic pathology : it is more discussed in a

clinical form , for example if we talk about cell inflammation and
take for example the respiratory system , we study lung abscess
and we will see what abscess looks like , this is in the tissues , you
. will see what Pneumonia looks like which is infection in the lung
Breast cancer it’s an example of neoplasia (neoplasia come
from new and plasia which mean new so it’s a new tissue or what we
. (call it tumor

Steps in study of diseases

Epidemiological is a disease in a community , for example if you

take the TB (Tuberculosis) , you know that the TB occurs in a
certain community , frequently they are poor and so an … it might
occur in Al-Ramtha and don’t occur in Amman because they have a
different kind of food water and this is what we call it
. Epidemiology

.Etiology is identifying cause of disease *

Some diseases called intrinsic inter body not from outside & this is
. usually genetic for example hemophilia , it’s a genetic disease

Some diseases called extrinsic come from outside could be

anything its acquired from wounds , foods … mainly anything
. outside

Now sometimes you don’t have any identify of the cause of the
disease , we call it idiopathic , you don’t know the cause of this
!! . disease . For example : cancer

Pathogenesis : Its name from - patho. Which means pathology -

genesis. Means the production of pathology , how the pathology is
. produced
It is (Pathogenesis ) : Sequence of events in the response of cells&
tissues to the etiological agent, from the initial stimulus to the
final expression of disease. This response can be studied
.morphologically, biochemical, immunologically or at molecular level

Steps in study diseases :

- Epidemiological aspects - Etiology
- Pathogenesis -
Complications & sequelae
- Treatment -
Prognosis
* Epidemiology : is the study of diseases in populations
of humans or other animals, specifically how, when and
where they occur.
* Etiology : It’s the Identifiable cause of disease , and
it’s can be divided to :
- Intrinsic ( genetic ) : and it’s belong to the body
only . - Extrinsic : acquired
from the environment
- Idiopathic : the cause is “ UNKNOWN “ .
* Pathogenesis : Sequence of events in the response of
cells& tissues to the etiological agent, from the initial
stimulus to the final expression of disease. This
response can be studied morphologically, biochemical,
immunologically or at molecular level.
The Pathological & clinical features including
biochemical tests, and the radiological findings should
INTEGRATE ALL INFORMATION so u can know the
diagnosis .
- You think about the Complications & Sequelae, and it’s
the events during the disease process that may impair
full recovery which mean what may happen later .
- Treatment
- Prognosis : mean a forecast as to the probable result
of an attack of disease and the prospect of recovery, and
it’s describe the likely outcome of an illness .

To aid in diagnosis , study morphology :

* We get Samples for study, include cells, biopsy or
whole organ :
- Gross or macroscopic appearance .
- Histological or microscopic appearance .
- Electron microscopy or ultra structure .
* Genetic & molecular methods may aid diagnosis .
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And here we have a sample case which may be a
little interesting, and this is what u get in the clinical
lab :
- A 60 year old woman with a lump in the neck of 6
months duration. - Patient has fever &
raised BMR* ( ESR ) .
- On examination she also had enlarged inguinal lymph
nodes. - Further investigations
were within normal
* [ Note : BMR ( basal metabolic rate )( ‫سرعة ترسيب‬
‫ ( الدم‬: it’s the sedimentation rate of blood and it
indicate the disease which raised BMR indicate that
there is something wrong and indicate to disease ] .
- Biopsy was taken by a needle , ( i.e. ) tissue removed
for microscopic examination
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Here is the work :
* Genetic Studies : Translocation t 18: 14 .
( 1 of students ask the doctor about this numbers and
she said that this indicate an abnormality and we will deal
with this in future ) .
* Diagnosis : Follicular Lymphoma .
* Treatment : Chemotherapy .
* Prognosis : Good
!! Therefore : PATHOLOGY AIDS IN DIAGNOSIS &
MANAGEMENT OF DISEASE PROCESSES .
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And now we talk about CELL
INJURIES , and this is the topic outline :
 - Causes of cell injury . -
Types of Injury .
- Principles & Mechanisms of cell injury . -
Morphology .
- Outcome : ?Reversible ? Irreversible . -
Adaptation to Injury .
- Patterns & types of Cell Death . -
Process of Aging .

Cellular Injury & Adaptation :

Normal cell is in a steady dynamic state
“Homeostasis” : The ability or tendency of an organism
or cell to maintain internal equilibrium by adjusting its
physiological processes . * It is … [
Dynamic steady state ] .

Cells are constantly exposed to

stresses :
- Normal physiologic stress .
- Severe stresses: injury results, and alters the
normal steady state of the cell , consequently .
- It can survive in a damaged state and adapt to the
injury ... (Reversible injury or
adaptation)
- It can die …( Irreversible injury or cell death) .
Causes of Cell Injury :
- Hypoxia and ischemia - Free
radicals
- Chemical agents -
Physical agents
- Infections -
Immunological reactions
- Genetic defects
-Nutritional defects
- Aging

‘’ Sorry if there is any mistake ‘’

‘’ Thanks to my friends ‘’
Done by : Deeb Zahran