A Study On Cement Treated Base Using Cru

UPCOMING BUILDING OF IEI, TRIPURA STATE CENTRE
AN APPEAL
The IEI is a Century old Engineering Professional Institute in the World having 120 of it’s State /
Local Centre in the Country and 6 Overseas Chapter. It constantly excel value addition in the field of
Engineering profession & Skill Development by way of imparting various level of hands on training with
adequate exposure to onsite issues. It is giving the opportunities to provide Graduation in Engineering field for
Diploma / Non Diploma candidates through AMIE Section – A & Section – B exam. Having Centre at Tripura
State Centre.
Technicians, Builders, Contractors, Entrepreneurs, for all, IE (I) is a platform of activities of

various Engineering discipline. We are extremely delighted to apprise all of this Engineering community that
having make of a State of the art facility Centre by developing existing infrastructure of IE (I), Tripura State
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With the generous financial contribution and logistic support of well wishers we could construct
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To fulfill this aspire and to further uplift engineering profession of the State for a greater social
cause. We earnestly solicit the co-operation & generous contribution from all.
[Er. T. Lodh, FIE] [Er. T. Bhattacharya, MIE]

Chairman Honorary Secretary
IEI, Tripura State Centre IEI, Tripura State Centre
[Approved Plan]
UPCOMING EVENT
AMIE Section A & B Summer Seminar on

Appropriate Technology for Sustainable Rural
Examination commences w.e.f 2nd Development
June, 2018 to 8th June, 2018
Date: 4th May, 2018 Time: 10.30 AM
Venue: Pragna Bhawan, Agartala
Exam Venue: Institution Building, Pandit Nehru Chief Guest: Er. Tathagata Roy, FIE, Hon’ble
Complex, Agartala Governor of Tripura
Guest of Honour: Sri Jishnu Debbarma, Honb’le
Phone: (0381) 2304700 Minister for Rural Development,
Email: ieitripura@gmail.com Power, Finance etc. Departments,
Tripura
IEI NETWORKING THE WORLD OF ENGINEERS
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FOREWARD
The IE(I) Agartala local centre started its journey in 1989 as Adhoc centre and started as
full-fledged Agartala local centre in 1991. Later, it transformed to IE(I) Tripura State
Centre since 2008. Since inception, it has been imparting quality coaching to the students,
organising seminars/workshops, round table discussions on various important issues related
to the State of Tripura, in addition to 07 (seven) numbers of Special (Statutory) day
celebrations and conducting AMIE Section-A & B examinations.
Civil Engineering Division one of the major division has been organising lots of programme
since inception. Currently this division going to organise a One Day Seminar on Ground
Improvement Techniques to be held on 30th April 2018 at Silver Jubilee Hall of the IE(I),
Tripura State Centre, Pandit Nehru Complex, Agartala in association with National
Institute of Technology Agartala, which may be very much helpful for present and coming
Engineers and also students of various technical Institutes.
As cities and towns expanded, structures were supported by formal foundations. Until the 18th
century, no theoretical basis for design had been developed and the discipline was more of an
art than a science, based on past experiences. Modern geotechnical engineering began only in
1925 by Karl Von Terzaghi, who is called the father of modern soil mechanics. Over the
periods, men used common sense and learnt to reinforce the ground beneath houses. They
even learnt to apply different techniques to suit different sub-soil conditions like clay, sand
etc. In earlier days, soil improvement adopted by men was to excavate a portion of the
existing loose/soft soils and filled it with appropriate techniques of compaction. Today, men
have methods like, soil reinforcement/nailing, grouting, soil compaction, dewatering etc.
along with soil improvement techniques for deep foundations like, stone columns and vertical
drains that have been able to provide alternatives. Natural or synthetic
geotextiles/geogrids/geomembranes etc. have emerged as an effective and relatively
economic tool.
This One Day Seminar on Ground Improvement Techniques aims to bring together
experts from the industries, academic institutes, research organizations, independent
professionals, etc. and provide them with a platform to share their experiences with fellow
civil engineers. The Seminar hopes to provide a platform to all concerned to discuss the state
of the art in the field of Soil/Ground Improvement. The technical session including key note
speech, special lectures and technical papers have been designed to enrich the participants
with the latest as well as the emerging trends in various disciplines of Ground Improvement.
The contribution from different technical Institutes and different state and central Govt.
engineering organizations including various other organisations who helped directly or
indirectly and press/electronic media is acknowledged with gratitude.
We are very much grateful to our IE (I), Kolkata, Head Quarter for giving permission,
encouragement, financial contribution and constant support to conduct the Seminar.
Last but not the least, organising this Seminar is being made possible due to the untiring
efforts put in by the members of the organizing committee, advisory committee and technical
committee including who contributed technical papers in this Seminar to make it colourful.
We have a real captain Prof. (Dr.) H. K. Sharma, Director of NIT Agartala, who is the
Patron of this Organising committee. We have put in our best; still we are sure that there will
be lapses. Kindly, bear with us.
We sincerely hope that your presence in the Seminar is going to give a colourful image to the
IEI, Tripura State Centre and make the Seminar a grand success.
Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal, FIE Er. Tapan Lodh, FIE

Organising Secretary Organising Chairman
ii
One Day Seminar
on
Ground Improvement Techniques
30th April, 2018
IE(I), Tripura State Centre
Pandit Nehru Complex, Agartala, Tripura, india
ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Patron : Prof. (Dr.) H. K. Sharma, FIE
Director, NIT Agartala
Chairman : Er. Tapan Lodh, FIE

Chairman, IE(I), Tripura State Centre
Co-Chairman : Er. Tapas Bhattacharya, MIE

Honorary Secretary, IE(I), Tripura State Centre
Organising Secretary : Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal, FIE

Associate Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., NIT Agartala
&
Chairman, Civil Engineering Division
Joint-Organising : Er. Samir Kanti Bhusan, MIE

Secretaries Co-Chairman, Civil Engineering Division
&
Er. Sankar Bhowmik, MIE
Convenor, Civil Engineering Division
Organising Committee : Er. Subrata Banik, NH, Govt. of Tripura

Members Er. Chinmay Debnath, PWD, Govt. of Tripura
Er. Susanta Dutta, PWD, Govt. of Tripura
Er. Narendra Dalal, PWD, Govt. of Tripura
Er. Lipika Halder, NIT Agartala
Dr. Rajib Saha, NIT Agartala
Er. Malay Kr. Deb, Member, IE(I)
Er. Jibesh Datta, TIT Agartala
iii
Advisory Committee : Er. N. K. Datta, FIE, Ex- Engg.-in-Chief & Secretary,
PWD, Govt. of Tripura, and Past Chairman, IE(I), TSC
Er. P. K. Debnath, FIE, Past Chairman, IE(I), TSC
Er. R. Dasgupta, FIE, Past Chairman, IE(I), TSC
Er. B. Nandy Majumdar, FIE, Past Chairman, IE(I), TSC
Dr. Swapan Bhaumik, FIE, Past Chairman, IE(I), TSC
& Council Member, IE(I)
Er. R. K. Majumder, FIE, Imme. Past Chairman, IE(I), TSC
Er. Asit Bhaumik FIE, CE, PWD, Govt. of Tripura
Er. Bishu Kr. Debbarma, CE, DWS, Govt. of Tripura
Er. T. K. Debnath, FIE, IAS
Er. Dipak Kr. Das, CE, NH, Govt. of Tripura
Er. Swapan Kr. Das, CE, RD, Govt. of Tripura
Er. Sagar Subhan Debnath, CE, Agri, Govt. of Tripura
Technical Committee : Er. R. K. Majumder, FIE, Imme. Past Chairman, IE(I),TSC

Er. Lipika Halder, NIT Agartala
Dr. Rajib Saha, NIT Agartala
Er. Arpan Laskar, Techno India, Agartala
Er. Bipul Sen, ICFAI, Agartala
Contact Details : Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal, Mob: 9436582750,

E-mail: skpal1963@gmail.com
Er. Tapas Bhattacharya, Mob: 9436120300,

E-mail: bsnltapas@gmail.com
IE(I), Tripura State Centre, Tel: 03812304700,

E-mail: ieitripura@gmail.com
iv
Civil Engineering Division
IEI, Tripura State Centre
Chairman: Dr. S.K. Pal, FIE
M- 9436582750
Co-Chairman: Er. Samir Kanti Bhusan, MIE

M- 9436134342
Er. Narendra Dalal, MIE

M- 9436139629
Convener: Er. Shankar Bhowmik, MIE

M- 9436463331
Jt. Convener: Er. Jibesh Datta, MIE

M- 9436492094
Er. Lipika Haldar, AMIE

M- 9436167076
Members: Er. Subrata Banik, FIE

M- 9436139555
Er. B. Chakrabarti, MIE

M- 9436138255
Er. Abhijit Bhattacharjee, AMIE

M- 9856347353
Er. Nirmal Ch. Samal, FIE

M- 8415072533
Er. Sumit Kr. Majumder, AMIE

M- 9436124845
Er. Rati Ranjan Debnath, MIE

M- 9436122974
Er. Anjan Kumar Das, MIE

M- 9436137679
Er. Subhra Nandi, MIE

M- 9436138500
Er. Sanjib Chowdhury, AMIE

M- 9436120259
Ex-Officio Members: Er. Asit Bhaumik, FIE

M- 9436120160
Er. Susanta Dutta, MIE

M- 9436473528
Dr. Rajib Saha, AMIE

M- 9436125024
Er. Tapan Ch. Pal, AMIE

M- 9436481325
v
CONTENTS
(Extended Abstracts)
Paper Author/Authors Page
Keynote Paper
1. Ground Improvement Techniques ― Few Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal 1-3

Observations
Technical Papers
1. Compaction and CBR Characteristics of Layered AshutoshVerma 4-8

Soil Stabilised With Fly Ash and Geotextiles Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal
2. Flexible Pavement Evaluation Based on the Dinesh Jaiswal 9-12

Falling Weight Deflectometer Dr. Dipankar Sarkar
3. Influence of Jute Geotextile on the CBR Behavior Bipul Sen 13-18

of Soil Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal
4. Improvement of Soft Soil using Sand Compaction Abhiparna Dasgupta 19-22

Piles Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal
5. Investigation of Physical Properties of Soils and Jhuma Mitra 23-26

their Mixes and Comparison of Parameters Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal
6. Experimental and Numerical Validation of AshutoshVerma 27-32

Strength of Non-Homogenous Layered Soil Strata Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal
7. Assessment of Behaviour of Soil Mixes as Swagata Deb Roy 33-35

Probable Liner Material Dr. Sudeshna Chakravarty
8. Use of Shredded Plastics for Ground Rajat Debnath 36-41

Improvement of Soils of Tripura Dr. Sanjay Paul
9. Structural Health Monitoring of Bridges – A Dr. Richi Prasad Sharma 42-46

Corrosion Approach Shubham Ajay kumar
Maurya
10. A Study on Effect of Epoxy Resin in the Protyay Podder 47-49

Properties of Bituminous Mix Dr. Manish Paul
11. Performance of Porous Asphalt Mix With Brick Joydeep Datta 50-53
as Aggregate Akhilesh Kumar
Fhani Bushan Chakma
Barnali Debnath
Dr. Partha Pratim Sarkar
vi
One Day Seminar on Ground Improvement Techniques, IE(I), Agartala, 30th April, 2018
12. Response of Soil with and without Sand Abhiparna Dasgupta 54-56
Compaction Piles Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal
13. A Study on Cement Treated Base using Crushed Partha Pratim Sarkar 57-61
Bricks as Aggregate Jince P Zachariah
Pritam Debnath
Mohini Saha
Abhijit Das
Prabhat Kumar
14. A Study on the Effect of Admixture in Grouted Chiranjib Debbarma 62-68

Macadam Dibakar Debbarma
Abhijit Roy
Jince P Zachariah
Dr. Partha Pratim Sarkar
Special Papers
1. Use of Soil Nailing for Exacaveation Stability Prof. G. L. Sivakumar 69-80
and Slope Stability Improvement ― Analysis of Babu
Case Studies Vikas Pratap Singh
2. Hill-Road Rehabilitation with Geosynthetics Rajeeva Upadhyay 81-85
The Technical Committee of the Institution of Engineers (India), Tripura State Centre as a body does
not hold any responsibility for statements made or for opinions expressed in the articles / statements
made in its proceedings, as published in this issue. The committee also feel regret for any mistake etc.
whatsoever that might have occurred in the process of Printing.
vii
Seminar on Ground Improvement Techniques
30April 2018, IE(I), Tripura State Centre, India
GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES – FEW OBSERVATONS
DR. SUJIT KUMAR PAL

B. E. (Civil Engg.) REC, Surathkal (Presently, NIT, Surathkal)
M.Tech. (Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engg.) IIT, Kharagpur
Ph. D. (Engineering) BESU, Shibpur (Prsently, IIEST, Shibpur)
FIE, LMIBC, LMIGS, LMISTE, Chartered Engineer (CE)
Associate Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., National Institute of Technology Agartala, Tripura, INDIA
Mobile: 9436582750, E-mail: skpal1963@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Traditional foundation techniques sometimes costlier than the super structure and in many
situations can’t be built. When a poor ground exists at the project site in case of shallow foundation,
designer has the options like, poor ground to be removed and replaced with a more suitable material,
weak ground to be bypassed laterally by changing the project’s location or vertically by the use of deep
foundations, and design facilities etc. to be changed to reflect the ground’s limitations. Development of
existing ground, gives the engineer a fourth option, i.e., to “fix” the poor ground and make it suitable for
the project needs. Ground improvement is the alteration of properties of soil to improve engineering
performance of existing soil for proper utility. Three main objectives for improvement of the ground are
increased shear strength – example: as for pavement subgrade, reduced permeability – example: as for
foundation of dam, and reduced compressibility – example: as for foundation of structure. Most common
and important methods of ground improvement in which soil get densified are (i) compaction; (ii)
preloading; and (iii) dewatering. There are other methods also for improvement of grounds.
Ground improvement is generally made for shallow foundations. However, where the top soil is either
loose or soft, to transfer the load from the superstructure to deep firm strata either of pile, pier or well
foundation is the obvious choice.
Over the years, numbers of methods have been developed for soil stabilization and ground improvement.
The ground can be improved by adopting different methods. The most common and important methods of
ground improvement in which soil get densified are compaction, preloading and dewatering. Ground
improvement methods are generally more economical.
Compaction improves the density of the soil by using powerful vibrators. Preloading method is used to
remove pore water from soil over the time. Stone columns improve the bearing capacity of soil. Electro-
osmosis makes water flow through fine grained soils. Grouting is a method where fluid like materials is
injected into soil to increase its rigidity. Reinforced soil is used to stabilize retaining structures, sloping
walls, dams etc. Soil nailing increases the shear strength of the in-situ soil and restrains its displacement.
Micro pile provides the structural support and used for repair the existing foundations.
High water content and low coefficient of consolidation of soil poses difficulties for construction projects.
Frequently, additives such as lime, cement, fly ash, lime-cement-fly ash admixture, cement kiln dust,
emulsified asphalt, geofabric and polymer stabilizers are used to improve the engineering properties of
soils.
1
Stabilization of soil by using fly ash is one of the methods to transfer the waste material into safe
construction material and also helps in saving of precious land area. During the last 30 to 35 years,
extensive research has been carried out to utilize the fly ash with clayey soil in landfill liner because of
their flocculating and pozzolanic action. Reinforcement in soil improve the tensile strength of soil and
with the improvement of tensile strength, bearing capacity of soil get improved.
Compaction is a very common method for improving the engineering properties of soil. The degree of
compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit weight. The effects of compaction energy on
consolidation characteristics of soils has also been studied and it is found that with the increase of
compaction energy, the compressibility and coefficient of volume change decrease for a particular
pressure range.
Load-settlement behaviours are studied for both un-encased and encased stone column in layered c-
soil. From the study, it is found that the stone column treated soil can carry more load than untreated soil
and the load carrying capacity increase with the increase of stone column diameter.
To improve the bearing capacity, fly ash and soil are placed in different layers and different laboratory
and field tests are carried out to measure the improvement. It has been observed that with the soil and fly
ash layers placed successively, the settlement is less than the soil alone and the coefficient of hydraulic
conductivity decreases than the fly ash alone.
Being finer than the soil, fly ash has more CBR value than soil and when it is placed with soil layer as fly
ash-soil-fly ash and soil-fly-ash-soil layers, unsoaked CBR values is higher than the soaked CBR for all
the constituent samples.
A study has been carried out on local clayey-silt soil, fly ash and local soil mixed with fly ash with
percentages of fly ash in the mix 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30% by dry weight. Samples contain replacement of
soil by fly ash by dry weight to obtain required geotechnical properties of mixed samples. The falling
head hydraulic conductivity and unconfined compressive strength are observed for the samples on their
remoulded specimens prepared by maintaining dry density and moisture content at standard Proctor
energy. Based upon data recorded in the study, it can be summarised and concluded that specimen
containing local clayey-silt soil mixed with fly ash at applied proportions can meet the strength and
workability requirements for waste liner construction.
Geotextiles as reinforcement increases the tensile strength, shear strength and load bearing capacity of
earth material. When fly ash reinforced with woven and nonwoven geotextile, its c and value increases.
Since fly ash achieves most of its shear strength from internal friction and it exhibits very negligible
cohesion, so reinforcement enhances the shearing strength of fly ash when reinforced with geotextiles.
The most increased CBR value is obtained from woven geotextile reinforcement placed in total three
layers and from the result it can be concluded that geotextile can be placed as reinforcement along with
fly ash between sub grade layers as it improve the soil properties and ultimately reduce the sub grade
layer thickness.
A research work has also been carried out where it is observed that at standard Proctor energy, hydraulic
conductivity of soil matrix is improved by using plastic strips of certain size, shape and content.
Compression characteristic of soil matrices get also improve with different amount of plastic strips
2
content with different area ratios. Shear parameters of soil matrix is improved by increasing plastic strips
contents of different size and shapes up to certain extent.
A study is conducted to evaluate the performance of locally available clayey-silt soil mixed with fly ash.
The Samples are prepared by mixing the soil with fly ash which varied from 30 to 50% by dry weight of
the soil to obtain geotechnical properties of local soil-fly ash mixed samples. Detailed testing has been
carried out on locally available clayey-silt soil, fly ash alone and soil-ash mixed specimens. Additions of
fly ash to clayey-silt soil gradually reduce the specific gravity of the clayey-silt soil-fly ash mixed
samples. The study of clayey-silt soil, soil-fly ash mixed samples shows that the increase in ash content,
there is reduction in liquid limit and increase in plastic limit and decreases its plasticity index. The
unconfined compressive strength test result also shows that the UCS of soil-fly ash mix samples increases
with increase in curing age.
Finally, it may be said that geotechnical engineer should go for ground improvement as it is inevitable for
shallow foundation and design is economic in most of the cases.
3
COMPACTION AND CBR CHARACTERISTICS OF LAYERED SOIL

STABILISED WITH FLY ASH AND GEOTEXTILES
Ashutosh Verma
Sujit Kumar Pal
E-mail :ashu.ashutosh15@yahoo.com, skpal1963@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The present global scenario demands maximum use of minimum resources and recycling and reusing of
the waste materials. In the present study, the efficacy of strength evolution of the proportioned mix of fly ash with
sandy soil as a soil replacement and unstabilised clayey-silt soil in a three layered strata stabilised with non woven
geotextiles has been examined. Confirming to the previous researches, it is concluded to perform the compaction test
and California bearing ratio (CBR) experiments varying the fly ash proportion as 0, 10, 15, 20 and 30% in sandy soil
with incorporation of geotextiles at the junction of these layers. The various OMC, MDD and CBR results are discussed
to validate the most optimum composition with an improvement of CBR value by 149.44%.
Keywords: Layered strata; Fly ash; Geotextile; CBR strength
1. Introduction low plasticity type soils. Naagesh et al. (2013) conducted
India has emerged as a leading contender in innovations the laboratory study of shear strength of subbase
regarding pavement stabilisation, primarily driven by the underlain by a subgrade layer in terms of CBR and
necessity of its given road network, shortage of well bearing capacity which suggested that the maximum
graded materials and a low taxpayer base in order to fund strength is achieved for a particular thickness ratio for the
our roadworks. Decrease in availability of suitable sub above soil materials. Prasad et al. (2014) performed a
base and base course materials for highway construction study on stabilisation of layered pavement sub grade
leads to a search for novel method of converting locally using fly ash reinforced with geotextiles and designed a
available problematic soil to suitable one for highway cost effective pavement with better strength. Zumrawi
construction (Satyanarayana et al. (2013)). (2015) independently studied the stabilisation of the poor
sub grade using fly ash treated with cement. Kumar et al.
Some of the researchers have reported the benefits of
(2016) conducted a similar study where industrial wastes
stabilizers in highway pavement application. In the same
were used along with local soil in the flexible pavements.
context, fly ash, an industrial waste product whose annual
From the literature survey, it is seen that sand may be
production in India is about 112 million tones out of
used as an efficient pavement material. However, since
which only 61.37% is being utilized in construction of
sand lacks binding properties fly ash may be used to
embankments, roads, production of cement, mine filling
introduce binding of matrix.
etc, has proved to be an effective alternate material for
pavement construction (Ahmaruzzaman (2010)). The In this study, the strength of layered soil strata having
utilization of fly ash not only improves the quality of alternate layers of sand stabilized with fly ash varying its
construction but also mitigates the adverse effects related percentage as 0, 10, 15, 20 and 30%, and clayey silt was
to the disposal of fly ash. By literature review, it is found determined. Fly ash was incorporated to increases the
that soil stabilisation basically uses either Class C or strength as well as to provide binding properties to the
Class F and seldom requires requires Class N fly ash. sand as it has negligible self cementing nature. To further
improve the strength of the mix, layers of geotextile were
Geotextiles are a newly emerging field in the
added at suitable depths which would act as both a
geotechnical engineering and other fields which offers
reinforcement and a separator. The laboratory tests such
great potential in varied areas of applications globally.
as sieve analysis, hydrometer and Standard Proctor Test
There are basically two types of geotextiles used in the
were performed for characterization of the layered mix
pavement construction: woven and non-woven. The
and to study the variation of optimum moisture content
mode of operation of a geotextile in any application is
(OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD). For the
defined by six discrete functions i.e. separation, filtration,
strength determination, California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
drainage, reinforcement, sealing and protection (Agrawal
tests were performed and its variation with fly ash was
(2011)).
discussed. Finally, the optimum fly ash composition and
Kamalzare et al. (2011) conducted an experimental study configuration of layering of geotextile was validated.
on the shear strength of a two layered sub base reinforced
2. Materials
with geotextiles and geogrids. Zornberg (2011) suggested
Present study uses silty sand available in the bed region
the use of non woven geotextiles in the pavement
of Haora river in Agartala and Clayey-silt sampled from
construction with substantial experimental evidences.
the local potters in Agartala. The fly ash used in this
Firat et al. (2012) investigated the use of waste sand
study was collected from a thermal power plant in
treated with fly ash as a pavement material. They
Agartala.
replaced the two locally available soil with 0%, 5%, 10%,
15%, 20% fly ash, marble and waste sand and concluded
that 15% replacement level is optimum for medium and
4
Compaction and CBR Characteristics of Layered Soil Stabilised with Fly Ash and Geotextiles
2.1 Silty sand as collected from KMC Constructions and experimentally

The natural sand used in this study was sampled from the found are given in Table 1.
bed region of Haora river near Agartala in Tripura, India
with round shape particles having specfic gravity of solid
2.62 as per ASTM D854 with gradation performed by
standard sieve analysis as per ASTM C136 which showed Table-1 Physical properties of geotextiles
that the grain size was predominantly fine sandy soil with
mean effective diameter (D 10 ) of 0.24 mm and having Physical Properties Values
uniformity coefficient as 1.75 and coefficient of curvature
as 1.21. As per USCS classification, the sandy soil was Mass density (kg/mm3) 9.1 x 10-7
classified as poorly graded soil or SP. A standard proctor Youngs Modulus (N/mm2) 3000
test was performed on the sandy soil according to ASTM Poisson’s Ratio 0.34
D698 and the maximum dry density was found to be Nominal mass per unit area 400
22.18 kN/m3 and the optimum moisture content was 12%. (g/m2)
Thickness (mm) 4
2.2 Clayey silt
The fine soil used in this study was sampled from the 3. Methodology
local potters in Agartala in Tripura, with particles having The aim of this investigation was to optimise the quantity
specfic gravity of solid 2.68 as per ASTM D854 with of sand, fly ash and to determine the optimum depth of
gradation performed by hydometer analysis as per ASTM the geotextile to be provided. The main input was sandy
D7298 which concluded that the sample contained soil, clayey-silt soil, fly ash and non-woven geotextiles.
around 33% clay particles and predominanatly silt
particles were present at 60%. The liquid limit analysis as The sand was stabilised with fly ash as a replacement
per ASTM D4318 showed that the liquid limit of the soil varying its percentage as 0, 10, 15, 20 and 30%. Then the
sample was 36% while the plastic limit analysis showed standard Proctor test was performed as per ASTM D698
that the plastic limit of the soil was 23%. The plasticity on different soil mix having layers of sandy soil and
index of the soil sample was 13%. As per USCS soil clayey-silt soil alternatively as given in Table 2.
classification system, the soil was conferred as clayey-silt
Table-2 List of samples for Standard Proctor test
soil of intermediate plasticity. A standard proctor test was
performed on the clayey-silt soil according to ASTM Sample Mixes
D698 and the maximum dry density was found to be
17.25 kN/m3 and the optimum moisture content was 1 Sandy soil (0% fly ash) + Clayey-silt soil
16.5%. 2 Sandy soil (10% fly ash) + Clayey-silt soil
2.3 Fly ash 3 Sandy soil (15% fly ash) + Clayey-silt soil
The industrial waste product fly ash used in this study 4 Sandy soil (20% fly ash) + Clayey-silt soil
was collected from a thermal power plant in Agartala,
India, having specific gravity 2.12 as per ASTM D854. 5 Sandy soil (30% fly ash) + Clayey-silt soil
The grain size gradation was performed as per ASTM
D7298 which showed effective diameter (D 10 ) of
0.009mm while uniformity coefficient and coefficient of Moreover, the mix was divided in three layers comprising
curvature was 3.89 and 1.03 respectively. It was of sand (stabilised or unstabilised) and clayey-silt as
concluded that the sample contained predominantly shown in Fig. 1 with the provision of geotextile sheet at
around 80% coarser particles while around 15% silt the junction of different layers as given in Table 3.
particles were present and clay particles were present for
about 5%. According to ASTM C 618, there are three
classes of fly ash namely Class C, Class F and Class N.
The fly ash used in this study was Class F fly ash as per
AASHTO and ASTM C 618 classification, due to
presence of less amount of calcium oxide. The common
name for this fly ash is coal ash or bottom ash.
2.4 Geotextile
Geotextiles are permeable fabrics which, when used in
Geotextile can be simply defined as "a textile material
used in a soil (geo) environment" and consist of woven
Fig. 1 Layering of soil mix
and non-woven polymeric materials and natural
materials, such as jute, constructed using textile For each sample combination geotextile layer was
processes. The geotextile used in this study was poly provided at three locations at the junction of layer 1 and
propylene non woven geotextile obtained from KMC 2, at the junction of layer 2 and 3 and at the junctions of
Constructions working on expansion of NH-44 in both layer 1 and 2 & 2 and 3.
Agartala, Tripura. The physical properties of geotextiles
5
Following the proctor results, CBR tests confirming to

ASTM D1883 - 16, was performed on these samples both
for unsoaked condition and after 4 days soaked condition.
Table-3 Composition of layered strata

Sample Layer Material
1 Sandy soil (unstabilised)

1 (S-C-S) 2 Clayey-silt Fig. 3 Variation of MDD with fly ash (S-C-S)
3 Sandy soil (unstabilised) While for clayey-silt as layer 2 and sand (stabilized and
1 Sandy soil (stabilised) unstabilised) as layer 1 and 3 i.e. C-S-C configuration the
2 (S-C-S) While in case of maximum dry density, the trend is
2 Clayey-silt something different. The maximum dry density (MDD)
3 Sandy soil (stabilised) value first increased till a peak value of 18.9kN/m3 at
1 Clayey-silt 15% fly ash content and then further decreased as evident
3 (C-S-C) from Fig. 3.
OMC value to15% for 30% fly ash from 13.5% at 0% fly
3 Clayey-silt ash as shown in Fig. 4.
1 Clayey-silt
4 (C-S-C) 2 Sandy soil (stabilised)
3 Clayey-silt
4. Test results and discussions

The The influence of fly ash as a replacement of sand in
layered strata with respect to OMC and MDD and the
effect of geotextile on CBR values is analysed by the test
data.
From Fig. 2, it is seen that optimum moisture content
increased to 15.5% for 30% fly ash from 12% at 0% fly
ash for sand (stabilized and unstabilised) as layer 1 and
layer 3 and clayey-silt as layer 2 i.e. S-C-S configuration.
Fig. 4 Variation of OMC with fly ash (C-S-C)
While the maximum dry density (MDD) value first

increased till a peak value of 21.5kN/m3 at 15% fly ash
content and then further decreased as evident from Fig. 5.
Fig. 2 Variation of OMC with fly ash (S-C-S)
Fig. 5 Variation of MDD with fly ash (C-S-C)

This increase in the OMC value with fly ash increment
may be attributed to the increased fineness of the material
and the cohesivity of the sample with fly ash. The
reduction in the maximum dry density at higher fly ash
6
content may be due to replacement of the sandy soil Figure 8 shows a comparative assessment of the CBR
particles with agglomerated fly ash (Ca2+ ions) particles results when geotextile is present at both junctions which
and binding of the sandy soil – fly ash matrix due to validates that the values for C-S-C configuration have
hydration reaction resulting in increased volume for same always been more than the respective S-C-S
mass of soil. configuration.
These compaction results were used to perform CBR This same incremental trend is found for other fly ash
along with incorporation of geotextiles at various replacement and unstabilised samples of layered strata.
junctions as mentioned earlier. Figure 6 shows the
variation of CBR values with fly ash percentage in sandy
soil for S-C-S configuration.
Fig. 7 Variation of CBR with fly ash (C-S-C)
Fig. 6 Variation of CBR with fly ash (S-C-S)

It is found that the soaked CBR value for all sets of
sample is greater than unsoaked sample. Further the
soaked CBR value for unstabilised strata (i.e. 0% fly ash)
is 8.47% while it is 14.82% when geotextile is placed at
top junction showing an increment of 74.97%. Also the
CBR value is 14.32% and 15.49% when geotextile is
placed at bottom junction and at both junction showing
an increment of 69.06% and 82.88% respectively. From
Fig. 6, it is seen that the CBR values attained a peak at
15% fly ash and then further decreased for all
configuration of geotextiles. The maximum value of
26.88% is attained when geotextiles is placed at both
junctions for 15% fly ash showing an improvement of
123.26%.
Similarly, for C-S-C configuration, the soaked CBR
value of unstabilised soil (i.e. 0% fly ash) is 11.43%.
While the CBR values are 16.68%, 15.64% and 17.02%, Fig. 8 Comparative assessment of CBR values
when geotextiles are placed at top, bottom and both
junctions showing an improvement of 45.93%, 36.83% 5. Conclusions
and 48.91% respectively. From Fig. 7, it is clear that the An experimental investigation was carried out to stabilize
maximum CBR value of 39.86% is attained for 15% fly a three layered soil strata of sand and clayey-silt layers
ash when geotextiles are placed at both junctions showing alternatively stabilized with fly ash and non woven
an improvement of 149.44%. geotextiles. From the test results and discussions,
following conclusions are made:
The strength degradation in both the cases may be
attributed to the formation of shrinkage cracks that • As the fly ash replacement percentage varied in the
develops in the stabilized samples which are more soil sample as 0, 10, 15, 20 and 30% its OMC value
prominent at higher concentration of stabilizers. kept on increasing while MDD attained a peak value
at 15% fly ash.
7
• The CBR value increased till a peak value at 15% fly Engineering and Technology, Volume 4, Issue 5,
ash replacement for all sets of sample and then September – October, pp. 122-129.
further decreased.
Zornberg J.G. (2011) Advances in the Use of
• The CBR values are lowest for soils without Geosynthetic in Pavement Design, Invited Keynote
geotextiles and increases when sheets are placed at Paper, Proceedings of the Second National Conference
bottom and top and are highest when placed at both on Geosynthetics, Geosynthetics India '11, IIT Madras,
junctions. Chennai, India, September 23-24, Vol. 1, pp. 3-21.
• The C-S-C configuration showed higher strength i.e. Zumrawi, M.M.E. (2015) Stabilization of Pavement
higher CBR value than S-C-S configuration. Subgrade by Using Fly Ash Activated by Cement,
American Journal of Civil Engineering and
• The maximum CBR value of 39.86% is obtained for Architecture, 2015, Vol. 3, No. 6, 218-224.
15% fly ash replacement with geotextiles at both
junctions for C-S-C configuration showing an
improvement of 149.44% over native soil.
• It may be concluded that C-S-C configuration with
15% fly ash replacement of sand and geotextiles
present at both junctions is the most optimized
composition and could be practically applicable for
subbase construction where conventionally minimum
CBR value of 20% is desirable.
References
Agrawal, B.J. (2011) Geotextile: It’s Application to Civil
Engineering – Overview, National Conference on
Recent Trends in Engineering & Technology.
Ahmaruzzaman, M. (2010) A review on the utilization of
fly ash, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science,
Vol. 36, No. 3, pp.327-363.
Firat, S., Cömert, A.T., Yılmaz, G.S. (2012) Utilization
of marble dust, fly ash and waste sand in road subbase
filling materials, KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering ·
November 2012 DOI: 10.1007/s12205-012-1526-4.
Kamalzare, M. and Ziaie-Moayed, R. (2011) Influence of
Geosynthetic Reinforcement on the shear strength
characteristics of the two layer sub grade, ACTA
Geotechnica Slovenia 2011/1.
Kumar, A.U., Satyanarayana, P.V.V. (2016) Impact of
Industrial Wastes Utilization as Granular Sub Base
(GSB) Material, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil
Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) e-ISSN: 2278-1684, p-
ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 13, Issue 1 Ver. V(Jan. -
Feb. 2016), PP 40-45.
Naagesh, S., Sathyamurthy, R., Sudhanva, S. (2013)
Laboratory studies on strength and bearing capacity of
GSB-soil subgrade composites, International journal of
innovations in Engineering and technology, ISSN 2319-
1058,Vol 2 Issue 2, April 2013.
Prasad, S.S.G., Kumar, S., Surisetty, R. (2011)
Stabilisation of pavement sub grade by using Fly Ash
reinforced with Geotextile, IJRET: International Journal
of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN:
2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308.
Satyanarayana, P.V.V., Chandra, K.L., Nandan, T.H.,
Gopala Raju, S.S.S.V. (2013) Study on the Utilisation
of Recycled Aggregate and crusher Dust Mixes As Sub
Base and Base Materials, International Journal of Civil
8
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT EVALUATION BASED ON THE FALLING WEIGHT

DEFLECTOMETER
Dinesh jaiswal
Dipankar Sarkar
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Agartala
Email- dineshjayswal93@gmail.com
Abstract: Development of any country can be closely monitored by the improvement in infrastructural facilities in which
transportation plays a key role. The quality and durability of a pavement is greatly affected by the type of sub grade soil over
which pavements are to be constructed and the design of pavement evaluation is based on the FWD deflection and impulse load.
It should be avoided excessive deflection that cause fatigue cracking within the layer or in the overlaying layers, and to prevent
excessive permanent deformation, high quality material along with zychobond chemical is used. Due to increase in quality of a
soil layer reduction in the thickness upper layers are permitted. Field test for checking the strength parameters include the use of
Dynamic cone penetration test, FWD test etc. In the present study the main emphasis has been given on the design life of flexible
pavement, rutting criteria using back calculation with the FWD results.
Keywords: FWD-Falling weight deflect meter, Structural Evaluation, Layer modules, Geophone, DCPT test, back calculations.
1. Introduction
grade strain versus life. However, in reality the pavement life
of a low-volume road (LVR) is usually determined by the
Pavement evaluation need necessary as per existing pavement depth of rutting end of service life is equal to 15- to 20-mm
like remaining life of pavement, rutting cracking, overlay surface rutting) [1]. Evaluation of pavement surface condition
design criteria with the help of FWD and Dynamic Cone can be studied with reference to the riding quality in terms of
Penetration test. FWD tests its gives deflection, impulse load, surface roughness, undulations cracking, potholes and other
Air temperature and Surface temperature. Our test study Area surface distresses. Such surveys are termed as functional
NIT agartala near Transportation lab. In this study area, I have evaluation methods. Diagnosing the existing structural
prepared a pavement each layer sub grade, sub base, base and condition of individual layers of pavements as well as
surface layer for test on it field condition. In this study I have examining the overall pavement strength is termed as
absorb pavement condition as per revive curtain distresses is structural evaluation of the pavements [2]. The modulus of the
coming like Fatigue cracking, rutting cracking and also pot sub grade structure can be assessed using the FWD method.
holes etc.FWD backcalculation is taken with the help of The FWD is routinely used by pavement engineers to evaluate
KGPBACK software, which is developed by IIT khargpur. in-situ flexible pavement layer module (Hadidi, Gucunski
2010). It has been widely adopted by highway and airport
2. Literature Review agencies in pavement evaluations because of quick testing and
standardizes procedures (Kuo et al. 2015). Calculation and
The FWD measures pavement surface deflection at defined
analysis of the deflection of the FWD test was conducted
distances from the load. These deflections are then used to
using the stochastic finite element method. However, this
back calculate in situ material properties by using an
method can be somewhat insensitive to the modulus of the
appropriate analysis technique (in situ E-modulus of a
pavement surface layer, especially where the surface layer is
pavement structure) and to predict pavement response and life
just a few centimeters thick or where the bedrock is near the
from the association of Australian and New Zealand road
surface [3]. Developed a mechanistic relationship between
transport and traffic authorities (Austroads) equations for sub-
FWD deflection and asphalt pavement layers condition. From
9
Flexible Pavement Evaluation Based on the Falling Weight Deflectometer
the results, deflection basin parameters (DBPs), effective layer
module, and stresses and strain were identified as pavement
layers condition indicators. Xu et al. (2002a, b) also presented
a new condition assessment criterion for flexible pavement
layers using FWD from field data. Non-destructive condition
assessment criteria were developed for application in
conjunction with the condition evaluation indicators that were
estimated using on falling weigh deflectometer deflection [4].
3. Objective of the Study

These guidelines will apply to design of flexible pavements
for Expressway, National Highways, State Highways, Major
District Roads, and other categories of roads. Flexible
pavements are considered to include the pavements which
have bituminous surfacing and granular base and sub-base
courses conforming to IRC/ MOST standards. These
guidelines apply to new pavements.
Fig 1 FWD test in field.
A. To study deflection characteristics of different layers of 5. Principle of FWD
flexible pavement prepared by brick aggregate using FWD.
The basic working principle of the impulse loading equipment
B. To study the future mechanism of different layers of is to drop a mass on the pavement to produce an impulse load
flexible pavement under standard load. and measure the surface deflections. The mass is dropped on a
spring system, which in turn transmits the load to the
C. IRC: 115-Guidelines used to estimate remaining life of pavement through a loading plate. The resulting deflection
pavement, overlay requirement. bowl characteristics are observed and used in the back
calculation of pavement material properties. Measurement of
D. Besides FWD evaluation, condition assessment, past the deflection in each individual layer of flexible pavement at
history. standard load 40KN, Tyre pressure is 0.56Mpa.
4. Methodology Planning for the Study

First of all I have selected 3m*3m area for FWD test near
METHODOLOGY OF
Transportation Laboratory NIT Agartala, then clean the
FWD TEST
selected area and excavated up to 350mm depth of the selected
area with the help of labor. After that we checked the field
condition like water content, density with the help of core
cutter method and also we checked CBR value with the help
of DCPT test (For the sub grade layer).After that compaction
of the sub grade layer, after that we checked sub grade layer
deflection with the help of FWD. After that we laid sand layer Target
load
20mm thick of the selected area for precaution of deformation If it's target
over the sub grade layer. Then we made sub base layer150 load not
mm thick by using Brick aggregate and soil. There after we achieved
st.Load than
made base layer 150mm thick by using brick aggregate and Obtained
apply some
deflection
soil. Finally I have prepared pre-mix bituminous surface layer facter on
25mm depth by using stone aggregate heaving sieve size deflection for
achieve
passing through 13.6mm with 5% of bitumen, then use sand st.Load
for filler and binding of the pores is 3CFT at the surface layer
for better compaction. Thereafter compact the surface layer
same as a smooth wheel roller heaving Weight 100WT Sellected e
Backcalcul values and
manually then check field condition by using core cutter poission
ated e
method like density and water content and also check surface value ratio
deflection with the help of FWD.
Fig.2 Back calculation process of target load.
10
6. Experimental investigation
Experimental investigation consists of two specific stages. The
primary stage is to carry out all the material properties. Second
Scatterd plots between

stage I have checked field test like Dynamic Cone penetration
test, Falling Weight Deflectometer test, the initial stage
consists of checking the material properties with respect to the
standard values as proposed by the Indian Road Congress. The Deflection vs load
second stage checked subgrade CBR% value and Resilient
0.2 y = 0.0054x +
modulus with the help of DCP test, which is given table No.1
deflection in (mm)
0.0935
and I have also checked deflection value of the flexible
0.15 R² = 0.9531
pavement with the help of FWD, which is table No 2 and
field test shown Figure No 1.
0.1 Deflection in
By South African Council on Scientific and industrial (mm) D1
Research (CSIR) developed relation between CBR % value 0.05 Linear (
and Resilient modulus as per following equation- Deflection in
0 (mm) D1)
M r = 20.67 CBR^0.65 (mpa) ......................1 0 10 20
KLEYN, EG 1984. Aspect pavement evaluation developed load in (KN)
relation between CBR% value and Penetration Index per blow. Fig.3 Scattered plots between Deflections vs. load in FWD test
Log 10 (CBR) = 2.48-1.057log 10 (PI)……….2
results.
Where CBR in % and Mr is resilient modulus in Mpa.
Table- 2 Material properties of flexible pavement

Table- 1 DCPT test result of sub grade layer
Pavement Modulus Poisson Thickness Dry
No of blow DCPI 60 CBR (%) Mr(Map) layer E (Mpa) ratio (mm) density
pen/blow (kg/m3)
(mm)
Asphalt 2936.2 0.4 25 2140
1 33 7.41 75.98 concrete
2 32 7.76 78.30
Unbound 499.6 0.35 150 1736
3 46 5.25 60.73
base
4 41 5.88 65.38
Unbound 236.8 0.35 150 1642
5 48 5.01 58.92
sub base
6 63 3.80 49.23
Compacted 58.9 0.33 30 1593
7 61 3.89 49.98
sub grade
8 56 4.26 53.02
9 77 3.08 42.94 Natural 27.3 0.3 infinite 1480
10 53 4.57 55.50 sub grade
7. Conclusion
From fig.3, I have seen that between deflection and load by The normalized dynamic deflection basins at the various
correlation analysis it gives some error which is negligible, distances from the load centre of nonlinear and linear elastic
because R2 value is close to 1. On the basis of deflection and behaviour of different sections for all the projects were
Load data for each sensor, I have Back calculation by using accurate between the measured deflection and computed
KGPBACK software; I have got the material properties, which deflection by KGPBACK software, and also followed a
is table no.2. similar trend. At the same time, consideration should be taken
From table no.2 it is clear that all layer material properties is when the length of sub grade modulus section was locked or
appropriate ranges as per MORD specification. fluctuating in progress to match the deflection, for the reason
the length of the section along its layer can create
incompatible results and lack accuracy when measured or
predicting of the layer modulus. I have observed my test result
as per back calculation value is closely to the standard vale.
11
References Ainalem Nega “Dynamic analysis of falling weight
deflectometer” Department of Civil Engineering, Curtin
Sabine Werkmeister and David Alabaster (2014) “Estimation University, Perth, WA 6845, Australia, J. Traffic Transp.
of Remaining Pavement Life of Low-Volume Roads with Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2016; 3 (5): pp 427-437.
Falling Weight Deflect meter Results” Transportation
Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research
MORD specification for rural road, Indian road congress, New
Board, No. 1989, Vol. 2, Transportation Research Board of
Delhi, 2014(First revision.
the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 2007, pp.
261–269.
Ujjval J. Solanki, Pradip J. Gundalia, Mansukh D, “A Review Indian road congress,” Tentative guidelines for the design of
on structural Evaluation of flexible pavement using Falling flexible pavement”, IRC 37:2012.
Weight Deflectometer”, Trends inTransportation
Engineering and Application. 2015; 2(1):1-10p. Indian Standard, “Method of test for aggregate”, IS
2386:1963.
Sentot Hardwiyono, “Measurement of the elastic Modulous
SASW and FWD Test Methods” Dept of civil
Engineering, Universities Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Huang Y.H, 2004, “pavement analysis and design”.
Jalan LIngkar Selatan, 55183 Bantul, Yogakarta,
Indonesia, 2015 volume 10(2) : pp 174-181. Indian Roads congress,” Guidelines for the design of flexible
pavement for low volume rural roads”, IRC: SP: 72-2015.
12
INFLUENCE OF JUTE GEOTEXTILE ON THE CBR BEHAVIOR OF SOIL

Bipul Sen
Department of Civil Engineering, ICFAI University Tripura
E-mail : sen.bipul91@gmail.com
Sujit Kumar Pal

E-mail : skpal1963@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Soil subgrade under pavement in road structure is the important elementary layer, so that, the stability &
load bearing capacity of that sub grade layer should improved by using geo reinforcement. This study was undertaken
to find out the feasibility of using Jute Geotextiles (JGT) as an alternative to man-made geotextiles in civil engineering
applications. Subgrade soil is reinforced with three varieties of jute geotextiles. Hence, this paper summarizes the
affects of soaking, placement depth from the top and types of jute geotextiles on CBR value of soils. Large scale
laboratory tests such as grain size analysis, specific gravity test, Atterberg’s limit test, Standard Proctor compaction test,
Direct shear test and California bearing ratio tests were conducted on those soil samples in accordance with IS codes.
The properties of jute geotextiles used have been evaluated. The properties like mass per unit area, thickness, tensile
strength etc. of jute geotextiles were studied. The performance of jute geotextiles reinforced subgrade soil is studied by
conducting California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests. Studies are made by placing the geo-textiles in different levels of the
CBR mould. Unsoaked and soaked CBR values of unreinforced soil is 7.16% and 4.30% respectively, which are found
to be varies from 18.2% to 9.02%, 13.02% to 8.53%, 9.21% to 7.78% and 7.32% to 4.98%, 6.09% to 4.62%, 5.11% to
4.39% when reinforced with jute geotextiles viz., JGT1, JGT2 and JGT3 placed at four different placement depths
respectively. From the experimental study, it is observed that, the jute geotextile enhances the subgrade strength. The
extent of improvement depends on the type of reinforcement and the placement depth from the top of the compacted
soil specimen. JGT1 showed maximum penetration resistance with tensile strength of 20 kN/m and gave higher CBR
values both in unsoaked and soaked condition than other types of jute geotextiles and the optimum benefits in terms of
higher CBR values are obtained when jute geotextile sheets are placed nearer to the surface compare to the other
placement depth.
Keywords: Soil, Jute geotextiles (JGT), Subgrade, Effective Depth Ratio (EDR), California bearing ratio (CBR)
1. Introduction tests on a circular foundation supported by geogrid-
Due to the increase in constructional activity world over reinforced sand layer underlined by collapsible soil in
creates heavy pressure on existing land space. The search different stress levels and the dry/soaked loading
for new and competent site often points to the needs for conditions to control wetting-induced collapse settlement.
improving existing sites by using suitable ground Ashmawy and Bourdeau (1998) performed drained
improvement methods. Among the construction triaxial tests on saturated sand samples reinforced with
activities, a well-connected road network is one of the both woven and non-woven geotextiles to study the effect
basic infrastructure requirements, which play a vital role of geotextile reinforcement on the stress-strain and
for the fast and comfortable movement of inter- regional volumetric behavior of sand subjected to both monotonic
traffic in countries like India. One of the innovative and cyclic loading. Babu et al. (2008a) had formulated a
ground improvement techniques practiced all over the new design methodology using IRC Guidelines, to
world is the use of geosynthetics, which include reinforce the subgrade using a natural geo-textile so as to
geotextiles, geomembranes, geogrids, etc. They offer the improve the strength of sub-grade. Bera et al. (2008)
advantages such as space saving, environmental suggested that, inclusion of jute geotextiles within the
sensitivity, material availability, technical superiority, specimen as reinforcement enhances the peak value of
higher cost savings, less construction time, etc. Hence, in unconfined compressive strength. Chan et al. (1989)
the present study aims at exploring the possibilities of conducted large- scale experiments to investigate the
utilizing jute geotextiles for rural roads. aggregate base reinforcement potentials of geosynthetics
in surfaced pavements and concluded that, reinforcement
2. Literature Review
placed high up in the granular layer hinders lateral
Broms (1977) illustrated reduction in lateral earth
movement of the aggregate due to frictional interaction
pressure of geotextile reinforced sand using triaxial tests
and interlocking between the fill material and the
where disks of geotextile were placed horizontally in the
reinforcement. Choudhary and Verma (2005) studied the
soil samples. Ayyar et a1. (1988) conducted model
behaviour of Fly ash Sub grades reinforced with geogrid
studies on reinforced sand bed using coir rope
sheet and jute geotextile. Dutta and Sarda (2006) made an
reinforcement along with bamboo strips as anchorages.
attempt to study the CBR behavior of waste plastic strip
Aggarwal and Sharma (1990) carried out a study on the
reinforced stone dust /fly ash overlying saturated clay.
application of Jute fiber in the improvement of subgrade
Gosavi et al. (2004) investigated the strength behavior of
characteristics and concluded that jute fiber
locally available black cotton soil reinforced with
reinforcement reduces the maximum dry density and
randomly mixed geogrid woven fabric and fiberglass.
increases the optimum moisture content of the subgrade
Guram et al. (1984) evaluated the relative performance of
soil. Alawaji (2001) performed laboratory-model load
13
Influence of Jute geotextiles on the CBR behavior of soil
a nonwoven polypropylene geotextile and lime treated 3.1.2. Properties of Jute Geotextiles
subgrade soil. Koerner (2005) proposed a laboratory
method for modeling the field situation to arrive at the Basic properties of Red soil are summarized in Table 2
influence of the geotextile. Krishnaswamy and Isaac
(1995) presented the results of the cyclic triaxial tests on Table-2 Properties of Jute Geotextiles
small-size (38 mm) and on large-diameter samples (100
mm) to evaluate the liquefaction potential of sand
Properties JGT 1 JGT 2 JGT 3
reinforced with woven and non-woven geotextiles.
Mass/unit area (g/m2) 760 540 205
Thickness (mm) 3 1.5 1
3. Materials and Methods
Mesh Opening (mm) 2×2 1.5 × 2 4×4
3.1 Materials Tensile Strength (kN/m) 20 15 7
This investigation has been carried out with local silty-
sand soil with clay (fine Sand = 53.65%, silt = 23.35% 3.2 Test methods
and clay = 23.00%) and various types of Jute geotextile In the present investigation an attempt has been made to
sheets as reinforcement. The soil samples was disturbed study the effects of inclusion of jute geotextile sheets on
in nature and collected from trial pits at a depth of about the CBR behaviors of soil specimen. In order to quantify
2.0 m from ground level. The soil collected from the site the CBR behaviors due to inclusion of jute geotextile
is pulverized with wooden mallet to break lumps and then sheets, a series of California bearing ratio tests (CBR)
air-dried. Subsequently it is sieved through 4.75 mm IS were conducted according to IS: 2720(Part 16)-1987 with
sieve and then dried in an oven at 105°c for 24 hours. For unreinforced as well as reinforced soil by placing single
the present work three types of woven jute geotextile layer of jute geotextile sheet at various effective depth
designated as JGT1, JGT2 and JGT3 are used which are Ratio (y/H) of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 respectively from the top
shown in Fig 1. These are collected from the local of the specimen.
market. The properties of local soil and jute geotextiles
used in the present study are given in Table 1 and Table 3.1.1 Preparation of samples
2.
For the reinforced soil specimen, reinforcements are cut
in the form of a circular disc of diameter 147mm (mould
dia. 150mm) to avoid separation in the specimen by the
reinforcing layer. CBR tests are conducted by placing
single layer of jute geotextile sheet at various Effective
Depth Ratio (y/H) of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 respectively as
shown in Fig 3. The Effective depth Ratio (y/H) is
defined as the ratio of depth of reinforcing layer (y) from
the top surface of the compacted specimen to the total
Fig. 1 Types of jute geotextiles used (JGT-1, JGT-2, height of soil specimen (H). For compacting the soil into
JGT-3) the mould, first the required quantity of dry soil and
water for filling the mould before and after placing the
3.1.1. Properties of Soil
reinforcement is calculated separately based on the
Basic properties of Red soil are summarized in Table 1. maximum dry density and optimum moisture content
obtained from the standard proctor test as per
IS:2720(part 16)-1980. The required amount of water
Table-1 Physical and engineering properties of Red soil
corresponding to the optimum moisture content is then
added with the soil and mixed thoroughly. The soil
Soil Properties Test Results required for filling the portion of the mould below the
Physical Properties reinforcing layer is then compacted into the CBR mould
Grain Size: to the required dry density using static compaction. After
53.65
Sand (%) the compaction of the specimen, a filter paper and a
23.35
Silt (%) perforated metallic disc with adjustable stem along with
23.00
Clay (%) an annular surcharge weight weighing 5 kg are then
Specific Gravity 2.56 placed on the top of the compacted specimen. The
Liquid Limit (%) 26.71 surcharge simulates the effects of the thickness of road
Plastic limit (%) 18.33 construction overlying the layers being tested. Soaking of
Plasticity Index (%) 8.38 the test specimens serves as a precaution to allow for
Engineering Properties moisture content increase in the soil due to flooding or
Optimum Moisture elevation of the water table.
14.36
Content (OMC) (%)
Maximum dry density
16.92
(MDD) (kN/m3)
Shear angle (ϕ) (in degree) 19.69
Cohesion (c); (kN/m2) 13.22
14
Influence of Jute geotextiles on CBR behavior of soil
1 - 0 4.30 - -
2 0.2H 7.32 3.02 70
3 0.4H 5.92 1.62 38
JGT1
4 0.6H 5.57 1.27 29
5 0.8H 4.98 0.68 16
6 0.2H 6.09 1.79 42
7 0.4H 5.27 0.97 23
JGT2
8 0.6H 4.98 0.68 16
Fig. 2 Schematic Representation of reinforced CBR test
9 0.8H 4.62 0.32 7
samples
10 0.2H 5.11 0.81 19
4. Results and Discussions
11 0.4H 4.64 0.34 8
4.1 Test results JGT3
As per the testing programme, various tests were 12 0.6H 4.46 0.16 4
conducted on soil alone and soil reinforced with waste 13 0.8H 4.39 0.09 2
woven jute geotextile sheets. Laboratory test data
regarding Red soil samples reinforced with different
types of jute geotextile at different placement depth are Table-5 Stress developed at different position of jute
presented. The variation of California bearing ratio geotextile sheet in CBR mould
(CBR) of subgrade soil samples with geotextiles placed at
different position were studied and presented in Tables 2,
3, 4 and 5 and Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6. Depth of Reinforcing % Stress
Table-3 Unsoaked CBR value of Red soil reinforced with layer from top
JGT Sheets 0.2H 64.60%
Depth Percent 0.4H 28.40%
Increa
of age
Type CBR se in 0.6H 14.60%
S. Placem Increas
of Value CBR
No. ent e in 0.8H 8.70%
JGT (%) Value
from CBR
(%)
Top (y) Value 4.2 Discussions
1 - 0 7.16 - - Based on above results, discussions have been made in
this segment. Effect of soaking on CBR value, effect of
2 0.2H 18.20 11.04 154 placement depth on CBR value and effect of type of jute
3 0.4H 13.40 6.24 86 geotetiles on CBR value of soil specimen are discussed
JGT1 herein.
4 0.6H 11.60 4.44 62
5 0.8H 9.02 1.86 26
6 0.2H 13.02 5.86 82
7 0.4H 9.73 2.57 36
JGT2
8 0.6H 9.11 1.95 27
9 0.8H 8.53 1.37 19
10 0.2H 9.21 2.05 29
11 JGT3 0.4H 8.53 1.37 20
12 0.6H 8.17 1.01 14
13 0.8H 7.78 0.62 9
Table-4 Soaked CBR value of Red soil reinforced with

JGT Sheets
Depth Percent
Increa
of age
Type CBR se in
S. Placem Increas
of Value CBR
No. ent e in
JGT (%) Value
from CBR
(%)
Top (y) Value
15
4.2.1. Effect of soaking on CBR value tensile strength may affect the strength of the soil. Fig. 3,
4, 5 and 6 shows the comparison of load penetration
The variation of CBR value in unsoaked and soaked curves for the Red soil in unsoaked and soaked
conditions for Red soil and Clayey soil with different conditions when the three types of jute geotextiles are
types of geotextile at different placement depth are placed at 0.4H and 0.6H from top. The similar behavior
presented in Table 3 and 4. From these Tables it is can be observed for red soil in unsoaked and soaked
observed that, CBR values obtained after soaking are conditions from Fig. 5.15 to Fig.5.16. For Red soil, the
generally lower than the unsoaked CBR values. The CBR CBR values for soaked and unsoaked condition is 4.30%
value is found to be decreased from 7.16% to 4.30% and and 7.16% respectively which increased to 5.92%, 5.27%
18.2% to 7.32%, for unreinforced and reinforced case and 4.64% for JGT1, JGT2 and JGT3 respectively in
(when JGT1 is placed at 0.2H depth from the top), the soaked condition and are 13.37%, 9.73% and 8.53%
CBR in unsoaked and soaked condition respectively. respectively in unsoaked condition with geotextile at
Similar behavior is observed for other cases when 0.4H from top. Based on the test results it can be
reinforcement is provided at different depth from top. observed that, both in unsoaked and soaked condition,
The strength and modulus of soil itself decreases because JGT1 showed maximum penetration resistance and gave
of the interaction of water with soil particles and the loss greater CBR value. This is because it has a very good
of capillarity is because of saturation reduces the interlocking and frictional capabilities and therefore
effective stress and consequently the soil bearing provides high tensile resistance to any lateral movements
capacity. Also, the frictional resistance between of soil and therefore improves the strength of the soil. For
geotextile and soil particles reduces as water lubricates all placement depth from the top this behavior is similar.
the surfaces of soil particles and geotextile. Similar trend In all cases it could be seen that the performance of JGT3
is observed by Sarbaz et al. (2013), Santoni et al. (2001). in terms of improving the CBR values is only marginal
when compared to other types of jute geotextiles. Hence,
4.2.2. Effect of placement depth on CBR value it can be concluded that for the enhancement of CBR
JGT1 will be a better option as the CBR values are more
Table 3 and 4 and Fig. 3, 4, 5 and 6 shows the variation in unsoaked and as well as in soaked condition, which is
of CBR in soaked and unsoaked conditions with three the condition normally considered for the design purpose.
types of Jute geotextiles placed at four positions for Red JGT2 can also be considered when more or less dry
soil. The position of geotextile is expressed in terms of conditions prevail. Similar trend was observed by
Effective depth ratio (EDR). In case of Red soil when Choudhury et al. (2012), Rao and Neeraja (2012).
jute geotextile is placed at 0.2H depth, the CBR values
are 7.32%, 6.09% and 5.11% for JGT1, JGT2 and JGT3
respectively for soaked conditions. The corresponding
values at a depth of 0.4H are 5.92%, 5.27% and 4.64%, at
a depth of 0.6H are 5.57%, 4.98% and 4.46% and when
reinforcement is placed at a depth of 0.8H, it reduces to
4.98%, 4.62% and 4.39%. Similar trend can be observed
for unsoaked conditions with same Red soil. It can be
clearly seen from the graph that, the CBR value
continuously decreases with the increase in the effective
depth ratio. This is because, presence of jute geotextile at
a depth of 0.2H has provided maximum confinement to
subgrade soil used in CBR mould than other position of
jute geotextile. The stress applied by CBR plunger is
distributed according to Boussinesq equation of
distribution of stress. It can be seen in the light of
distribution of stress below the centre of a circular
loading area. Introduction of jute geotextile at a depth of Fig. 3 Variation of CBR (%) with effective depth ratio
0.2H where 64.6% of stress is coming will show lower (EDR) in unsoaked condition
strain as the jute geotextile has got higher modulus of
elasticity than soil. Perkins (1999) reported that enhanced
performance of asphalt section under dynamic loading
can be observed by raising the position of geogrid above
subgrade/base interface. Raymond and Ismail (2003)
concluded that the geogrids should be placed as close as
possible to the underside of the sleeper within the ballast.
4.2.3. Effect of type of jute geotetiles on CBR value
From Table 3 and 4 it can be observed that type of jute

geotextile used plays an important role in the
performance of CBR of reinforced soil. The properties of
jute geotextile viz., its mass density, mesh size, and
16
Influence of Jute geotextiles on CBR behavior of soil
1. As per the unified classified system Red soil of the

present study can be classified as Sandy clay soil (Group
Symbol is CL).
2. Unsoaked and soaked CBR values of Red soil are

found to be 7.16% and 4.56% respectively.
3. Unsoaked CBR values of Red soil reinforced with jute

geotextiles viz., JGT1, JGT2 and JGT3 placed at four
different placement depths are found to be varies from
18.2% to 9.02%, 13.02% to 8.53% and 9.21% to 7.78%
respectively. Corresponding values in soaked condition
are in the range of 7.32% to 4.98%, 6.09% to 4.62% and
5.11% to 4.39% respectively.
4. There has been a general trend of decreasing soaked

Fig. 4 Variation of CBR (%) with effective depth ratio CBR values than the unsoaked CBR values and it also
applies to both with and without reinforcing geotextiles.
(EDR) in soaked condition This can be attributed to the interaction of water with soil
particles and the reduced frictional resistance of
geotextiles caused by water.
5. The improvement of soil strength (CBR value) with

jute geotextiles material depends on the soil
characteristics and in situ CBR of soil samples. Soils with
low CBR have higher benefits in terms of improved
strength than those with higher CBR values.
6. The CBR value of the soil increases when a single

layer of jute geotextile was placed horizontally with in
the soil. The extent of improvement depends on the type
of reinforcement and the placement depth from the top of
the compacted soil specimen.
7. JGT1 having tensile strength 20 kN/m performed

better and gave higher CBRvalues in unsoaked and
Fig. 5 Effect of type of jute geotextile at 0.4H depth for soaked condition than other types of jute geotextiles.
Red soil
8. The optimum benefits in terms of higher CBR values
are obtained when jute geotextiles are placed at a depth of
0.2H, where H is the height of the specimen i.e., nearer to
the surface compare to the other placement depth.
References
Aggarwal, P. and Sharma, B. (1990), “Application of Jute
Fibre in the Improvement of Subgrade Characteristics”.
All India Seminar on soil improvement, Calcutta, India,
pp.17 - 20.
Alawaji H.A. (2001), “Settlement and Bearing capacity

of Geogrid Reinforced Sand over Collapsible soil”
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, v.19 pp.75-88.
Ayyar, T. S. R., Joseph, J., and Beena, K. S. (1988),

Fig. 6 Effect of type of jute geotextile at 0.6H depth for "Bearing Capacity of Sand Reinforced with Coir Rope",
Red soil First Indian Geotextile Conference on Reinforced soils
and Geotextiles, Bombay, All - Al6.
5. Conclusions
Based on the above test results and discussions the Ashmawy, A.K., Bourrdeau, P.L. (1998), “Effect of
following conclusions may be made: Geotextile Reinforcement on the Stress-Strain and
17
Volumetric response of Sand” Proceedings of the Sixth International Journal of Pavement Engineering, v. 10,
International Conference on Geosynthetics, Atlanta, v. 2, pp. 37-41.
pp. 1079-1082.
Perkins, S.W. (1999), “Mechanical Response of
Babu, K.K., Beena, K.S. and Raji, A.K. (2008a) “Design Geosynthetic Reinforced Flexible Pavements”,
Of Coir Geotextile Reinforced Roads Using IRC Geosynthetics International, v.6, n.5, pp.347–382.
Methods”, Highway Research Journal, Special issue ,
113.
Raymond, G.P. and Ismail, I. (2003), “The Effect of
Geogrid Reinforcement on Unbound Aggregates”,
Bera, A. K., Ghosh, S., and Ghosh, A.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, v.21, n.6, pp.355–380.
(2008),”Unconfined Compressive Strength Properties of
Fine Grained Soils Reinforced with Jute Geotextiles”,
National Seminar on Geotechnique in Present Chaudhary, A.K, Gill, K.S., Jha, J.N. and Shukla, S. K.
Development Scenario, Kolkata, pp. 14-19. (2012), “Improvement in CBR of the Expansive Soil
Subgrades with a Single Reinforcement Layer”,
Broms, B.B. (1977), “Triaxial tests with fabric-reinforced Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference, Delhi,
soil”, Proceedings of the International Conference on the pp. 289-292.
Use of Fabric in Geotechnics, Paris, v. 3, pp. 129-134.
Rao, A.V. N. and Neeraja, D. (2012), “Influence of
Chan, F., Barksdale, R.D., Brown, S.F. (1989),
Geofabrics in the Construction of Pavements on
“Aggregate Base Reinforcement of Surfaced Pavements”, Expansive Clayey Subgrades”, International Journal of
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, v.8, n.3, pp.165–189. Advances in Engineering and Technology, v.3, n.1,
pp.487-493.
Choudhary, A.K. and Verma, B.P. (2005), “Behavior of
Reinforced Fly Ash Subgrade”, Journal of Institution of
Engineers, v. 86, pp.19-21.
Gosavi, G., Patil, K. A. and Saran, S. (2004),

''Improvement of Properties of Black Cotton Soil Sub
grade through Synthetic Reinforcement'', Journal of the
institution of engineers, v.84, pp.254-267.
Guram, D., Marienfeld, M. and Hayes, C. (1984),

“Evaluation of Non-woven Geotextile versus Lime-
treated Subgrade in Oklahoma”, Transportation Research
Board, Transportation Research Record 1439, pp. 7-11.
IS: 2720 - Part 16 (1980), “Method of test for soil –

Laboratory Determination of CBR”, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India.
Koerner, R. M. (2005), "Designing with Geosynthetics-

5th ed". Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey.
Krishnaswamy, N.R., Isaac, N.T. (1995), “Liquefaction

Analysis of Saturated Reinforced Granular Soils”,
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, v.121, n.9,
pp.645-651.
Santoni, R.L., Tingle, J.S., and Webster, S.L. (2001),

“Engineering Properties of Sand-Fiber Mixtures for Road
Construction”, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, v.127, n.3,
pp.258–268.
Sarbaz, H., Ghiassian, H. and Heshmati, A.A. (2013),

“CBR Strength of Reinforced Soil with Natural Fibres
and Considering Environmental Conditions”,
18
IMPROVEMENT OF SOFT SOIL USING SAND COMPACTION PILES

Abhiparna Dasgupta
Sujit Kumar Pal
E-mail : abhiparnakiit90@gmail.com, skpal1963@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Soft soil grounds possess low shearing strength and are highly compressible and hence pose a great
challenge for geotechnical practitioners. The sand compaction pile method is a method of improving soft ground by
means of installing well-compacted sand piles in the ground. In this paper, laboratory experiments are performed to
improve soft clayey silt soil by using single displacement type granular pile. Number of tests has been performed on
footing with and without sand compaction piles. Tests results show that the settlement of clayey silt decreases by about
20% after the installation of a single sand pile when compared with that of the un-improved clayey-silt soil layer
Keywords: compressible; sand compaction pile; soft soil
1. Introduction Yasuda et al. (1996) studied the effect of soil
The soft soil deposits are characterised by their poor improvement on ground subsidence due to liquefaction.
strength and compressible behaviour. The construction of They conducted detail site surveys at the liquefied sites
geotechnical structures becomes challenging when such that were affected by 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake
soil deposits get encountered at the site. In such situation, and found out that some places in Port island and rokko
geotechnical practitioner usually adopts various ground island in Kobe city, did not liquefy even though the zones
improvement techniques viz. stabilisation using lime, surrounding the island liquefied. They studied the soil
cement, fly ash and sand compaction piles to achieve the conditions of the affected area and found that the non-
desired shear strength to bear the external load from liquefied zones had previously been improved by various
geotechnical structures. However, the choice of particular methods like sand compaction piles, vibro compaction,
ground improvement technique is dependent up on the preloading and sand drains before construction of the
subsoil strata present at the site. Some of the ground buildings. Nazir and Azzam. (2010) studied the
improvement techniques are primarily for clay and some improvement in bearing capacity of footing in soft clay
are specifically for sand. Considering the wide variability which was improved with sand piles with and without
of the subsoil strata, it is always advisable to adopt such confinement. They performed laboratory experiments to
technique which can be efficient in non-homogenous study the effect of sand pile to improve bearing capacity
subsoil conditions. Sand Compaction Pile method is and reduce settlement. They also showed that SCP
referred to a method of ground improvement technique in technique also modifies the stress displacement curve of
which dense sand columns are casted by forcibly the footing rested on soft clay layer. Hasan and
injecting sand into in-situ loose subsoil profile (Aboshi et Samadhiya (2017) carried out model tests as well as
al. 1979). Sand compaction piles were practically applied numerical analysis for the performance of granular piles
as densification method in 1957 (Kitazume, 2005). Sand reinforced with geosynthetics in soft clays. Their studies
compaction piles are installed by first driving a indicated that there was significant improvement in
cylindrical casing into the ground up to desired depth ultimate load intensity and stiffness of treated ground due
thereby sands are poured and compacted by using to the use of geosynthetics.
vibratory hammer. The casing is then withdrawn to 2 m
to 3 m and then re-driven to 1 m to 2 m. After continuous Rectangular loading plates
driving and lowering, the casing is withdrawn which
results into fully compacted sand piles with larger Circular footing (diameter= 15cm and
diameter than the casing diameter. This is done to thickness= 9cm)
improve the load bearing capacity, to reduce settlements Sand blanket
and to increase the degree of consolidation of the subsoil.
60cm
The load carrying capacity depends up on the lateral 5cm
confining pressure from surrounding soils. Their
application includes support to rail and road Soft clay
embankments, raft foundation and other low rise- 25cm
structures. Sand compaction piles have been widely used
in Japan and Singapore for rapid stabilisation of soil clay
sea bed soil in land reclamation work (Aboshi and 36cm
Suematsu 1985). Sand compaction piles can be used for
all soil types and therefore has been recognised as a Fig. 1 Test arrangement without installation of sand pile.
widely used method for improving soft ground. Various 2. Materials and Methodology
research work has been carried out on improvement of Present study uses soft soil readily available in Agartala
soil properties due to installation of sand piles. Undrained for fulfilling the objectives of the study. The sandy soil
shear strength of clay which was improved using sand chosen in the present study is also readily available in
compaction piles was anticipated by Asaoka et al. (1994). Agartala and used for geotechnical construction purposes.
19
Improvement of soft soil without using sand compaction piles
The geotechnical tests are carried out at the geotechnical Settlement of the footing is measured with a dial gauge of
laboratory of National Institute of Technology, Agartala. least count 0.01mm and recorded. The value of settlement
is observed for 10 days. The verticality of the sand pile is
2.1 Testing Tank ensured by a steel casing. The pipe is driven in the
A steel test tank of size 36 cmx36 cmx60 cm was used to clayey-silt soil bed and sand is poured in to the pipe using
carry out the load tests. The tank is of rectangular cross a funnel. After construction of sand pile, a 5 cm layer of
section provided with handles so that it can be easily sand blanket is placed over the soil bed. Now, the circular
lifted and placed. It is transparent on two adjacent sides, footing is placed over it and loading arrangements are
made of tough glass, so that arrangements can be checked done again to measure the time required for the fixed
from outside. The other two adjacent sides are made of value of settlement. The above procedure of load test is
steel. done to study the load settlement characteristics of the
composite foundation system. Load setup arrangement
2.2 Model Footing for clayey-silt layer improved with sand pile is shown in
The model footing used in the experimental investigation Fig. 2.
was made up of steel circular plate with a diameter of 15
cm and 9 cm thickness.
2.3 Test Material Table 1 Properties of Clayey-silt and sand.
2.3.1 Clayey-silt Soil Notation/

All the tests have been conducted in a tank of size 36 Clayey-silt Sand
Properties Unit
cmx36 cmx60 cm. The soil is mixed with water equal to
its liquid limit. The thoroughly mixed soil is placed in the
test tank to a depth of 25 cm in layers, each layer being
compacted to remove the presence of air voids. The soil Classification
bed is allowed for consolidation. The physical and
engineering properties of the clayey-silt type of soil are (IS: 1498-1970) - CI SP
evaluated experimentally and the values are reported in
Table 1.
Specific Gravity G(-) 2.68 2.62
2.3.2 Sandy Soil
Steel pipe having external diameter of 1.5 cm has been
used to prepare the sand column. The sand used for Liquid Limit w L (%) 36 -
construction of the sand piles have been collected from
Agartala and the properties of the sand soil is reported in
Table 1. The sand columns are installed in the clayey-silt Plastic limit w P (%) 23 -
soil bed by driving the steel pipe statically. A steel rod
with a closed circular base was inserted in to the pile, to
prevent entry of the sand into the pipe during driving. Plasticity index I P (%) 13 -
The length of the sand column was 25 cm which is 1.6 -9
times the diameter of the footing. Special care has been Permeability k (m/s) 1.26×10 -
taken to maintain the verticality of the sand pile during Optimum
installation. w (%) 17 12
moisture content
Maximum dry MDD
2.4 Test Methodology 17.25 22.18
Load test is carried out in a rectangular tank of size 36 cm unit weight (kN/m3)
x 36 cmx 60 cm. Clayey-silt soil bed of 25 cm is prepared
Cohesion c (kN/m2) 22.31 -
in layers and is then rested for consolidation. A sand
blanket of 5 cm is placed over the soil bed. A circular Friction ϕ (o) - 37
model footing of 9 cm thickness and a diameter of 15 cm
is placed over the sand bed and vertical load test is mv
Coefficient of 2
conducted by applying load in increment in a sequential (m /MN) 0.09 -
manner till 120 kg i.e. 1.2 kN with the help of rectangular volume change
steel plates and each increment of load had been allowed
until very little change(less than 0.002 mm/min) in Compression
settlement is observed. The detail of the arrangement is Cc(-) 0.21 -
shown in Fig. 1. index
20
Rectangular loading plates

Circular footing (diameter= 15cm and
thickness= 9cm)
Sand blanket
60cm
5cm
Soft clay
25cm
Sand pile, diameter 1.5cm
36cm
Fig. 2 Test arrangement with installation of a single sand

pile.
3. Results and Discussions
Firstly, vertical loads are applied on footing without sand
piles and then the load-deformation response of circular
footing is obtained. Thereafter, a sand pile of length 25
cm and diameter 1.5 cm is constructed at the center of the
soil model and then footing is laid over it. Further, load- Fig. 4 Variation of settlement with number of days.
deformation characteristics of the soil improved with
sand compaction pile are obtained. Herein, loadings are At 1.2 kN of vertical load, the settlement observed in
applied in an incremental manner and the readings are footing with sand piles is observed to be 20% less than
noted using dial gauge fixed at the top of the steel plates. the settlement observed in the footing without sand piles.
Hence, it can be stated that sand compaction pile can be
used as an alternate method to improve the soft soil.
4. Conclusions
Following conclusions can be made after successful
completion of the tests on footing resting on clayey-silt
with and without sand pile:
• The load deformation characteristics of clayey-

silt with and without sand compaction pile is
found to be non-linear.
• The maximum settlements of 56.18 mm and
69.42 mm are obtained for footing with and
without sand compaction pile for a vertical load
of 1.2 kN.
• It is also observed that footing rested on clayey-
silt with a sand compaction pile undergoes 20%
less settlement than the footing rested on clayey-
Fig. 3 Comparison of vertical load-deformation silt without sand piles.
Characteristics of soil with and without sand piles • Hence, it can be stated that sand compaction pile
can be used as an alternate method to improve
Figure 4 illustrates the change in the settlement level with the clayey-silty soil.
an increase in the number of days for both conditions of
the tests i.e. footing without sand pile and footing with a References
single sand pile. It can be seen that footing with sand pile
Aboshi, H., Ichimoto, E., Harada, K., and Emuki, E.
is undergoing lesser settlement as compared to footing
without sand pile. This may be due to sharing of the load (1979), A Method to Improve Characteristics of Soft
by the sand compacted pile. Figure 3 illustrates the load- Clay on Inclusion of Large Diameter Sand Columns,
Proceedings of the International Conference on Soil
settlement response of the footing in soft soil with and
Reinforcement—Reinforced Earth and other
without sand compaction pile. It can be seen that there is
Techniques, Paris, Vol. 1, pp. 211–216
a marked decrease in the level of settlement in footing
improved with sand compaction pile when compared Aboshi, H. and Suematsu, N. (1985), The State of the Art
with footing without sand compaction pile. At the end of on Sand Compaction Pile Method, Proceedings of the
the tests, the maximum settlement obtained for footing 3rd International Geotechnical Seminar on Ground
with and without sand compaction piles is 56.18 mm and Improvement Methods, Nanyang Technological
69.42 mm respectively. Institute, Singapore, pp. 1–12.
21
Asaoka. A, Kodaka. T and Nozu. M (1994), Undrained

shear strength of clay improved with sand compaction
piles, Soils and Foundations, 34(4), 23-32.
Hasan, M. and Samadhiya. N.K (2017), Performance of
geosynthetic-reinforced granular piles in soft clays:
Model tests and numerical analysis, Computers and
Geotechnics, 87, 178-187.
Kitazume, M, (2005) The Sand Compaction Pile Method.
A.A. Balkema Publishers, London, UK.
Nazir, A.K and Azzam, W.R. (2010), Improving the
bearing capacity of footing on soft clay with sand pile
with/without skirts, Alexandria Engineering Journal,
49, 371-377.
Yasuda, S., Ishihara, K. and Harada, K. (1996), Effect of

soil improvement of ground subsidence due to
liquefaction, Soils and Foundations- Special Issue, 36,
99-107.
22
INVESTIGATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS AND THEIR

MIXES AND COMPARISON OF PARAMETERS
Jhuma Mitra
Department of Civil Engineering, Tripura Institute of Technology, Narsingarh, Agartala
E-mail :jhumamitra2005@gmail.in
Sujit Kumar Pal

E-mail :skpal1963@gmail.in
ABSTRACT: T his p ap er describes the physical properties of different types of soil. Mixtures of the soils are also
investigated in this paper. Laboratory tests have been conducted on grain size analysis, specific gravity, Atterberg’s
limits, standard and Modified Proctor compaction to find out physical and engineering properties of different types of
soil and mixture soils. From the results of laboratory investigation , it can be observed that as clay content increases in
the soil, the plasticity index (PI) increases, with the increase of plasticity index, optimum moisture content (OMC) of
the soil increases. Comparisons have also been established for optimum moisture content and dry density by standard
and modified proctor test.
Keywords: Soils, Physical properties, Plasticity index, Optimum moisture content, Dry density comparisons.
1. Introduction index and liquid limit for all types of clay soils have been
Sometimes, the geotechnical engineer is interested to proposed by Terzaghi and Peck (1967). Sridharan and
have some rough assessment of the engineering Nagaraj (2000) established a correlation between
properties without conducting elaborate tests. This is only coefficient of consolidation and shrinkage index.
possible when index properties of soil determined. Index
properties are the properties of soil that help in
2. Materials
identification and classification of soil for general
In the present investigation, six different types of soil
engineering purpose.
have been studied which has been collected from
Soils rarely consist entirely of one size range. Soil texture
different locations within the State of Tripura, India. One
is based on different combinations of sand, silt, and clay
has been collected from NIT Agartala campus, one from
are responsible for particle-size analysis. Particle-size
Howrah River bed and other from low pit land of
analysis is often used to predict hydraulic properties
Agartala, Tripura. Mixtures by weight of all the soils like
particularly for sand. PSA is used combine with bulk
NIT campus soil and Howrah river bed soil, Howrah river
density to inform the prediction of water retention and
bed soil and low lands of Agartala soil and low lands of
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of soil.
Agartala soil and NIT campus soils are also investigated
Physical and engineering behaviour of different soils
to study the variations in properties and to establish
have been investigated by various rechargers earlier. Nath
correlations of soil parameters.
and Dalal (2004)[11] has assessed physical and
engineering properties of different soil and reported that
3. Methodology
due to increase of liquid limit, plasticity index of soil
The aim of this investigation is to find the properties of
increases and frictional angle decreases. Compaction
soil and soil mixtures. Several tests are carried out.
characteristics are very much essential for the field
Specific gravity (G), grain size analysis, Atterberg’s
considerations. Compaction characteristics of soil was
limits (i.e., liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), shrinkage
proposed by Jumikis (1946)[6] Jumikis (1958)[7] also
limit (SL), standard Proctor compaction characteristics
reported methods to estimate the optimum moisture
and modified Proctor compaction characteristics (i.e.,
content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) of fine
optimum moisture content and maximum dry density)
grained soils for compaction. Johnson and Sallberg
were evaluated in accordance with ASTM standards.
(1960) suggested a chart to determine the approximate
OMC of different soil.
4. Results and discussions
On the basis of the Unified soil classification system,
The characterization of different soil samples was done
Casagrande devised a plasticity chart and has been
using sieve analysis as per ASTM C136. Figure 1 shows
proposed a relation between plasticity index and liquid
the various characterisation curves for different soil
limit where the A-line separates the clays and silts.
samples.
Nakase et al. (1988) proposed a correlation between
compression index and plastic limit. Jumikis (1946) [6]
developed correlation between optimum moisture content
and liquid limit, and plasticity index. Ring et al.
(1962)[12] used liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity
index of soil and they developed two correlations of
OMC and MDD based on approximate average particle
diameter, content of particle size finer than 0.001 mm and
fineness average. Correlation between Compression
23
Investigation of physical properties of soil and their mixtures and comparison of parameters
Low land Agt. Cu=3.00 Poorly graded

Soil + River bed Cc=1.06 soil-5
soil Sp. Gravity=2.7
For the low land Agartala soil, being a fine grained soil,
Atterberg’s limits are found. The liquid limit as per
ASTM D4318 is 36% while the plastic limit of the soil is
23%. Specific gravity of solid is 2.68 as per ASTM
D854. The plasticity index of the soil sample is 13%. As
per USCS soil classification system, the soil is classified
as clayey-silt soil of intermediate plasticity.
Upon classification, the soils are compacted under

standard compaction and modified compaction. Figure 2
shows the compaction characteristics under standard
compaction.
Fig. 1 Gradation curve of soil samples
From the curve it seen that the river bed soil contains
around 99% sand particles and only 1% finer particles.
The NITA campus soil contains around 96% coarse
particles and roughly 4% finer particles. The low land
Agartala soil contains around 33% clay particles and 60%
silt particles.
For the mixture soils, like the mixture of river bed soil
and NITA campus soil, low land Agartala soil and river
bed soil, and low land Agartala soil and NITA campus
soil contains 97.75, 93.25 and 81.75% coarser particles
and 2.25, 6.75 and 18.25% finer particles respectively.
After plotting the values of grain size analysis of soil
particles, soils are classified into well-graded, poorly
graded or gap graded soil. Coefficient of uniformity and
Coefficient of Curvature can also be obtained from the
grain-size distribution curve. The summarized
classification of predominantly coarse grained soils is
given in Table 1.
Table- 1 Classification of coarse soil Fig. 2 Standard compaction characteristics

Sl No. Parameters Type of soil
Similarly, compaction characteristics under modified
Cu=3.21 Poorly graded compaction are given by fig. 3.
NITA campus Cc=1.53 soil-1
Cu=1.75 Poorly graded
River bed soil Cc=1.21 soil-2
Sp. Gravity=2.5
Low land Agt. Cu=5.663 Poorly graded
Soil + NITA Cc=0.705 soil-3
campus soil Sp. Gravity=2.5
NITA campus Cu=4.875 Poorly graded
soil + River bed Cc=1.28 soil-4

Fig. 3 Modified compaction characteristics
24
From these graphs the optimum moisture content (OMC) (OMC). A comparative assessment of the MDD values is
and the maximum dry density (MDD) values are shown in fig. 6.
calculated under standard and modified compaction. The
values are given in tabulated form.
Table- 2 Standard compaction values
soil samples % of fines OMC(%) MDDKn/m3
SP2 1 12 22.18
SP4 2.25 11.8 19.9
SP 1 4 13.5 18.9
SP5 6.75 14 18.2
SP3 18.25 14.7 18.75
Clayey silt 93 16.5 17.3
Table- 3 Modified compaction values

soil samples % of fines OMC(%) MDDKn/m3
SP2 1 12.5 16.7
SP4 2.25 12.2 19.6
SP 1 4 15 18.9
SP5 6.75 10.5 20.2
SP3 18.25 15 18.6
Clayey silt 93 15.5 18.2
Fig. 6 Comparative assessment of MDD values
From the figure it is seen that the MDD value under

standard compaction is higher than under modified
compaction for coarse grained river bed soil. The same
trend is seen for NITA campus soil. As the finer
percentage increases in the soil the trend reverses. For the
mixture of river bed soil and NITA campus soil the MDD
value in both the cases are equal. However, for mixture of
low land Agartala soil and river bed soil, the MDD value
for modified compaction is higher than standard
compaction. Similarly, for the mixture of low land
Agartala soil and NITA campus soil, the MDD is higher
Fig. 4 comparative assessment of OMC value for modified compaction. Even the low land Agartala soil
has more MDD for modified compaction.
A comparative assessment for OMC value is done in fig.
7.
Fig 5. Comparative assessment of MDD value
From the above graph it is seen that as the percentage of

fines increases the optimum moisture content reduces for
modified compaction as compared to standard
compaction. Whereas the amount of fines increases in the
soil sample the maximum dry density becomes higher for
modified compaction than standard compaction.
It is seen that for all kinds of soil, a peak of maximum dry
density (MDD) is attained at optimum moisture content
Fig. 7 Comparative assessment of OMC values
25
Giasi, C.I., Cherubini, C. and Paccapelo, F. (2003)

With an increase in the trend for OMC value is almost “Evaluation of compression index of remoulded
reverse to that of MDD values. From the figure it is seen clays by means of Atterberg limits,” Bull Engg.
that the OMC value under standard compaction is lower
Geol. Env. 62, 333–340.
than under modified compaction for coarse grained river
bed soil. The same trend is seen for NITA campus soil. Gunaydm, O. (2009) “Estimation of soil compaction
As the finer percentage increases in the soil the trend parameters by using statistical analyses and artificial
reverses. For the mixture of river bed soil and NITA neural networks,” Environ. Geol. 57, 203–215.
campus soil the OMC value in both the cases are equal. Hein, F.J (1991) “The need for grain size analyses in
However, for mixture of low land Agartala soil and river marine geotechnical studies,”In Syvitski, J.P.M.
bed soil, the OMC value for modified compaction is (Ed.), Principles, Methods, and Application of
lower than standard compaction. Similarly, for the
Particle Size Analysis New York (Cambridge Univ.
mixture of low land Agartala soil and NITA campus soil,
the OMC is lower for modified compaction. Even the low Press), 346–362.
land Agartala soil has less MDD for modified Jumikis, A. R. (1946) “Geology and soils of the Newark
compaction. (NJ) metropolitan area,” J. Soil Mech. Found., ASCE,
93(2), 71–95.
The lower MDD value under modified compaction for 7. Jumikis, A. R. (1958) “Geology and soils of the
coarse grained soil may be attributed to the bulking of Newark (NJ) metropolitan area,” J. Soil Mech.
particles under compaction at heavier impacts. Further,
Found. Div. 94(2).
higher MDD is seen for finer soils under modified
compaction which may be due to formation of strong Kumar, V. P. and Sudharani, C. H. (2001) “Prediction of
matrixes among soil particles which increases with compression index of soils using artificial neural
impact energy resulting in densification of soil. networks (anns),” International Journal of
Engineering Research and Applications, 1(4), 1554–
The OMC for coarser soil is lower under standard 1558.
compaction. This may be due to bulking of soil which
increases with increase in density and hence under Laskar, A. and Pal, S.K. (2012) “Geotechnical
modified compaction OMC is higher. While for finer Characteristics of Two Different Soils and their
soils under heavy compaction more soil particles fills the Mixture and Relationships between Parameters,”
voids in the soil matrix replacing water and hence OMC EJGE, 17, 2821- 2832.
is lower for modified compaction. 10. Nakase, A., Kamei, T., and Kusakabe, O. (1988)
“Constitute parameters estimated by plasticity
5. Conclusions index,” J. Geotech. Engg., ASCE, 114, 844–858.
The compaction characteristic of six different types of
soil sample with varying composition was investigated Nath, A. and Dalal, S. S. (2004) “The role of plasticity
and following conclusions are drawn: index in predicting compression behavior of clays,”
• Due to presence of finer particles in natural soils, the Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, vol.
compaction curve shows an increasing trend till a 9, 2004-Bundle E.
peak value and then further decreases.
• As the amount of fines increases in the soil sample Ring, G.W., Sallberg, J. R. and Collins, W. H. (1962)
the maximum dry density becomes higher for “Correlation of compaction and classification test
modified compaction than standard compaction. data,” HRB 325, 577–587.
• The percentage of fines the optimum moisture
content reduces for modified compaction as Terzaghi, K. and Peck R.B. (1967) “Soil mechanics in
compared to standard compaction. engineering practice,” 2nd edn. Wiley, New York .
• It is further observed that the OMC value for
standard compaction is higher than that of modified
compaction whereas the reverse trend is observed for
MDD values
References
Al-Kahdaar, R.M., and Al-ameri, A.F.I. (2010)

“Correlations between physical and mechanical
properties of al-ammarah soil in messan governorate,”
Journal of Engineering, Vol. 4, 5946–5957.
Al-Khafaji, A. W. N., and Andersland, O. B. (1992)
“Equations for compression index approximation,” J.
Geotech Engg., ASCE, 118(1), 148–153.
26
EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL VALIDATION OF STRENGTH OF

NON-HOMOGENOUS LAYERED SOIL STRATA
Ashutosh Verma
Sujit Kumar Pal
E-mail :ashu.ashutosh15@yahoo.com , skpal1963@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: In India, ensuring environmental protection and infrastructural development simultaneously has promoted
the use of alternative materials in pavement construction. In the present study, the strength of a three layered non
homogenous soil strata stabilised with fly ash and geotextiles has been validated by experimental and numerical
procedures. The strata consists of alternate layers of silty sand and clayey silt varying the fly ash proportion in sand as
0, 10, 15, 20 and 30% with geotextiles at junction of layers. Upon material characterization and compaction, the CBR
strength of various mixes are analysed and the deflection and stress characteristics are examined by numerical
simulation using ABAQUS finite element software. The results are analysed to ascertain the suitability of mix in
pavement construction.
Keywords: Layered strata; Fly ash; Geotextile; CBR strength; ABAQUS software
1. Introduction In this study, the strength of a three layered soil strata
India is a country with road network of millions of composed of alternate layers of sand stabilized with fly
kilometers and is positively showing growth in ash varying its percentage as 0, 10, 15, 20 and 30%, and
infrastructural development. However, the issue of a clayey silt with incorporation of non-woven geotextile
problematic sub base is eminent in pavement sheets at various depth was determined. Fly ash was
construction. To meet the necessity of this diverse nation, incorporated to increase the strength and binding
the natural resources are in full use narrowing our focus properties of sand layer. Geotextile sheets were
towards the use of unconventional waste materials in incorporated to act as reinforcement and a separator at the
various geotechnical constructions. Various studies have junction. The characterization of materials was done by
justified the use of waste materials like fly ash, husk, sieve analysis and hydrometer tests. Compaction was
stone dust, glass etc with conventional materials in done using Standard Proctor Test to determine optimum
pavement constructions (Satyanarayana et al. (2013)). moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density
Many researchers have focused on the application of (MDD). For the strength determination, California
geotextiles in pavements to improve its strength and Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests were performed and its
workability (Agrawal (2011)). variation with fly ash was discussed. The modeling of the
three layered soil strata was done using ABAQUS finite
Kamalzare et al. (2011) examined the shear strength of a
element software. Finally, the optimum fly ash
two layered sub base reinforced with geotextiles and
composition and configuration of layering of geotextile
geogrids and showed an improvement of 23% upon its
for pavement construction was validated.
application. Zornberg (2011) studied the use of non
woven geotextiles in the pavement construction. Firat et 2. Materials
al. (2012) investigated the use of waste sand treated with Based on the literature survey, silty sand and clayey silt
fly ash and marble as replacement by 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, were used for layers of strata. For stabilization purpose,
20% and concluded that 15% replacement level is fly ash and non-woven geotextiles were used.
optimum for medium and low plasticity type soils.
Naagesh et al. (2013) studied the shear strength of 2.1 Silty sand
subbase underlain by a subgrade layer in terms of CBR The natural sand used in this study was collected from the
and bearing capacity. Prasad et al. (2014) experimentally bed region of Haora river near Agartala in Tripura, India.
designed a layered pavement sub grade using fly ash The specfic gravity of soil was 2.62 as per ASTM D854.
reinforced with geotextiles. Adedeji et al. (2015) studied Standard sieve analysis as per ASTM C136 on soil
the structural importance of base layer considering showed that the grain size was predominantly fine sandy
cement enhanced Class F fly ash as base layer stabiliser soil with mean effective diameter (D 10 ) of 0.24 mm with
using ABAQUS software. Zumrawi (2015) conducted a uniformity coefficient as 1.75 and coefficient of curvature
study on stabilisation of the poor sub grade using fly ash as 1.21. As per USCS classification, the sandy soil was
treated with cement. Kumar et al. (2016) conducted a classified as poorly graded soil or SP. Compaction test as
similar study by stabilizing local soil with industrial per ASTM D698 showed that maximum dry density
waste in the flexible pavements. As per MORTH (MDD) was 22.18 kN/m3 and the optimum moisture
specifications, the minimum CBR of sub base for both content (OMC) was 12%.
major and minor roads is 20%. The literature survey
suggested that a layered soil strata comprising of sand 2.2 Clayey silt
stabilized with fly ash and geotextile may act as a stable The fine soil was sampled from the local potters in
subbase. Agartala in Tripura, having specfic gravity of solid as
2.68 as per ASTM D854. Hydometer analysis as per
27
Experimental and Numerical Validation of Strength of Non-Homogenous Layered Soil Strata
ASTM D7298 concluded that the sample contained

around 33% clay particles and 60% silt particles. The
liquid limit as per ASTM D4318 was 36% while the
plastic limit of the soil was 23%. The plasticity index of
the soil sample was 13%. As per USCS soil classification
system, the soil was classified as clayey-silt soil of
intermediate plasticity. Compaction test as per ASTM
D698 showed that maximum dry density (MDD) was
17.25 kN/m3 and the optimum moisture content (OMC)
was 16.5%. Fig. 1 Layering of soil mix
2.3 Fly ash For each sample combination geotextile sheet was
The industrial waste product fly ash was sampled from a provided at three locations:
thermal power plant in Agartala, India. The specific • At the junction of layer 1 and 2.
gravity was 2.12 as per ASTM D854. The grain size
• At the junction of layer 2 and 3.
gradation was performed as per ASTM D7298 which
• At the junctions of both layer 1 & 2 and 2 & 3.
showed effective diameter (D 10 ) of 0.009mm while
uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature was
Table-2 Composition of layered strata
3.89 and 1.03 respectively. It was seen that the sample
contained coarse, silt and clay paticles as 80%, 15% and
5% respectively. The fly ash used in this study was Class Sample Layer Material
F fly ash as per AASHTO and ASTM C 618
classification, also known as coal ash or bottom ash. 1 Sandy soil (unstabilised)
1 (S-C-S) 2 Clayey-silt
2.4 Geotextile
Geotextiles are permeable fabrics which, when used in
association with soil, have the ability to separate, filter, 1 Sandy soil (stabilised)
reinforce, protect or drain. The geotextile used in this 2 (S-C-S) 2 Clayey-silt
study was poly propylene non woven geotextile obtained
from KMC Constructions working on expansion of NH- 3 Sandy soil (stabilised)
44 in Agartala, Tripura. The physical properties of 1 Clayey-silt
geotextiles as collected from KMC Constructions and 3 (C-S-C) 2 Sandy soil (unstabilised)
experimentally found are given in Table 1.
3 Clayey-silt
Table-1 Physical properties of Geotextiles 1 Clayey-silt
4 (C-S-C) 2 Sandy soil (stabilised)
Physical Properties Values
3 Clayey-silt
Mass density (kg/mm3) 9.1 x 10-7
Youngs Modulus (N/mm2) 3000 The CBR strength test confirming to ASTM D1883 - 16,
Poisson’s Ratio 0.34 was performed on these samples both for unsoaked
Nominal mass per unit area 400 condition and after 4 days soaked condition.
(g/m2)
Thickness (mm) 4 3.2 Simulation Methodology
3.2.1 Description of pavement geometry

3. Methodology
The model geometry was basically 3000 mm length by
The aim of this investigation was to ascertain the strength
3000 mm breadth. The dense bitumen layer was designed
of a three layered non homogenous soil strata to be used
for a depth of 87.5 mm. The base course has a depth of
as a sub base layer by optimising the quantity of sand, fly
250 mm. The sub base has a total depth of 315 mm
ash and depth of the geotextiles.
divided into three layers of 105 mm. The geometry was
3.1 Experimental Methodology similar to that used by Adedeji et al. (2016). The aim to
The sand was stabilised with fly ash as a replacement use such geometry was to avoid edge error while loading.
varying its percentage as 0, 10, 15, 20 and 30%. The
3.2.2 Description of materials characteristics
standard Proctor test was performed as per ASTM D698
Table 3 lays down various characteristic properties of the
on different soil mix having layers of sandy soil and
materials at varied composition used in the modeling.
clayey-silt soil alternatively.
The mass density was experimentally found while
Youngs modulus and Poisson ratio values were assumed
Moreover, the mix was divided in three layers as shown and suitably interpolated from the test results of Huang et
in Fig. 1 with the varied composition as given in Table 2. al. (2013).
Table-3 Physical properties of materials
28
Material Mass Youngs Poisson 4.1 Experimental results
Density Modulus ratio Figure 3 shows the variation of OMC with fly ash for
(kg/mm3) (N/mm2) sand (stabilized and unstabilised) as layer 1 and layer 3
Sandy soil 2.07E-06 80 0.25 and clayey-silt as layer 2 i.e. S-C-S and clayey-silt as
Clayey-silt soil 2.00E-06 100 0.35 layer 2 and sand (stabilized and unstabilised) as layer 1
and 3 i.e. C-S-C configuration.
Sandy soil 2.06E-06 82.8 0.24
(10% FA) Figure 4 shows the variation of MDD with fly ash for
Sandy soil 2.05E-06 83.5 0.245 both S-C-S and C-S-C configuration.
(15% FA)
Sandy soil 2.04E-06 83.9 0.25
(20% FA)
Sandy soil 2.03E-06 85 0.26
(30% FA)
Dense bitumen 2.25E-06 3000 0.44
macadam
Base Course 2.64E-06 200 0.35
3.2.3 Description of boundary conditions and loading

The pavement layers were assumed to be perfectly
bonded together. The base of the model was perfectly
fixed considering infinite sub base while the sides of the
model were provided with roller to enable vertical
deflection and prevent side deflection error as shown in Fig. 4 Variation of MDD with fly ash
Fig. 2. The CBR strength for both the configuration was found
after incorporation of geotextiles. Figure 5 shows the
variation of CBR values with fly ash for S-C-S
configuration.
Fig. 2 Boundary conditions in modeling
The load was applied uniformly over an equivalent

circular area of dual tyres of 72557 mm2 (Al-Jhayyish
2014). An equivalent pressure of 0.65 MPa was applied
over the circular area (Theyse et al. 2011). Overall, the
analysis was performed under general static
consideration.
4. Test results and discussions

The influence of fly ash as a replacement of sand in
layered strata with respect to OMC and MDD and the
effect of geotextile on CBR values is analysed both
experimentally and by simulation. Fig. 5 Variation of CBR with fly ash (S-C-S)
The soaked CBR showed higher value than unsoaked
sample. The soaked CBR value for unstabilised strata
(i.e. 0% fly ash) is 8.47% which increased to 14.32%,
14.82% and 15.49% when geotextile is placed at bottom,
top and both junctions showing an increment of 69.06%,
74.97% and 82.88% respectively. From Fig. 5, it is seen
that the peak CBR value is attained at 15% fly ash and
then it further decreases for all configuration of
geotextiles. The maximum value of 26.88% is attained
when geotextiles is placed at both junctions for 15% fly
ash showing an improvement of 123.26%.
Fig. 3 Variation of OMC with fly ash
29
Similarly, for C-S-C configuration, as shown in Fig. 6,

the soaked CBR value for unstabilised strata (i.e. 0% fly
ash) is 11.43% which increased to 15.64%, 16.68% and
17.02% when geotextile is placed at bottom, top and both
junctions showing an improvement of 36.83%, 45.93%
and 48.91% respectively. Figure 6 shows that the
maximum CBR value of 39.86% is attained for 15% fly
ash when geotextiles are placed at both junctions showing
an improvement of 149.44%.
Fig. 8 Meshed model of the layered soil strata

The deflection for the S-C-S configuration for various
positions of geotextile sheet is shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 Deflection for S-C-S configuration

Fig. 6 Variation of CBR with fly ash (C-S-C)
The deflection for the C-S-C configuration for various
positions of geotextile sheet is shown in Fig. 10.
The strength degradation in both the cases may be
attributed to the formation of shrinkage cracks that
develops in the stabilized samples which are more
prominent at higher concentration of stabilizers.
Fig. 10 Deflection for C-S-C configuration

It is seen from the above figures that the deflection for
sample with no geotextile was maximum which
decreased when geotextiles were incorporated at
Fig. 7 Comparative assessment of CBR values individual layer junction and was minimum when
geotextile is placed at both layers.
Figure 7 compares the CBR values when geotextile was
present at both junctions. The same trend is found for all Since the maximum CBR is obtained for 15% fly ash
other configuration. It is seen that the CBR values for C- replacement, a comparative assessment of deflection and
S-C configuration is greater than S-C-S configuration. maximum vertical stress at 15% fly ash replacement
sample is done as shown in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12.
4.2 Simulation results
A total of 9508 eight noded hexagonal brick element
(C3D8R) are generated under general static analysis. The
deflection and maximum stress developed are recorded as
shown in Fig. 8.
30
• The deflection of the modeled soil decreases with fly
ash increment for each geotextile position in each
configuration.
• The stress developed and deflection observed in
vertical direction is less for C-S-C configuration than
S-C-S configuration.
• The three layered soil strata comprising of silty sand
replaced by fly ash at 15% and clayey silt in C-S-C
configuration with geotextiles incorporated at both
junctions have shown considerable strength both
experimentally and numerically and hence may be
recommended for practical applications.
Fig. 11 Comparative assessment for deflection
References
Adedeji, J.A. and Mostafa, M. (2015) Modelling of fly
ash stabilized base layers, Conference paper, Research
Gate 2015.
Agrawal, B.J. (2011) Geotextile: It’s Application to Civil
Engineering – Overview, National Conference on
Recent Trends in Engineering & Technology.
Al-Jhayyish, A.K. (2014) Incorporating Chemical
Stabilization of the Subgrade in Pavement Design and
Construction Practices, Ohio University, Athens OH.
Firat, S., Cömert, A.T., Yılmaz, G.S. (2012) Utilization
of marble dust, fly ash and waste sand in road subbase
filling materials, KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering ·
November 2012 DOI: 10.1007/s12205-012-1526-4.
Fig. 12 Comparative assessment for vertical stress
Huang, C.W., Abu Al-Rub, R.K., Masad, E.A. and Little,
It is found that the deflection for C-S-C configuration is
D.A. (2011) Three-Dimensional Simulations of Asphalt
less than S-C-S configuration. Further the stress
Pavement Permanent Deformation Using a Nonlinear
developed in vertical direction in S-C-S is more than that
Viscoelastic and Viscoplastic Model, Journals of
in C-S-C configuration. This may be accounted by the
Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 23, No. 1,
horizontal dispersion of stresses due to wheel load due to
January 1, 2011. ©ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561/2011/1-56–
stronger binding matrix which is more in case of C-S-C
68.
set and hence the stress and in turn deflection in the
vertical direction is less in case of C-S-C configuration. Kamalzare, M. and Ziaie-Moayed, R. (2011) Influence of
Geosynthetic Reinforcement on the shear strength
5. Conclusions
characteristics of the two layer sub grade, ACTA
The efficacy of three layered non-homogenous stabilized
Geotechnica Slovenia 2011/1.
soil strata has been experimentally justified and further
examined using ABAQUS simulation and following Kumar, A.U., Satyanarayana, P.V.V. (2016) Impact of
conclusions are drawn: Industrial Wastes Utilization as Granular Sub Base
(GSB) Material, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil
• With the increment in the fly ash proportion as 0, 10,
Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) e-ISSN: 2278-1684, p-
15, 20 and 30%, OMC value kept on increasing
ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 13, Issue 1 Ver. V(Jan. -
while MDD attained a peak value at 15% fly ash.
Feb. 2016), PP 40-45.
• The CBR value attained a peak value at 15% fly ash Naagesh, S., Sathyamurthy, R., Sudhanva, S. (2013)
replacement for all sets of sample and then further Laboratory studies on strength and bearing capacity of
decreased. GSB-soil subgrade composites, International journal of
• The CBR values are highest when geotextiles are innovations in Engineering and technology, ISSN 2319-
placed at both junctions for each fly ash proportion. 1058,Vol 2 Issue 2, April 2013.
• The C-S-C configuration has higher strength i.e. Prasad, S.S.G., Kumar, S., Surisetty, R. (2011)
higher CBR value than S-C-S configuration. Stabilisation of pavement sub grade by using Fly Ash
reinforced with Geotextile, IJRET: International Journal
• The maximum CBR value of 39.86% is obtained for of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN:
15% fly ash replacement with geotextiles at both 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308.
junctions for C-S-C configuration showing an
improvement of 149.44% over native soil. Satyanarayana, P.V.V., Chandra, K.L., Nandan, T.H.,
Gopala Raju, S.S.S.V. (2013) Study on the Utilisation
of Recycled Aggregate and crusher Dust Mixes As Sub
31
Base and Base Materials, International Journal of Civil

Engineering and Technology, Volume 4, Issue 5,
September – October, pp. 122-129.
Theyse, H.L., de Beer, M., Maina, J.M. & Kannemeyer.
L. (2011) Interim Revision of the South African
Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Method for
Flexible Pavements Presented at 10th Conference on
Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa, 11-14
September 2011, Champagne Sports Resorts, KwaZulu-
Natal, South Africa.
Zornberg J.G. (2011) Advances in the Use of
Geosynthetic in Pavement Design, Invited Keynote
Paper, Proceedings of the Second National Conference
on Geosynthetics, Geosynthetics India '11, IIT Madras,
Chennai, India, September 23-24, Vol. 1, pp. 3-21.
Zumrawi, M.M.E. (2015) Stabilization of Pavement
Subgrade by Using Fly Ash Activated by Cement,
American Journal of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, 2015, Vol. 3, No. 6, 218-224.
32
ASSESSMENT OF BEHAVIOUR OF SOIL MIXES AS PROBABLE LINER

MATERIAL
Swagata DebRoy
E-mail :swagatadevroy@gmail.com
Dr. Sudeshna Chakravarty

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology Mesra, Ranchi
E-mail :sudeshnachakravarty1@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The main task in the design and construction of impermeable liners in landfills is to block the migration
of pollutants &/or reduce the rate of seepage to a reasonable amount. These barriers are also exposed to various types of
chemical, biological, and physical processes and are affected by the leachate which is produced from decomposition of
waste materials in the case of landfill liners. Since the main criterion for selection of impermeable bottom liners in
landfills is their hydraulic conductivity, the increase of this parameter could have a considerable adverse environmental
impact. Compacted clay-bentonite mixes are generally used for these purposes. This work embraces the results of
different soil mixes to be used as an impermeable material for the aforementioned case and replace Bentonite with other
additives (RBI) if possible. It also focused on studying the variation of different types of leachate on some of the
geotechnical properties of the mixes to be used as an impermeable material. Different laboratory tests like compaction,
permeability, grain size analysis, consistency limits, unconfined compressive test, 1-D consolidation, etc. were
performed for this purpose. Results show that three clay mixes may satisfy the impermeable material requirements
studied here & that the leachates may have considerable effect on some of the geotechnical properties of the mixes
studied.
Keywords: Leachate; Impermeable liners; Hydraulic conductivity; Bentonite; RBI
1. Introduction besuitable for direct use as a soil liner material, a
In developing countries like ours, rapid development has common practice is to blend natural soils available on or
increased the quantity of solid waste that has to be safely near a site with bentonite. The purpose of this study is to
disposed and handled by landfill operators at effective assess the behavior of different soil mixes as an
cost. The presence of heavy metals such as lead, impermeable liner material. The objectives of this study
cadmium, zinc, nickel and chromium are commonly are- (a) To find out whether the soils selected meet the
associated with industrial waste and considered noxious primary requirements of a landfill liner.
to human health. Clays are commonly used as hydraulic
barriers as in landfills due to their low hydraulic 2. Methodology & Experimentation
conductivity (Komine H et. al). In general, landfill liners
must minimize infiltration of water into buried waste and 2.1 Materials
control leachate from the waste (B.R Phanikumar et. al). ) Two materials are used in this study- clayey soil
The major concern regarding liners is that it may get obtained from the banks of Swarnarekha river, and
attacked by the chemicals present in the leachate resulting Bentonite which is commercially obtained from New
in the leakage of leachate causing soil and ground water Delhi. Another material - RBI Grade 81 is used as
pollution (J. Jeffrey Peirce et. al.)In regions where clays additive. Bentonite is any commercially processed
are not available or sparse, sand is mixed with clays or material that is composed primarily of the mineral
bentonite that satisfy certain requirements for use as smectite. The dominant adsorbed cation of commercial
landfill liners. Some of these requirements include bentonite is usually sodium or calcium. Sodium form is
hydraulic conductivity equal to or less than 10-9 m/s, commonly used. RBI GRADE-81 is calcium driven,
percentage of fines greater than 30%, plasticity index inorganic soil stabilizer patented worldwide. The main
greater than 10%. components that are used to formulate RBI GRADE-81
Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL) is one of the advanced are a series of inorganic hydration activated powders. It is
synthetic material that has been widely used in composed of a specific type of cement, a lime, several
construction of impermeable liner material in modern pozzolonas , rate governing additives, and a unique
landfills. The uncertainty of its performance over a period polypropylene fibre. Permeants used in this study are tap
and its expensive cost have made this product water; 0.1M NaOH in water; mixture of 0.15 M of acetic
unfavourable. Finding natural earth materials can be an acid; 0.1 M of salicylic acid, 0.1 M of sodium acetate and
advantage economically to landfill operators as long as 4 g of calcium. The properties of all these permeants are
the material provides suitable characteristics (e.g. represented in Table 1.
permeability, strength and shrinkage). The most common
type of compacted soil liner is one that is constructed 2.2 Experiments
from naturally occurring soils that contain a significant The particle size distribution of the study soil, index and
quantity of clay. If the soils found in the vicinity of a compaction properties of the soil & sand mixtures are
waste disposal facility are not sufficiently clayey to determined by standard procedures.
33
Assessment of behaviour of soil mixes as probable liner material
2.2.1 Specific Gravity
Determination of specific gravity of all samples (viz. fine

grained soil, bentonite, RBI and their mixes) is found out
using density bottle method. Specific Gravity is found in
all the three mediums according to IS Code 2720 Part 3.
2.2.2 Grain size analysis Fig. 2 Clay mixes in basic medium

It is conducted by dry sieving and hydrometer analysis.
The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to
determine the distribution of the coarser, larger-sized
particles, and the hydrometer method is used to determine
the distribution of the finer particles according to IS Code
2720 Part 4.
2.2.3 Atterberg Limits

Atterberg limits viz. liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage
limit of all the materials are found. The pore fluids used
are tap water, NaOH in water; mixture of acetic acid, Fig. 3 Clay mixes in acidic medium
salicylic acid, sodium acetate and calcium according to IS
Code 2720 Part 5.
2.2.4 Standard Proctor Compaction Test

After finding out the properties of the materials used,
Compaction tests are performed using 2.5 kg standard
proctor to determine the compaction characteristics. Here
the samples are compacted in three equal layers using a
rammer where each layer will experience 25 blows
evenly distributed over the specified mould area
according to IS Code 2720 Part 7. Fig. 4 Compaction results
2.2.5 Permeability Tests 3.2 Tables
For determining the hydraulic conductivity of the
materials, falling head permeability test is done. The
Table-1 Properties of permeants
permeability tests are conducted for 15 weeks in all the
three mediums respectively (viz. tap water, basic and Alkaline Acidic
acidic medium) according to IS Code 2720 Part 17. Tap water
medium medium
3. Figures and Tables pH 7.82 11.62 3.36
3.1 Figures
Table-2 Specific Gravity
Tap water Basic Acidic
medium medium
Clay 2.65 2.73 2.52
Clay+5% 2.75 2.54 2.45
Bentonite
Clay+10% 2.73 2.59 2.16
RBI
Fig. 1 Clay mixes in water

Table-3 Atterberg Limits
Liquid Plastic Shrinkage Plasticity
limit limit limit (%) index (%)
(%) (%)
Clay 37.24 18.56 6.25 18.68
34
Assessment of behaviour of soil mixes as probable liner material
Clay+5% 54.86 25.19 7.8 29.67 From the above three experiments, the three mixes are
Bentonite classified. Table 4 shows the classification of the mixes.
Clay+10% 104.62 32.37 5.25 72.25
RBI 4.4 Standard Proctor ccompaction
OMC and MDD of the three mixes are found out by the
standard proctor compaction test. The results are shown
in Fig. 4.
4.5 Permeability Tests

Table- 4 Soil classification The test results of hydraulic conductivity of the three
Clay CI mixes are shown in Table.5,Table.6,Table.7.
5. Conclusions
Clay+5% Bentonite CI From the experiments conducted and the results obtained
as mentioned above, the following conclusions can be
Clay+10% RBI CH
drawn.
Different laboratory tests are conducted on different
combination of clay mixes with Bentonite and RBI to
Table-5 Hydraulic conductivity in tap water find out which of the mixes satisfy the requirements of
Mixes Hydraulic conductivity impermeable material for landfill liners. The basic aim is
to replace the amount of Bentonite with additive like RBI
Clay 1.67 *10^(-9) or clay and it is found to be satisfactory to considerable
Clay +5% Bentonite 1.09*10^(-9) extent.
The basic requirement for impermeable material (liners)
Clay +10% RBI 1.31*10^(-9) is hydraulic conductivity should be equal or less than
10^(-9) m/s. The mixtures which satisfied the liner
requirements are clay, clay+5% Bentonite, clay+10%
Table-6 Hydraulic conductivity in basic medium RBI. These mixtures are again tested for permeability on
the passage of leachate to check whether this requirement
Mixes Hydraulic conductivity
is still satisfied. Other tests like grain size analysis,
Clay 1.87*10^(-9) consistency limits are also conducted to notice the
variation in the properties when leachate is passed. It can
Clay +5% Bentonite 1.23*10^(-9) be concluded that these three mixes can be used as an
Clay +10% RBI 1.42*10^(-9) impermeable material for landfill liners.
References
Table-7 Hydraulic conductivity in acidic medium Komine H, Ogata N (1999) A trial design of buffer
Mixes Hydraulic conductivity materials from the viewpoint of self-sealing,In:
Proceedings of radioactive waste management and
Clay 3.65*10^(-9) environmental remediation, ASME
Clay +5% Bentonite 1.82*10^(-9) B. R. Phanikumar, M. Uma Shankar (2016) Studies on
Hydraulic Conductivity of Fly-ash stabilised expansive
Clay +10% RBI 2.08*10^(-9)
clay liners, Geotech Geol Eng
J. Jeffrey Peirce, Goran Sallfors/ Thomas A. Peel, and
4. Results and Discussion Kelly A. Witter (1987) Effects of selected inorganic
leachates on clay permeability, ASCE
4.1 Specific gravity

Specific gravity of the mixes mixes (clay, clay₊5%
Bentonite, clay₊10% RBI) in tap water, basic medium and
acidic medium are provided in Table 2.
4.2 Grain size analysis

The grain size distribution of the mixes (clay, clay₊5%
Bentonite, clay₊10% RBI) in three different mediums is
presented in Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3.
4.3 Atterberg limits

Values of liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit of the
three mixes obtained are provided in Table 3.
35
USE OF SHREDDED PLASTICS FOR GROUND IMPROVEMENT OF

SOILS OF TRIPURA
Rajat Debnath
Sanjay Paul
E-mail: rd2100@gmail.com,sanjay.civil@nita.ac.in, sanjaypaul_76@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: This paper presents an experimental study on the utilization of shredded plastics which are being obtained
from dump yards and factories in the form of plastic bags, pipes, bottles etc. The paper aims at the proper utilization of
the plastics which might prove to be hazardous not only to environment but also to human health. This paper is a small
step towards proper utilization of plastic dumping and to utilize the concepts of reuse, reduce and recycle. Conventional
methods of plastic dumping such as composting, thermal pyrolysis, incineration are not only expensive but have serious
health hazards. Due to population growth, industrialization, consumerism and technological development there has been
a tremendous increase in the rate of production of plastic waste. Every year, 7.2 million tons of hazardous waste is
produced and its disposal is becoming a major issue and about one square km of additional landfill area is needed every
year. Indian government spends about 1600 crore for treatment and disposal of wastes. In addition to this, industries
discharge about 150 million tons of high volume low hazard wastes very year. In this scenario, the conventional waste
disposal methods are found to be adequate. Soils samples were collected from four different sites of Tripura. Laboratory
investigations were carried out on the soil samples collected, in order to determine the physical and engineering
properties of the soil. In order to assess the effects of shredded plastics after being mixed with soil experiments were
conducted which gave a clear idea of the effect of shredded plastics after being mixed with soil. Laboratory
investigations were performed after mixing shredded plastics in various percentages and results are being obtained
accordingly. The proposed procedure may be of practical significance and may act as an efficient ground improvement
material which might reduce environmental hazard as well and also prove to be economical.
Keywords: Shredded plastics; Laboratory investigation; Conventional methods; Tripura.
1. Introduction of utilization of plastic waste by using them in the

The rate of production of waste has increased stabilization of soil. A series of laboratory tests including
tremendously in almost all parts of the world in the past specific gravity, grain size analysis, Atterberg’s limits,
few decades. The quantities of these waste that are compression test, light compaction, heavy compaction,
accumulating are causing serious disposal problems. The permeability and CBR tests were conducted for this
conventional methods of disposal are found to be purpose. The results of the tests are presented and
inadequate. Due to population growth, industrialization, discussed in this paper.
consumerism and technological development there has
been a tremendous increase in the rate of production of 2. Methodology and Experimentation
plastic waste. Every year, 7.2 million tons of hazardous
waste is produced and its disposal is becoming a major 2.1 Materials
issue and about one square km of additional landfill area
is needed every year. Indian government spends about Plastics in the form of strips, grains and dust are used in
Rs.1600 crore for treatment & disposal of these wastes. this study which are collected from various dump yards
In addition to this, industries discharge about 150 million and factories which were in the form of waste materials.
tonnes of high volume low hazard waste every year, Plastic grains used in this project are obtained from
which is mostly dumped on open low lying land areas. In plastic pipes which are collected from Raj polymer, 13
this scenario, the conventional waste disposal methods Kolkata, W.B. Plastic dust used in this project are
are found to be inadequate. Due to the problems faced by obtained from plastic bottles which are collected from R
the improper disposal of plastics Indian government has M Polypets Pvt. Ltd., 3/1 New Tangra Road, Govind
banned plastics but the plastics which have accumulated Khatich road, Kolkata, W.B. The plastic dust used in this
must be properly disposed in order to minimize the project had specific gravity of 0.481, and the dust
pollution. Through this project, a small attempt has been particles had particle sizes and the grains were sized into.
made at deducing a new method of plastic disposal, Various physical and engineering properties of the
which is on one hand eco-friendly and as well as plastics were obtained from the factories which are
economical. This paper aims at proposing a new method provided in Table1. Plastics which were being collected
of disposal of plastic waste by using them in the were collected as in the form they are disposed so as to
stabilization of soil. The main objective of this study are get a clearer picture of the particle size and form.
safe and productive disposal of plastic wastes, study of Plastic dust was incorporated to do the compressive
index properties and CBR values of variable mixes of soil strength test, specific gravity test, liquid limit, plastic
and shredded plastic waste and suitability of soil-waste limit and shrinkage limit test.
mix in soil. This paper aims at proposing a new method
36
Use of Shredded Plastics for Ground Improvement of Soils of Tripura
2.2 Soil collection 3. Figures and Tables

Soils are being collected from four different sites of
Tripura in order to obtain different varieties of soil, so 3.1 Figures
that after the application of shredded plastics the
behavioral change in the soil can be observed and the
(a) (b)
results which are to be obtained from the tests can be
applied to a large and extensive area and such that the
results are not confined only to a particular area.
2.3 Experiments
Laboratory investigations were carried out in the

laboratory in order to determine various physical and
engineering properties of soil. Various tests were
conducted in the laboratory in order to determine specific
gravity, grain size, Atterberg limits, Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC),
CBR value and permeability of soil were conducted as
per relevant IS Codes. (c) (d)
2.3.1 Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of all the four soil samples were carried

out, as per IS:2720 (Part 3/Sec1).
2.3.2 Grain size analysis
In order to determine the particle size of coarser and finer

particles tests were conducted, as per IS:2720 (Part 4)
which gave a idea about the type of soil and also the Fig.1 (a) Dhaleshwar (b) NIT Agartala (c) Natunnagar
composition of soil and the percentages of sand, silt and (d) Belonia
clay in the soil obtained from all the sites.
2.3.3 Atterberg limits (a) (b)
In order to determine the liquid limit, plastic limit and

shrinkage limit of soil tests were conducted, as per
IS:2720 (Part 5) which gave a idea about the index
properties of the soil.
2.3.4 Light and heavy compaction
In order to determine the MDD and OMC light and heavy

compaction of soil were conducted, as per IS:2720 (Part 7
and 8).
Fig.2 (a) Hydrometer test (b) Light Compaction
2.3.5 CBR
CBR tests were conducted on the soil samples, as per

IS:2720 (Part 16) in order to determine the California
Bearing Ratio of soils.
2.3.6 Permeability
Permeability test of constant head and falling head

method were conducted to determine the permeability of
coarse and fine grained soils which were conducted on
the soil samples, as per IS:2720 (Part 17) in order to
determine the permeability of coarse and fine grained
soils. Fig.3 Light compaction of soils
37
Fig.4 Heavy compaction of soils
Fig.7 C.B.R of soils after mixing 1, 2 and 3% plastic
3.2 Table format

Table-1 Physical properties of plastics
Crystalline Tensile
Temperature
Grade Strength
(oC)
(%) (N/mm2)
0-40 40-110 37-80
Table-2 Properties of plastics
Specific
Cu Cc D 10 D 30 D 60
Gravity
Fig.5 CBR test of soil 3.30 1.75 0.472 100 240 330
Table-3 Grain size analysis and classification of soil
Soil Sand Silt Clay Classification

Dhaleshwar 55 36 9 SM
Natunnagar 36 35 29 CL
NIT Agartala 52 29.2 19.8 SW-ML
Belonia 31 36 33 CM
Table-4 Atterbergs limit and specific gravity of soil
Specific
Soil LL PL SI
Gravity
Dhaleshwar 34.63 23.72 24.79 2.60
Natunnagar 34.63 23.72 22.95 2.72
Fig.6 Light compaction of all soils after NIT Agartala 35.58 23.42 21.49 2.58
mixing 1, 2 and 3% plastic Belonia 35.58 23.42 20.05 2.78
38
Table-5 MDD and OMC of soil by light compaction and

permeability values
Table-9 MDD and OMC of NIT Agartala soil by light
compaction and permeability (k) values after mixing with
MDD OMC K shredded plastics at different percentages
Soil
(KN/m3) (%) (cm/s)
Dhaleshwar 18.95 12.03 2 ×10-2 Shredded
MDD OMC K
-7 plastics
Natunnagar 17.84 14.50 2 ×10 (KN/m3) (%) (cm/s)
(%)
NITAgartala 18.64 12.36 1×10-5
1 18.00 12.36 1.10 ×10-4
Belonia 18.01 15.21 1×10-8
2 17.45 12.36 1.34 ×10-4
3 16.91 12.36 1.44 ×10-4
Table-6 MDD and OMC of soil by heavy compaction
and CBR Values
Table-10 MDD and OMC of Belonia soil by light
compaction and permeability (k) values after mixing with
MDD OMC CBR shredded plastics at different percentages
Soil
(KN/m3) (%)
Dhaleshwar 24.00 10.36 0.19 Shredded
MDD OMC K
plastics
Natunnagar 21.20 9.65 0.03 (KN/m3) (%) (cm/s)
(%)
NITAgartala 23.32 11.03 0.12
1 15.00 15.21 1.10 ×10-4
Belonia 21.78 12.02 0.02 15.21
2 14.95 1.34 ×10-4
3 13.11 15.21 1.44 ×10-4
Table-7 MDD and OMC of Dhaleshwar soil by light
compaction and permeability (k) values after mixing
Table-11 MDD and OMC of Dhaleshwar soil by heavy
with shredded plastics at different percentages
compaction and CBR values after mixing with shredded
plastics at different percentages
Shredded
MDD OMC K Shredded
plastics MDD OMC CBR
(KN/m3) (%) (cm/s) plastics
(%) (KN/m3) (%)
(%)
1 18.00 12.03 3 ×10-1
1 23.02 10.36 0.23
2 17.76 12.03 4 ×10-1
2 22.75 10.36 0.31
3 17.22 12.03 5 ×10-1
3 21.02 10.36 0.42
Table-8 MDD and OMC of Natunnagar soil by light Table-12 MDD and OMC of Natunnagar soil by
compaction and permeability (k) values after mixing with heavy compaction and CBR values after mixing with
shredded plastics at different percentages shredded plastics at different percentages
Shredded Shredded
MDD OMC K MDD OMC CBR
plastics plastics
(KN/m3) (%) (cm/s) (KN/m3) (%)
(%) (%)
1 17.54 14.50 1 21.00 9.65 0.03

2.00 ×10-7
2 20.85 9.65 0.04
2 17.06 14.50 1.09 ×10-6
0.98 ×10-6 3 19.98 9.65 0.06
3 16.29 14.50
39
Table-13 MDD and OMC of NIT Agartala soil by heavy 4.1.6 MDD, OMC by light compaction and K value of
compaction and CBR values after mixing with shredded Natunnagar soil
plastics at different percentages MDD, OMC by light compaction and K value of soil
after inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in
Table 8.
Shredded
MDD OMC CBR 4.1.7 MDD, OMC by light compaction and K value of
plastics
(KN/m3) (%) NIT Agartala soil
(%) MDD, OMC by light compaction and K value of soil
1 23.30 11.03 0.15 after inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in
11.03 Table 9.
2 22.93 0.21
3 22.12 11.03 0.32 4.1.8 MDD, OMC by light compaction and K value of
Belonia soil
MDD, OMC by light compaction and K value of soil
Table-14 MDD and OMC of Belonia soil by heavy after inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in
compaction and CBR values after mixing with shredded Table 10.
plastics at different percentages
4.1.9 MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR
value of Dhaleshwar soil
Shredded MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR value of soil
MDD OMC CBR after inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in
plastics
(KN/m3) (%) Table 11.
(%)
1 21.51 12.02 0.02 4.1.10 MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR
value of Natunnagar soil
2 20.96 12.02 0.03 MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR value of soil
3 20.39 12.02 0.07 after inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in
Table 12.
4.1.11 MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR

value of NIT Agartala soil
4. Results and Discussion
MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR value of soil
after inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in
4.1.1 Grain size analysis and classification Table 13.
Grain size analysis and classification of soil before
inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in Table 3. 4.1.12 MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR
value of Belonia soil
4.1.2 Atterberg limit and specific gravity MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR value of soil
Atterberg limit and specific gravity of soil before after inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in
inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in Table 4. Table 14.
4.1.3 MDD, OMC by light compaction and Kvalue 5. Conclusions
MDD, OMC by light compaction and K value of soil From the laboratory investigation carried out on the
before inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in different types of soil collected from four different sites
Table 5. before and after the inclusion of shredded plastics and
from the experimental results obtained a conclusion can
4.1.4 MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR be drawn that upon inclusion of shredded plastics MDD
value in all the soils decreases both in case of light and heavy
MDD, OMC by heavy compaction and CBR value of compaction whereas the OMC remains constant since
soil before inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in plastic is a non absorbing material whereas on the other
Table 6 side the permeability value in all the four soils indicate a
rise and also the value of CBR also increases upon
4.1.5 MDD, OMC by light compaction and K value of inclusion. Hence, shredded plastics can act as a ground
Dhaleshwar soil improvement material in increasing the CBR ratio of soil
MDD, OMC by light compaction and K value of soil and also in increasing the permeability of soil, however it
after inclusion of shredded plastics are provided in can also be used in the form of layer and appropriate field
Table 7. tests if conducted might lead to more practical
applications.
40
References
ASTM D2435-04 “Standard Test Methods for One-
Dimensional ConsolidationProperties of Soils Using
Incremental Loading”.
ASTM D5567 - 94(2011) “Standard Test Method for

Hydraulic Conductivity Ratio(HCR) Testing of Soil/
Geotextiles Systems”.
Abdi, M. R., Parsapajouh, A., Arjoman, M. A. (2008)

“Effects of Random FibreInclusion on Consolidation,
Hydraulic Conductivity, Swelling, Shrinkage Limit
andDesiccation Cracking of Clays,” International Journal
of Civil Engineering,Vol.6,No. 4.
AlaaAshmawy et.al. (2006) “Stabilization of marginal

soils using recycled wastes”Journal ofGeotechGeoenv.
Eng ASCE 129(10), pp. 951–955.
Bera A.K. and Roy, A. (2012) “Engineering Properties of

Jute Geotextiles and itsEfficacy to the Consolidation of
Soil,” ejge, Vol. 17 (2012), Bund. R, pp. 2631-2645.
Consoli, N.C., Casagrande, M.D.T., Prietto P.D.M. and

Thome, A. (2003) “Plate loadtest on fibre-reinforced
soil,” Journal ofGeotechGeoenv. Eng ASCE 129(10), pp.
951–955.
Chegenizadeh, A. and Nikraz, H. (2011) “Permeability

Test on Reinforced ClayeySand,” World Academy of
Science, Engineering and Technology, 2011, pp 130-133.
Dutta, R.K. and Rao, G.V. (2007) “Regression Models

for Predicting the Behaviour ofSand Reinforced with
Waste Plastic,” Turkish Journal of Engineering
andEnvironmental Science (TJEES), 31 (2007), pp. 119-
126.
Das, S. and Pal, S.K. (2012) “Consolidation

Characteristics of Silty-Clay Soil Mixedwith Class F
Indian Fly Ash,” Indian Geotechnical Conference,
December 13-45,Delhi, pp.849-897Vol. 18 [2013], Bund.
H 1558.
Freitag, D.R. (1986) “Soil randomly reinforced with

fibres,” Journal of GeotechnicalEngineering ASCE 112
(8), pp. 823–826.
Gray, D.H. and Ohashi, H. (1983) “Mechanics of fibre

reinforcement in sand,” Journalof the Geotechnical
Engineering,” 109(3), pp. 335-353.
41
STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF BRIDGES – A CORROSION

APPROACH
Richi Prasad Sharma
Shubham Ajaykumar Maurya
E-mail: richisharma.sharma@gmail.com ; rps.civil@nita.ac.in , shubmaurya@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: This article present detailed description of structural health monitoring of bridges by finding the corrosion
rate and mass loss rate of steel reinforcement, as bridges are more susceptible to corrosion induced damages. Also a
method to find out reduction in stiffness of RC section by relating corrosion rate with peak load and peak displacement
assuming the system to be linear. A statistical probabilistic hypothesis testing approach using Half-cell potentiometer
(HCP) and Electrical Resistivity technique has be used to find out Hypothesis Testing value (HTV). HTV is useful in
drawing inference from the above methods to state that the corrosion is ongoing or it is highly likely in the RC section.
Keywords: SHM; Corrosion Rate; Mass loss rate; Half-cell potentiometer; Electrical Resistivity
1. Introduction “India loses around 4-5 per cent of GDP annually on

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) aims to give, at account of corrosion losses,” Hindustan Zinc Ltd (HZL)
every moment during the life of a structure, a diagnosis CEO Sunil Duggal told PTI. The West, ahead of India in
of the “state” of the constituent materials, of the different terms of infrastructure, mandates use of zinc for
parts, and of the full assembly of these parts constituting galvanizing steel structures in bridges, highways, public
the structure as a whole (Daniel Balageas, 2006). SHM utilities, metro stations and airports, among others, to
can be referred as the process of implementing a damage make them long-lasting and robust. According to Duggal
identification strategy. Here, damage is defined as structures utilizing galvanized steel rebars have much
changes to the material and/or geometric properties of longer life span than the conventional ones. Galvanized
these systems, including changes to the boundary rebar can withstand chloride concentration at least 4-5
conditions and connectivity between systems, which times higher than the black steel rebar and remains
adversely affect the system’s performance. In the most passivated at lower pH levels, substantially slowing the
general terms, damage can be defined as changes rate of corrosion (The Economic Times, 2016).
introduced into a system that adversely affects its current
or future performance. The definition of damage will be 2. Half Cell Potentiometer
limited to changes to the material and/or geometric The Half-cell potentiometer is used to measure the
properties of these systems, including changes to the potential difference between the reinforcement to
boundary conditions and system connectivity, which measure the corrosion activity inside the concrete. The
adversely affect the current or future performance of oxidation of steel can be treated as the electrochemical
these systems. reaction, and the concrete surrounding the rebar acts as
1.1 Need for corrosion monitoring the electrolyte. The apparatus of HCP basically contains
The deterioration of reinforced concrete structures is a an external electrode as standard reference which is
major problem. The cost of repairing or replacing typically comprised of a metal bar immersed in the
deteriorated structures has become a major liability for solution of its own, a voltmeter and a conductivity
highway agencies, estimated to be more than $20 billion sponge just underneath the external electrode. All of
and to be increasing at $500 million per year (Smith J.L., those including the reinforcement of concrete should be
2000). connected by the wire to form a circuit. The name half-
However, as the infrastructure has aged it has become cell derives from the fact that one half of the weak battery
apparent that some environments were more severe than cell is the surrounding concrete and other one half is the
originally thought, and some construction and design steel reinforcement. The electrical potential of a point on
problems have led to lower service lives and higher the surface of steel reinforcing bar can be measured
maintenance costs than originally envisaged. The worst comparing its potential with that of copper–copper
of these problems is caused by corrosion of steel in sulphate reference electrode on the surface.
concrete, either due to carbonation or chloride attack. It is also normal practice to embed ‘‘permanent’’ half
One of the estimates from the USA (Broomfield J P, cells in concrete to monitor the performance of cathodic
2002) is that the cost of damage due to deicing salts alone protection systems for atmospherically exposed steel in
is between $325 and $1000 million per year to bridges concrete. The assessment criteria of corrosion are based
and car parks. In the UK the Department of Transport on the measured value of potential with respect to the
estimates a total repair cost of £616.5 million due to standard value, which means that if the potential exceeds
corrosion damage to motorway bridges (Broomfield J P, the certain range, it can be identified as presence of
2002). These bridges represent about 10% of the total corrosion, and the specific extent of corrosion is in
bridge inventory in the UK. accordance with the magnitude of potential. To ensure a
good electrical connection, some wetting preparations are
42
Structural Health Monitoring of Bridges – A Corrosion Approach
necessary on the surface of concrete to reduce the subjected to an electrical field. In this context, resistivity
resistivity. measurement can be used to assess the size and extent of
the interconnectivity of pores. Resistivity ⍴ is an inherent
2.1. Interpretations of HCP value ranges characteristic of a material, and is independent of the
Some typical HCP value ranges and interpretation. geometry of the sample. Equation (3.1) describes the
• Water saturated concrete without O2: -1000 to -900 mV relationship between the resistivity and resistance:
• Moist, chloride contaminated concrete: -600 to -400 mV ⍴=𝑘𝑅 (3.1)
• Moist, chloride free concrete: -200 to +100 mV where R is the resistance of concrete; and k is a
• Moist, carbonated concrete: -400 to +100 mV geometrical factor which depends on the size and shape
• Dry, carbonated concrete: 0 to +200 mV of the sample as well as the distance between the probes
• Dry, non-carbonated concrete: 0 to +200 mV on the testing device. In practice, electrical resistance is
directly measured by the testing device and resistivity is
calculated from Eq. (3.1).
3.1.1. Measurement Techniques
Several configurations have been proposed to set up
concrete in an electric circuit and perform the impedance
measurements. Generally, the connection of the concrete
to the circuit is provided by metal electrodes.
3.1.1.1. Four-point method
In this technique, the surface electrical resistivity of
concrete is measured using four electrodes. One widely
accepted setup is the Wenner probe, where the four
electrodes are located in a straight line and equally
spaced. The two inner electrodes measure the electrical
potential V created when the exterior electrodes apply an
AC current I to the concrete (Fig 3.2). For a semi-infinite
homogenous material, the geometrical factor is defined
by Eq. (3.2)
Fig. 1: Half-cell potential measurement. (Broomfield J P, 𝑘=𝛾𝑎 (3.2)
2002) where a is the distance between the electrodes (equally
spaced); and γ is the dimensionless geometry correction
Table-1 Interpretation of half-cell potential values as per factor.For semi-infinite concrete elements (for example,
ASTM C876 concrete slabs), γ is equal to 2π.
Half-cell potential (mV) Percentage chance of
relative to Cu/CuSO4 active corrosion
reference electrode
< -350 90%
-200 to -350 50%
> -200 10%
3. Electrical Resistivity
For the quality control and durability assessment of
concrete Electrical resistivity measurement techniques
are becoming popular among researchers. The adoption
of these techniques into standards and guidelines has Fig. 2 Electrical resistivity measuring techniques: four-
been rather slow, with only surface electrical resistivity
adopted as a test method by the American Association of point (Wenner probe) method. (Hamed Layssi, 2015)
State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO This is not the case for tests conducted in a laboratory
TP 95). condition on small cylindrical or cubic specimens. A
3.1. Electrical resistivity concept different geometrical factor or an appropriate correction
Durability of concrete depends largely on the properties factor should be used to account for the effect of sample
of its microstructure, such as pore size distribution and size for laboratory specimens; otherwise, the resistivity
the shape of the interconnections (that is, tortuosity). A will be overestimated.
finer pore network, with less connectivity, leads to lower
permeability. A porous microstructure with larger degree 4. Hypothesis Testing
of interconnections, on the other hand, results in higher HCP and Electrical resistivity have their own advantages
permeability and reduced durability in general. The and disadvantages. As HCP and Electrical Resistivity
principal idea behind most electrical resistivity Technique are indicator of corrosion level, so to get the
techniques is to somehow quantify the conductive confirmation from both the technique, a statistical
properties of the microstructure of concrete. Overall, the hypothesis testing method is used to draw inference from
electrical resistivity of concrete can be described as the
ability of concrete to withstand the transfer of ions
43
the raw data of HCP and Electrical Resistivity to justify reinforcement but, are classified according to the curing
the corrosion activity in RC section. regime.
Ho (Null Hypothesis): Corrosion is not happening in the Table-3 Nomenclature of specimens
reinforcements. Ha (Alternative Hypothesis): Corrosion is Name Grade of Grade Main Cross Length
happening in the reinforcements. Concrete of Steel section
Test conditions: steel
A. Check the HCP value and allot the value as per CS 1 M25 Fe 2- 150 x 600
table 2. CS 2 500 ø8 150mm mm
B. Check the Resistivity and allot the value as per S 11 M25 Fe 2- 150 x 600
table 2. S 12 500 ø8 150mm mm
S 21 M25 Fe 2- 150 x 600
Table-2 Hypothesis testing table S 22 500 ø8 150mm mm
S 31 M25 Fe 2- 150 x 600
Hypothesis HCP
S 32 500 ø8 150mm mm
testing
value 6. Measuring HCP and Electrical Resistivity value
Positive May be Negative
(HTV) Test Potential - Test and Testing the Hypothesis
Potential <- 200 to -350 Potential HCP and Electrical Resistivity values are measured using
350 mV mv >-200 mV Proceq corrosion analyser and resistivity meter at 170
(corroded) (Corrosion (non- days after the curing regime.
starting corroded)
phase)
Electrical
Resistivity 1 0.5 0.25
ρ ≤ 8 kΩcm True False
Positive positive
Electrical
Resistivity 0.5 0.25 0
ρ = 8 to 12
kΩcm
Electrical
Resistivity 0.25 0 0
ρ ≥ 12 False True Fig. 3: Half Cell Potentiometer
kΩcm Negative Negative
4.1. Acceptation and rejection of hypothesis

If the HTV comes out to be 1 then accept the alternative
hypothesis (Ha) as it is true positive and reject the null
hypothesis (Ho). If the HTV comes out to be 0 then
accept null hypothesis (Ho) as it is true negative and
reject the alternative hypothesis (Ha). If the HTV lies
between 0-1 then it is a mixed case of both null
hypothesis (Ho) and alternative hypothesis (Ha). If the
HTV lie close to 1 then check for vulnerability to
corrosion based on knowledge of the factor which will Fig. 4: Electrical Resistivity test, using Wenner Probe
lead to corrosion in the RC section. If HTV lie close to 0
then check for vulnerability to corrosion based on visual
examination. Table-4 Average Potential Difference and Resistivity
5. Sampling and Modelling Samples Potential Resistivity in
This method of hypothesis testing needs to be first tested Difference KΩcm
in laboratory before being implemented in the field. For CS - 172 8.5
this eight beams were casted of M25 grade concrete, with
two main steel of ø8 fe500, without shear reinforcement. S1 - 377 5.26
As corrosion is a time dependent phenomenon, to
accelerate the corrosion activity in the sections, sections S2 - 415 4.27
are being put into 7 days wet and dry cycle, and during
wet cycle sections are cured with 3% salt solution, 5% S3 - 551 3.4
salt solution and 3% salt solution and 3% acid solution.
CS is the control specimen, S for sample and S11 is read
as sample 1 of type S1. All the samples have same main
44
Table-5 Hypothesis testing values The corrosion rate can be calculated by two terms, either
in terms of penetration rate (CR) or mass loss rate (MR).
Sample HTV Remark
The first step is to convert the measured or estimated
current value to current density, by dividing the total
CS1 0.5 Corrosion may be current by the geometric exposed area of the electrode
possible (steel rebar). It is assumed that the current distributes
S11 1 corrosion is fairly uniformly across the area used in this calculation. In the
certain case of galvanic couples, the exposed area of the anodic
S21 1 corrosion is fairly specimen should be used. This calculation may be
certain expressed as by ASTM G102 as follows:
S31 1 corrosion is fairly 𝑖
certain 𝐶𝑅 = 𝑘1 𝑐𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑊 (7.3)
⍴
𝑀𝑅 = 𝑘2 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑊 (7.4)
7. Measuring of Corrosion rate
𝐼
Based on the knowledge it is well known that corrosion 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴
leads to reduction in mass of the metal (Mohammed CR = mm/y
Elghazy, 2017) given by, MR = g/m2 d and
𝐼𝑡𝑎
𝑚= (7.1) k1 = 3.27 * 10-3 mm g/ μA cm y
𝑛𝐹
where, m = mass loss (in grams), I = corrosion current (in k2 = 0.8953, g/A m2 d
Ampere), t = corrosion duration (in seconds), a = the ⍴ = 7.85 gm/cm3 for steel
atomic mass of iron (55.847grams), n = the number of EW is equivalent weight of element = 27.93 for steel
electrons transferred during the corrosion reaction (n = 2
for iron), and F = Faraday’s constant (96.500 Table-7 Corrosion rate and Mass loss rate
C/equivalent). By measuring the weight loss, corrosion
current I is found out. Various methods e.g. Linear Sample icor (μA/cm2) CR (mm/y) MR (g/m2
Polarization Resistance (LPR) method, etc. are there to
x 10-5 x 10-7 d) x 10-4
find out the corrosion current. But, here in this
experiment, after 170 days of curing regime all the beams CS1 2.58 3.001 6.451
were tested for flexure to find out the reduction in
CS2 3.864 4.495 9.66
stiffness of the beam due to corrosion of main
reinforcement. All the main reinforcement were weighed S11 26.74 31.11 66.86
previously before the casting of the beams, to set them as
S12 25.71 29.91 64.28
the benchmark and after flexural testing, the main
reinforcement of the beams were taken out and weighed S21 30.29 35.24 75.74
to find out the mass loss due to corrosion. Then this loss
S22 35.35 41.12 88.39
in mass is used to find out the corrosion current using Eq.
S31 57.65 67.07 144.41
7.1. Table 6 summarizes the loss in mass, time after
S32 60.84 70.78 152.13
which mass was measured and corresponding corrosion
current for that particular mass loss and beam sample.
Table-6 Mass loss and Corrosion Current
The beam samples were tested for maximum flexural load
Sample Time (s) Mass loss Corrosion
carrying capacity after 170 days. Considering the system
(gm) Current, I (μA)
to be in linear system. The peak load will be given at peak
CS1 14688000 1 0.235
displacement, based on this reduction in stiffness is
CS2 14688000 1.5 0.352
calculated and summarized in table 8.
S11 14688000 10.361 2.436
S12 14688000 9.956 2.341
S21 14688000 13.692 2.759
Table-8 Average Peak load, displacement, stiffness and
S22 14688000 11.733 3.22
S31 14688000 22.331 5.251 corrosion rate
S32 14688000 23.568 5.542
Sample Peak Peak Stiffness CR
The amount of corrosion is related to the electrical energy load Displacement (kN/mm) (mm/y)
consumed, which is a function of voltage, amperage, and
(kN) (mm) x 10-7
time interval. The amount of corrosion can be estimated
by Faraday’s law. Hence, the electric current icor can be CS 71.65 4.1 17.47 3.747
estimated by ASTM G102,
𝐼 S1 75.45 4.9 15.397 30.51
𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟 = (7.2)
𝐴
where, icor = corrosion current density, μA/cm2 S2 83.35 5.8 14.37 38.18
I = total anodic current, μA and S3 53.13 7.1 7.48 68.92
A = exposed specimen area, cm2
45
8. Conclusion
• It can be shown that with the increase in corrosion
rate stiffness of the beam is reducing. The method of
relating corrosion rate and mass loss rate with the
peak load and stiffness can be done easily.
• HCP and Electrical resistivity method can be
combined and inference can be drawn using
hypothesis testing value (HTV). This validates HCP
values and certainty can be assured about the
corrosion activity.
• HCP method is one of the simple method to know the
corrosion activity in the RC section since the
equipment is handy and less time consuming.
• HCP can be embedded permanently at few key
location in RC sections.
• Corrosion rate and mass loss rate can be found out
using icor from more sophisticated method e.g.LPR,
etc.
• Prognosis of RC structure can be done by relating
corrosion rate with reduction in stiffness of RC
sections.
References
AASHTO TP 95, “Standard Test Method for Surface
Resistivity of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride
Ion Penetration”, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington,
DC, V.10, 2014.
ASTM C876-09, “Standard Test Method for Corrosion
Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in
Concrete”, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
PA, 2009
ASTM G102-89(2015) e1, “Standard Practice for
Calculation of Corrosion Rates and Related
Information from Electrochemical Measurements”,
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015
Broomfield J P, D. K. (2002), “The use of permanent
corrosion monitoring in new and existing reinforced
concrete structures”, Cement & Concrete Composites,
v. 33, pp. 27-34.
Daniel Balageas, C.-P. F. (2006). Introduction to
Structural Health Monitoring. In C.-P. F. Daniel
Balageas, Structural Health Monitoring (pp. 13-39).
London: ISTE Ltd.
//economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/54878379.c
ms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text
&utm_campaign=cppst
Hamed Layssi, P. G. (2015), "Electrical Resistivity of
Concrete, Concepts, applications, and measurement
techniques", Concrete International, v.55, pp. 41-47.
Mohammed E., A. E. (2017), "Effect of Corrosion
Damage on the Flexural Performance of RC Beams
Strengthened with FRCM Composites", Composite
Structures,v. 65, 485-498.
Smith J.L., Y. V. (2000), “Materials and Methods for
Corrosion Control of Reinforced and Prestressed
Concrete Structures in New Construction”, Office of
Infrastructure Research and Development, Federal
Highway Administration, V.I. USA.
46
A STUDY ON EFFECT OF EPOXY RESIN IN THE PROPERTIES OF

BITUMINOUS MIX
Protyay Podder
Manish Pal
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Agartala, Email- protyay.prince@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The rapid increase in the traffic load, higher traffic volume, substantial variation in daily and seasonal temperature
led to thermal and fatigue cracking, rutting and many severe distresses in the flexible pavements in India. Because of this failure
during service time there is a demand for modification of bitumen. Five percentages (5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9% and 10%) of epoxy
resin are used as modifier in this study. Epoxy resin modified bitumen shows more stability and less bitumen optimization in the
mix when compared to unmodified bitumen. This study shows that the maximum marshall stability is obtained at a bitumen
content of 5% mixed with epoxy resin quantity of 7%. Epoxy resin has more resistant to temperature susceptibility, moisture
susceptibility and less resistant to short term ageing than unmodified bitumen. Therefore, it can be concluded that the application
of crumb rubber is suitable for lowering production temperature with satisfactory performance.
Keywords: Epoxy resin, modified binder, marshall mix design.
1. Introduction
Epoxy resin is the term usually applied to natural resin from with straight run bitumen and that too at reduced optimum
trees. During the recycling process it is purified and liquid modified binder content (5.67 %). [3].
resin is fromed. Here another solition is mixed while using in
the laboratory which is called thinner. As resin is very much 3. Objective of the Study
viscous material so thinner is used to reduce it is density at a The aim of this research project is to develop an understanding
certain percentage. Epoxy resin modified (ERM) asphalt is a of the way in which resin modifies the mechanical
general type of modified asphalt that contains epoxy resin and performance of the bituminous material and epoxy resin
certain amount of thinner. Modified asphalt paving products modified bitumen (ERMB) mixture following wet process.
can be made with Epoxy resin by special techniques, which is The overall aim of the study is as follows:
a wet process and. Binder modification of this type is due to
physical and compositional changes in an interaction process a. To evaluate the various physical and engineering
where the resin particles swell in the bitumen by absorbing a properties of bitumen and to compare the test results with
percentage of the lighter fraction of the bitumen, to form a plain and epoxy resin modified bitumen.
viscous gel.
B. To evaluate the performance of aggregates by testing
various physical and engineering properties.
2. Literature Review
Nabin. (2014), modification of bitumen with 10% by weight C. To evaluate the performance of aggregates by testing
of epoxy resin observed that stability increase first and then various physical and engineering properties.
decrease. OBC was determined at 15%. It was concluded that D. To evaluate the optimum percentage of bitumen by
best size was finer size [1]. Haunge. et. al. (2007), claimed conducting Marshall Test for different percentage of bitumen
that using Resin showed an improvement in the performance and epoxy resin and comparing the test results.
of pavements over the base binders as a result of the
interaction of Resin with base binders. Due to this interaction, 4. Methodology Planned for the Study
there are noticeable changes in the viscosity, physical and
rheological properties of the Resin modified bitumen binder Asphalt concrete is a widely used material throughout the
and leading to high resistance of rutting of pavements. [2]. world. To meet the requirement of the present era, more
Shankar. et. Al. (2009), Acrylic Resin modified bitumen was material is required. Aggregate and bitumen are important
blended at specified temperatures. Marshall’s mix design was ingredient materials of asphalt concrete.
carried out by changing the modified bitumen content at As there are limited sources of ingredient material, in near
constant optimum resin content and subsequent tests have future, there will be a shortage of important ingredient
been performed to determine the different mix design materials. An extra material which can enhance the properties
characteristics and for conventional bitumen (60/70) also. This of asphalt concrete by modifying the low grade materials, a
has resulted in much improved characteristics when compared great amount of material can be saved without compromising
with the desired quality. The methodology consists of two
47
A Study on Effect of Epoxy Resin in the Properties of Bituminous Mix
basic stages. First is to check the basic properties of ingredient 6

materials and secondly the Marshall mix design of unmodified 0% ER
VA (%)
bitumen and bitumen mixed with epoxy resin at various 4
5% ER
percentages starting from 5% up to 10%. 2
6% ER
5. Experimental Investigation 0
VA 7% ER
Experimental investigation consists of two specific stages. The Type of Mix 8%ER
primary stage is to carry out all the basic physical attribute
tests of ingredient materials which are mineral aggregate and Fig. 3 VA vs. % ER (Epoxy resin)
unmodified bitumen. The second stage consists of Marshall
Mix design and to obtain the optimum quantity of epoxy resin The following figure shows the relationship between VFB and
to be mixed with the optimum bitumen content that will give percentage of Epoxy resin
the maximum Marshall Stability value. The initial stage
consists of checking the material properties with respect to the
100
standard values as proposed by the Indian Road Congress. The 0% ER
90
VFB(%)
second stage consists of preparation of Marshall Test
specimens and to obtain the optimum bitumen content. Results 80 5% ER
showed that the optimum bitumen content was 5%. Next 70 6% ER
modified Marshall Samples were prepared at optimum 60
VFB 7% ER
bitumen content with varied proportions of epoxy resin
starting from 5% to 10%. The relation between the Type of mix 8%ER
percentages of epoxy resin and Marshall Stability value, Flow,
VMA, VFB, VA and Unit wt. are described in the following Fig. 4 VFB vs. % ER (Epoxy resin)
bar chart.
From the figure below it shows the relationship between unit
20 wt. and percentage of Epoxy resin.
0%ER
Stability (kN)
15
10 5% ER 2.47
Unit Wt. (gm/cc)
5 0% ER
6% ER 2.46
0 5% ER
Stability 7% ER 2.45
6% ER
Type of Mix 8%ER 2.44
UW 7% ER
Fig. 1 Stability vs. % ER (Epoxy resin) Type of Mix 8%ER
The following figure shows the relationship between Flow and

percentage of Epoxy resin. Fig. 5 Unit Wt. vs. % ER (Epoxy resin)
6
0% ER
Flow (mm)
4
5% ER
2 In the figure below it shows the relationship between VMA
6% ER and percentage of Epoxy resin.
0
Flow 7% ER
Type of Mix 8%ER 30

0% ER
VMA(%)
20
Fig. 2 Flow vs. % ER (Epoxy resin) 5% ER
10
6% ER
From the figure below shows the relationship between VA and 0
VMA 7% ER
percentage of Epoxy resin.
Type of Mix 8%ER
Fig. 6 VMA vs. % ER (Epoxy resin)
48
A Study on Effect of Epoxy Resin in the Properties of Bituminous Mix
Indirect Tensile strength Test:- The indirect tensile strength Tensile strength ratio
is used to measure the tensile strength of the bituminous
90
concrete which can be used to assess the fatigue behavior. The
IDT (KPa)
standard procedure as per ASTMD6931 is followed to prepare 70
the sample for the test as well as to measure the failure loads.
50
The ITS provides a measure of the tensile strength of the
0% ER 7% ER
bituminous mixes. The test is conducted on the conditioned
% ER
and unconditioned samples. Three samples are kept in freezer
for 16 hours and then placed in a water bath for 24 hrs. at a
temperature of 60ºC. These samples are considered as Tensile strength ratio
conditioned samples. Another 3 samples are kept
unconditioned. The sample is tested in the Marshall stability Fig. 8 TSR vs. % ER
testing equipment. The indirect tensile strength results are
presented in Table 1. 6. Conclusion
The study shows that for an optimum bitumen content of 5%
Table- 1 Tensile strength the dosage of epoxy resin for modification is to be limited to
7%. This indicates that a design of such modified flexible
Type of Dry IDT Wet IDT TSR % pavement layer to last long, 7% epoxy resin is to be added.
mix at OBC Strength Strength This result is supported with the fact that at 7% epoxy resin
(KPa) (KPa) content the unit weight of the Marshall mix is also maximum.
Hence, it shows that the packing is at its densest state when a
7% of epoxy resin content is maintained.
0% ER 573.31 474.80 82.81
7% ER 897.13 782.62 87.23 References
Kenji Haunge, yokkaichai, Kouichi Sakaguchi Tsu, (2007)
“Epoxy Resin-Bitumen material composition”.
Shankar, Pragyan Mohan (2009), “A Critical Review: The

1000 Modification, Properties, and Application of Epoxy
IDT(KPA)
Resin”.
800
600 Nabin Rana Magar (2014), “Epoxy Resin-Modified Asphalt
Mixture for Application to Orthotopic Bridge Deck”.
400
0%ER 7%ER
Syed Usman Husainy ,(2017) Enhancement of Stabilization
%ER in Bituminous Road Using Polythylene and Epoxy Resin”.
IDT Dry IDT Wet Dennis Krivohlavek, Claremore Okal, (1993), “Method of
producing, using and composition of Phenolic-type resin
modified asphalt or Bitumen”.
Indian Standards, “Methods of test for aggregates for

concrete;particle size and shape”, IS : 2386, Part 1, 1963.
Fig. 7 IDT OF Dry and Wet sample vs. % ER
49
PERFORMANCE OF POROUS ASPHALT MIX WITH BRICK AS

AGGREGATE
Joydeep Datta
Akhilesh Kumar
Fhani Bushan Chakma
Barnali Debnath
Partha Pratim Sarkar
E-mail : joydeepdatta96@gmail.com; akhilesh16096@gmail.com; aakashchakma60@gmail,com; brnali540@gmail.com ; ps_partha@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Porous asphalt is an open-graded asphalt mix or open graded friction course (OGFC), generally lacking
of fine materials, which makes it highly porous to ensure adequate permeability for storm water drainage through
interconnected air pockets. As, an alternative of conventional pavements, this porous asphalt pavements (PA) have
earned its major attention for supporting ground water recharge and reducing the downstream flooding conditions.
Apart from this, its anti-stripping performances, improved skid resistance, mitigating night glare, improved thermal
healing capacity and reduction of traffic noise become the primary reason for choosing this pavement type. In this
study, the performance of porous asphalt is evaluated using brick as aggregate, because Tripura, a north eastern state of
India, does not have any significant sources of stone to cater the need of the state and as a result stones needs to be
imported from neighbouring states and thereby becomes costly due to transportation cost and scarcity. Brick aggregates,
therefore may be the best alternative here as it is easier and economical to produce by burning earth to desired forms.
So, an attempt is taken in this study to check the feasibility of the use of brick aggregate in porous asphalt mix.
Laboratory tests performed revealed that the brick aggregate can easily be used as a replacement of conventional stone
aggregate.
Keywords: Marshall Mix, IDT test, Permeability, Over burnt aggregate.
1. Introduction for phosphorous, from using porous asphalt pavements.

Porous asphalt pavements are a multifunctional low During the winter, porous asphalt pavements have
impact development (LID) technology, which integrates excellent performance since water drains quickly through
ecological and environmental goals for a site with land the surface. They are a potential strategy for minimizing
development goals, reducing the net environmental use of dicing chemicals. The University of New
impact for a project. With proper design and installation, Hampshire Storm water Center reports a 75% or greater
porous asphalt pavements can provide a cost-effective reduction of dicing salts. The research objectives of the
solution for storm water management in an project recovered from the literature review has been
environmentally friendly way. As a result, they are incorporated.
recognized as a best practice by the U.S. Environmental
The main objective of this study is to check the
Protection Agency (EPA) and many state agencies.
performance of porous asphalt using brick as aggregate.
Unlike conventional pavements, porous asphalt
Tripura, a north eastern state of India, does not have any
pavements are typically built over an uncompacted
significant sources of stone to cater the need of the state
subgrade to maximize infiltration through the soil. The
and as a result stones needs to be imported from
different types of open graded mixes used for surfacing
neighbouring states and thereby becomes costly due to
or wearing courses are porous friction course (PFC),
transportation cost and scarcity. Brick aggregates,
porous asphalt(PA), porous European mix (PEM), open-
therefore may be the best alternative here as it is easier
graded friction course (OGFC), open graded asphalt
and economical to produce by burning earth to desired
(OGA), two-layer porous asphalt (TLPA), etc. These
forms. So, an attempt is taken in this study to check the
types of surfaces offer wide range of benefits including
feasibility of the use of brick aggregate in porous asphalt
mainly increased permeability and noise reduction, in
mix. Laboratory tests performed revealed that the brick
addition to advantages during wet weather conditions
aggregate can easily be used as a replacement of
such as improved skid resistance, reduced splash and
conventional stone aggregate.
spray, and minimized glare effect. One of the greatest
benefits of porous asphalt pavements is its effectiveness 2. Experimental Program
for storm water management, improving water runoff
quality, reducing storm water runoff, and restoring 2.1 Materials
groundwater supplies. Storm water drains through the The coarse aggregate used in this study is over burnt
open-graded asphalt surface. As it drains, contaminants brick aggregate collected from locally available brick
are filtered and microbial activity decomposes pollutants, industry. The full bricks are collected and then crushed
improving water quality. Several studies have quantified and sieved to required sizes. The size of coarse aggregate
high removal rates of total suspended solids (TSS), used in this study is ranges from 4.75 mm to 12.5 mm.
metals, oil and grease, as well as moderate removal rates The properties of over burnt brick is shown in Table 1.
50
Performance of Porous Asphalt Mix with Brick as Aggregate
VG-30 grade binder is used in this study collected from

locally available dealer.
2.2 Marshall mix design

Marshall Test is carried out in porous asphalt mix at
different bitumen percentages and the optimum bitumen
content is obtained from the obtained results. Here
Marshall Samples are made with 5 different bitumen
contents – 6%, 7%, 8%, 9% and 10%. For each bitumen
percentages, three samples are prepared and their average
values are taken for mix calculation. The weights of
samples are taken in air and water to obtain the bulk
volume and void content of the mix.
Table-1 Properties of aggregates Fig. 2 Flow vs. bitumen percentages
Particulars Over burnt Bricks

Water absorption 11.2%
Impact Value 36.6%
Crushing Value 38.07%
Abrasion Value 43.95%
Flakiness Index 41.1%
Elongation Index 36.4%
Specific Gravity 1.91
Fig. 3 Air void vs. bitumen percentages

3. Result and Discussion
3.2 Permeability of porous asphalt mix
3.1 Results of Marshall test
Permeability is carried out using a falling head test. The
Marshall Test is carried out in porous asphalt mix at
experimental setup for this test procedure consists of a
different bitumen percentages and the optimum bitumen
standpipe, a mould to keep specimen and valves to
content is obtained from the obtained results. Here
control the flow. The specimen preparation materials
Marshall Samples are made with 5 different bitumen
included plumbers putty, plastic wrap, clear tape, and a
contents – 6%, 7%, 8%, 9% and 10%. For each bitumen
stopwatch. The first step to preparing a specimen was to
percentages, three samples are prepared and their average
wrap the specimen in plastic wrap around the sides to
values are taken for mix calculation. The weights of
force the water to exit through the bottom of the
samples are taken in air and water to obtain the bulk
specimen instead of out the circumference of the
volume and void content of the mix. The variation of
specimen. A piece of clear tape was then placed along the
different parameters with different bitumen percentages
top of the specimen (sticky side facing out), so that once
are shown in Figs. 1 to 3.
the specimen was in the mould, water couldn’t flow
between the specimen and mould. The specimen was then
placed into the standpipe. Plumbers putty was then placed
on the outer edge of the specimen, over the clear tape, to
prevent any water leakage between the standpipe and the
specimen. The water outlet was located at the same
elevation as the top of the specimen and all of the pipes
were levelled. The results obtained are presented in Table
2
Table-2 Permeability of bituminous mix at different
bitumen percentages
Bitumen (%) Permeability (cm/sec)
6 5.4
7 5.11
8 4.37
Fig. 1 Stability vs. bitumen percentages
9 4.22
51
10 4.12 t = specimen height immediately before test, mm

D = specimen diameter, mm
3.5 Variation of permeability with porosity

The variation of permeability with porosity is shown in
Fig. 4.6. With the increase of porosity of the mix, the
permeability gradually increases.
Fig. 5 Indirect tensile strength vs. bitumen content
3.6. Determination of optimum bitumen content

Optimum bitumen content is obtained from the evaluated
test results using Marshall Mix design. Considering all
the parameters, the center line method is used to obtain
Fig. 4 Porosity vs. Permeability
the optimum bitumen content and is found that 9%
bitumen content showed the best results comparing to
other.
3.6 Result of indirect tensile test
The tensile properties of bituminous mixtures are of
interest to pavement engineers because of the problems
4. Conclusion
associated with cracking. The indirect tensile strength test
(IDT) is used to determine the tensile properties of the
bituminous mixture which can further be related to the  Over-burnt brick aggregate could not able to
cracking properties of the pavement. The tensile fulfil all the requirements for bituminous
characteristics of bituminous mixtures are evaluated by concrete.
loading the Marshall specimen. The specimen is  With the increase of bitumen percentages,
subjected to a compressive load along a diametric plane porosity gradually deceases
at a constant rate of 51 mm/min acting parallel to the
vertical diametrical plane of the specimen through two  With the increase of porosity, the permeability
opposite loading strips. A 12 mm wide strip loading is also increases.
used for 100 mm diameter specimen to provide a uniform  From the Marshall Test results, it can be
loading with which produces a nearly uniform stress concluded that the brick aggregate can also be
distribution. The static indirect tensile strength of a used as a replacement for stone aggregate for
specimen is determined using the procedure outlined in making porous asphalt mix.
ASTM D 6931. The test should be conducted at exactly
25℃ if other temperature is not specified.
Tensile failure occurs in the sample rather than the References
compressive failure. The peak load is recorded and it is Hamzah, M.O., Hasan, M.R.M, Ven, M., & Yahaya,
divided by appropriate geometrical factors to obtain the A.S.(2012). The effects of initial conditioning and
split tensile strength using the following equation: ambient temperatures on abrasion loss and temperature
change of porous asphalt,Construction and Building
Materials, 29, 108–113.
Hasan, M.R.M, Eng, J.Y., Hamzah, M.O., & Voskuilen
J.L.M. (2013).The effects of break point location and
nominal maximum aggregate size on porous asphalt
(Eq. 1) properties, Construction and Building Materials, 44,
360–3.
Where, Luo, S., Qing, L., & Qian, Z. (2015). Performance
evaluation of epoxy modified open-graded porous asphalt
S t = Indirect Tensile strength, kPa concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 76, 97–
P = maximum load, N 102.
52
Martin, W.D., & Putman, B.J. (2016). Comparison of

methods for measuring porosity of porous paving
mixtures, Construction and Building Materials, 125,
299–305.
Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD). Rural road
development plan vision: 2025. India: National Rural
Roads Development Agency; 2007.
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH).
Road development plan vision: 2021. New Delhi, India:
Indian Roads Congress; 2001.
Poulikakos, L.D., & Partl, M.N. (2009). Evaluation of
moisture susceptibility of porous asphalt concrete using
water submersion fatigue tests,Construction and Building
Materials, 23, 3475–3484.
Smith, J.R. (2000). Asphalt rubber open graded friction
course. Asphalt Rubber 2000 Villamoura, Portugal.
Southern African Bitumen Association (SABITA). The
design and use of porous asphalt mixes. Manual 17,
Roggebaai, South Africa; 1995.
Suresha, S.N., Varghese, G, & RaviShankar, A.U.
(2009). A comparative study on properties of porous
friction course mixes with neat bitumen and modified
binders, Construction and Building Materials, 23, 1211–
1217.
53
RESPONSE OF SOIL WITH AND WITHOUT SAND COMPACTION PILES

Abhiparna Dasgupta
Sujit Kumar Pal
E-mail : abhiparnakiit90@gmail.com ;E-mail : skpal1963@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The soft soil deposits are characterised by their poor strength and compressible behaviour. The
construction of geotechnical structures becomes challenging when such soil deposits get encountered at the site. The
use of granular pile is one of the method for improving soft clays and loose sand deposits.In this paper, the results
obtained after conducting laboratory experiments on clayey silt soil by using displacement type granular piles are
presented. Tests results showed that there was a decrease in settlement of clayey silt soil layer due to the installation of
sand compaction piles. The decrease was about 20%, 25% and 30% for soil improved with a single, double and three
numbers of sand compaction piles when compared with un-improved soil strata.
Keywords: soft soil; poor strength; granular pile.
1. Introduction force distribution are relatively insensitive towards the
Construction on soft grounds pose a great challenge for same. The undrained shear strength of clay which was
the geotechnical engineers as problems like, bearing improved using sand compaction piles was anticipated by
capacity failure, slope instability or excessive settlement Asaoka et al. (1994). Sharma et al. (2004) studied the
may occur either during or after construction; this type of compressive load response of granular piles reinforced
soil possess low shearing strength and are highly with geogrids. They performed a series of tests to
compressible. In such situations, geotechnical engineers investigate the improvement in load carrying capacity
usually adopt various ground improvement techniques. A and reduction in bulging of a granular pile in soft clay by
technique that improves the engineering properties of the reinforcing with geogrids. Their studies revealed an
soil mass treated is known as ground improvement. increase in the load carrying capacity of geogrid
Usually, shear strength, stiffness and permeability are reinforced piles and improvement in engineering
improved for better performance of a soil layer. Ground behavior with increase in the number of geogrids and
improvement is widely used to support foundations for a decrease in spacing between them. The improvement in
wide variety of structures. Various ground improvement bearing capacity of footing in soft clay improved with
techniques viz., lime stabilization, cement, fly ash or sand sand piles with and without confinement was studied by
compaction piles are used to achieve the desired shear Nazir and Azzam. (2010).They performed laboratory
strength so that the soil strata could bear the external load experiments to study the effect of sand pile to improve
from geotechnical structures. The sand compaction pile bearing capacity and reduce settlement. Various research
method is a method of improving soft ground by means works have been done proving sand compaction pile as
of installing well-compacted sand piles in the ground. It an effective alternative for improving soft soils as well as
combines fundamental principles of ground improvement loose soil strata.
as densification and drainage. Sand Compaction Pile
technology has been developed in Japan since the 1950s 2. Materials and Methodology
and has been widely applied in various structures on both
clayey and sandy soil strata (as liquefaction mitigation 2.1 Testing Tank
and increasing the confinement of the existing loose A 36 cmx36 cmx60 cm steel test tank was used to carry
stratum).The sand compaction pile method is used out the load tests. The tank is of rectangular cross section
frequently in construction to form compacted sand piles provided with handles for easy lift and placing. It is
by vibration, dynamic impact or static excitation in soft transparent on two adjacent sides, made of tough glass
ground. Displacement type granular piles can densify soft whereas the other two adjacent sides are made of steel.
soils and strengthen the ground. In the present study, a
laboratory investigation has been made to investigate the 2.2 Model Footing
improvement on the properties of clayey-silt soil bed due A steel circular plate with 15 cm diameter and 9 cm
to installation of a group of displacement type granular thickness was used as the model footing for carrying out
piles. Balaam and Booker (1980) presented the solutions the load tests.
for the magnitude and rate of settlement of rigid
foundations supported by soil reinforced with granular 2.3 Test Material
piles. They developed an analytic solution using elasticity
2.3.1 Clayey-silt Soil
for the settlement of the rigid foundation by considering a
Laboratory experiments are conducted to find the
typical cylindrical pile-soil unit. They also gave
physical and geotechnical properties of the clayey-silt
expressions for evaluating the moment and shear
type of soil and the values have been reported in Table 1.
distributions across the foundation. Their results showed
The soil is mixed with water equal to its liquid limit and
that the errors in the stresses by assuming an equivalent
the thoroughly mixed soil is placed in the test tank upto a
circular area are negligible and moment distributions
depth of 25cm in layers, each layer being compacted to
depend largely on the arrangement of piles whereas shear
54
Response of soil with and without sand compaction piles
remove the presence of air voids. The soil bed is then

allowed for consolidation.
Table 1 Properties of Clayey-silt and sand.
2.3.2 Sandy Soil
Notation/
Sand columns are prepared with the help of steel pipe Clayey-silt Sand
having diameter of 1.5cm. Table 1 details the properties Properties Unit
of sandy soil used for construction of sand piles. The
sand columns are installed in the clayey-silt soil bed by Classification
driving the steel pipe statically. To prevent entry of the (IS: 1498-1970) - CI SP
sand into the pipe during driving, a steel rod with a closed
circular base was inserted in to the pile. The length of the
Specific Gravity G(-) 2.68 2.62
sand column was 25 cm which is 1.6 times the diameter
of the footing. Special care has been taken to maintain the
Liquid Limit w L (%) 36 -
verticality of the sand pile during installation.
Plastic limit w P (%) 23 -
2.4 Test Methodology
A rectangular tank of size 36 cmx36 cmx60 cm is used to
carry out the load tests on clayey-silt soil with and Plasticity index I P (%) 13 -
-9
without sand compaction pile. A 25 cm Clayey-silt soil Permeability k (m/s) 1.26×10 -
bed is prepared in layers and is then rested for
Optimum
consolidation and then a sand blanket of 5 cm is placed w (%) 17 12
moisture content
over the soil bed. A circular model footing having 9 cm Maximum dry MDD
thickness and a diameter of 15 cm is placed over the sand 17.25 22.18
unit weight (kN/m3)
bed and incremental load is applied in a sequential Cohesion c (kN/m2) 22.31 -
manner till 1.2 kN with the help of rectangular steel
Friction ϕ (o) - 37
plates and each increment of load had been allowed until mv
very little change(less than 0.002 mm/min) in settlement Coefficient of
(m2/MN) 0.09 -
is observed. Figure 1 shows the schematic arrangement volume change
for the load test. The settlement of the footing is Compression
measured with the help of a dial gauge of least count Cc(-) 0.21 -
index
0.01mm. Settlement of the model footing is measured for
10 days. After 10 days, the loading set up has been
removed and again prepared but with installation of a
D
single sand pile. A steel casing is used for maintaining
the verticality of the sand pile. The pipe is driven in the
clayey-silt soil bed and sand is poured in to the pipe using
a funnel. After construction of sand pile, a 5 cm layer of
sand blanket is placed over the soil bed. Now, the circular
footing is placed over it and loading arrangements are d
done to measure value of settlement of the combined
foundation system. The load settlement characteristics of
the composite foundation system is then studied from the
experimental results. Load setup arrangement is then
repeated for sand pile configurations shown in Fig. 2.
Rectangular loading plates

Circular footing (diameter= 15cm and
thickness= 9cm) S
Sand blanket
60cm
5cm
d= Diameter of sand pile , D= Diameter of loading plates, S= spacing between piles
Soft clay
25cm
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of different
configuration of sand pile installation.
36cm For installation of a double sand pile as shown in Fig.2,
S/d ratio of 3 is chosen. The load settlement
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of load test characteristics is then found out for the composite
arrangement foundation with two sand piles spaced at a c/c distance of
three times the diameter of the pile. Again, the procedure
of installation of sand pile is repeated with three numbers
55
Response of soil with and without sand compaction piles
of sand piles arranged in an equilateral triangular pattern, 4. Conclusions

as shown in Fig.2. Load settlement characteristics of the Following conclusions can be drawn after successful
composite foundation is observed for the above completion of the tests on footing resting on clayey-silt
arrangement. with and without sand pile:
3. Results and Discussions • The load deformation characteristics is found to

be non-linear when settlement is measured after
Load-deformation characteristics of the un-improved soil applying incremental load on clayey-silt with
as well as that improved with sand compaction piles with and without sand compaction pile.
different arrangements are obtained. Herein, incremental
loadings are applied and the readings are noted using dial • At a vertical load of 1.2 kN, the observed values
gauge fixed at the top of the steel plates. of settlements is 69.4 mm for un-improved
clayey-silt soil layer whereas the settlement
values reduce to 56.5 mm, 51.7 mm and 48.5
mm when a single, double, three numbers of
sand piles are installed in the clayey-silt soil
layer.
• From the load-deformation curve (as shown in

Fig.3), it can also be stated that settlement of
footing follows a non-linear trend when sand
piles are installed in it.
• The settlement in a clayey-silt type of soil gets

reduced by about 20%, 25% and 30%
respectively when installed with a single, double
and three numbers of sand piles respectively
when compared with settlement value of the un-
improved clayey-silt layer.
Fig. 3 Load- settlement characteristics of clayey-silt with • Hence, it can be stated that sand compaction pile
and without sand piles. can be used as an effective alternative to
improve the clayey-silty soil.
Figure 3 illustrates the load-settlement response of the
footing in soft soil with and without sand compaction
piles. It can be seen that there is a marked decrease in the
level of settlement in footing with sand compaction pile References
when compared with footing without sand compaction
pile. Footing placed on clayey-silt soil improved with Asaoka. A, Kodaka. T and Nozu. M (1994) Undrained
sand compaction piles undergoes lesser settlement as shear strength of clay improved with sand compaction
compared to footing without sand pile. This may be due piles, Soils and Foundations, 34(4), 23-32.
to the sharing of the load by the sand compacted pile and Balaam N.P. and Booker J.R. (1980) Analysis of rigid
also due to the increase in density of the composite rafts supported by granular piles, International journal
foundation system (i.e- clayey-silt and sand piles) as for numerical and analytical methods in geomechanics,
compared to only clayey-silt strata. The test was carried 5(4), 379-403.
at an incremental load of 1.2 kN and settlement value
obtained was 69.42 mm for the clayey-silt soil layer Nazir, A.K and Azzam, W.R. (2010) Improving the
whereas after the installation of sand piles, the reported bearing capacity of footing on soft clay with sand pile
settlement values were 56.48 mm, 51.75 mm and 48.55 with/without skirts, Alexandria Engineering Journal,
mm respectively for a single, double and three numbers 49, 371-377.
of sand pile (arranged in triangular pattern) respectively. Sharma, R.S., Phani Kumar, B.R. and Nagendra G.
It can be reported that at 1.2 kN of vertical load, the (2004) Compressive load response of granular piles
settlement observed in footing with a single, double and reinforced with geogrids, Canadian Geotechnical
three numbers of sand piles respectively is observed to be Journal, 41(1), 187-192.
20%, 25% and 30% less than the settlement observed in
the footing without sand piles. Hence, sand compaction
piles prove to be an effective alternate method to improve
the clayey-silt soil.
56
A STUDY ON CEMENT TREATED BASE USING CRUSHED BRICKS AS

AGGREGATE
Pritam Debnath
Mohini Saha
Abhijit Das
Prabhat Kumar
Jince P Zachariah
E-mail : pritam.oam@gmail.com; msaha1012@gmail.com; abhijit.22agt@gmail.com; prabhatraj333@gmail.com; jincepzachariah@gmail.com;
ps_partha_yahoo.com.
ABSTRACT: Road networks are most important infrastructure of our country. It is always preferable to make long
lasting road. There is one way to make road durable, it is by improving the pavement strength. Improving the quality
and strength of sub base and base layer will provide a strong and durable pavement. Generally, in base layers, brick or
stone aggregates are used. But, at that condition, aggregates get displaced with heavy load moving over the pavement
and also it permits penetration of water through this layer, which may cause failure of pavement.
Cement-Treated Base (CTB) is a strong, frost-resistant base for a concrete or asphalt pavement wearing surface. CTB is
made up of native soils, gravels/manufactured aggregates blended with engineered quantities of cement and water.
Pavements with CTB are much stronger and more rigid than a non-stabilized granular base. Cement-Treated Base is
engineered so the thickness of the base is less that required for granular bases carrying the same weight and traffic. This
work is mainly examining the feasibility of cement stabilized bricks, when it is used as a base layer. Cement
stabilization will make this base layer more impermeable and also it will improve the strength. Cement will act as a
binding agent and thus providing the intermolecular bondage and its slab like characteristics will provide some extent
rigidity to the pavement. To perform the analysis, OPC grade 43 with cement aggregate ratio 1:14 and standard mould
of size 150×150×150 mm has been used. For various mixing ratio and gradation, IRC: SP: 49(2014) guideline has been
followed.
Keywords: CTB, Crushed Bricks, Cement, E Value, Strengths
1. Introduction cement, curing conditions, and age. Typical properties of
This applied research project has been undertaken to CTB material are shown in Table 1.1. This project
assess the suitability of crushed bricks when used as base proposes to investigate the use of crushed brick as a
aggregates for pavements. Crushed brick materials are supplementary material with concrete aggregates in
commonly obtained from construction and demolition cement treated bound pavement applications. The
(C&D) activities. Construction wastes are produced development of a procedure for the evaluation of these
during different phases of construction. Demolition waste reclaimed products as a base/sub-base material would
materials arise from demolition activities. There is now result in an increased level of confidence within industry
a developing emphasis on environmental management as to their likely in-service performance and appropriate
which has resulted in growing pressure to investigate the application as well as result in a higher uptake of recycled
viability of reuse of all categories of waste material such materials in urban areas where cement treated sub-base
as C&D materials. The use of recycled C&D material pavements are commonly used.
would greatly reduce the demand for landfill sites and for
virgin resource materials by re-using what would be The advantages of CTB are many when stone is used as
normally regarded as a waste material. aggregate.
• CTB provides a stiffer and stronger base than an
While the concept of stabilizing soils and aggregates for unbound granular base. A stiffer base reduces deflections
pavement purposes has been around for more than a due to traffic loads, which results in lower strains in the
century, engineered CTB was first used in 1935 to asphalt surface. This delays the onset of surface distress,
improve the roadbed for State Highway 41 near such as fatigue cracking, and extends pavement life
Johnsonville, South Carolina. Today, thousands of miles
• CTB thicknesses are less than those required for
of CTB pavements in every state in the United States and
granular bases carrying the same traffic because the loads
in all the Canadian provinces are providing good service
are distributed over a large area. The strong uniform
at low maintenance costs.
support provided by CTB results in reduced stresses
CTB (using stone as aggregates) is widely used as a
applied to the subgrade. A thinner cement stabilized
pavement base for highways, roads, streets, parking
section can reduce subgrade stresses more than a thicker
areas, airports, industrial facilities, and materials handling
layer of untreated aggregate base. Subgrade failures,
and storage areas. The structural properties of CTB
potholes, and road roughness are thus reduced. CTB’s
depend on the soil/aggregate material, quantity of
57
A Study on Cement Treated Base Using Crushed Bricks as Aggregate
slab-like characteristics and beam strength are unmatched

by granular bases that can fail when interlock is lost. Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W3 g
• A wide variety of in-situ soils and manufactured =2013 g
aggregates can be used for CTB. This eliminates the need
to haul in expensive select granular aggregates. Weight of the oven dried aggregate W4 g= 1810 g
• Rutting is reduced in a CTB pavement. Loads from
channelized traffic will displace unbound granular Specific Gravity = = 1.885
material beneath flexible surface pavements .
• Moisture intrusion can destroy unstabilized pavement
bases, but not when cement is used to bind the base. CTB Apparent Specific Gravity = = 2.390
pavements form a moisture-resistant base that keeps
water out and maintains higher levels of strength, even 2.2 Water Absorption Test
when saturated, thus reducing the potential for pumping This test has been conducted as per IS:2386 (PART-3)-
of subgrade soils. 1963.A sample of not less than 2000 g of the aggregate
• CTB provides a durable, long-lasting base in all types of shall be tested. Aggregates which have been artificially
climates. As an engineered material it is designed to resist heated shall not normally be used.
damage caused by cycles of wetting and drying and
freezing and thawing. Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with
• Similar to concrete, CTB continues to gain strength basket = W1 g = 1730 g
with age. This is especially important when considering
that many pavements experience greater traffic loads and Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g=677 g
volume throughout their service life. This reserve
strength accounts in part for CTB's fine performance. Weight of saturated aggregate in water = (W1-W2)g =
Table-1 Physical properties of sands 1053 g
Property 7 Day Values Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W3 g
Compressive Strength 2.1-5.5 MPa =2013 g
Modulus of Rupture 0.7-1.4 MPa Weight of the oven dried aggregate W4 g= 1810 g
Modulus of Elasticity 4100-6900 MPa
Water Absorption =
The fundamental control factors for quality Cement- 2.3 Particle Size Distribution
Treated Base are: Particle Size Distribution has been conducted as per
gradation provided by IRC:SP:49 – 2014. Results of this
• Proper cement content test has been shown in Table 1 & in Fig 2
• Adequate moisture content
• Thorough mixing
• Adequate compaction
• Proper Curing
2. Section Headings
Various fundamental properties of brick aggregates is
determined required for CTB. Different tests , which are
done, is as follows.
I. Specific Gravity Test
II. Water Absorption Test
III. Particle Size Distribution Fig 1. Particle Size Distribution
2.1 Specific Gravity Test
This test has been conducted as per IS:2386 (PART-3)- 2.4 Determination of Optimum Moisture Content
1963.A sample of not less than 2000 g of the aggregate (OMC)
shall be tested. Aggregates which have been artificially Trial mixes of dry lean concrete shall be prepared with
heated shall not normally be used. moisture contents of 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5 ,7.0,7.5 and 8
percent using cement content requirement of aggregate-
Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with cement ratio specified in IRC: SP: 49 (2014). As OPC is
basket = W1 g = 1730 g used, hence as per code requirements, aggregate-cement
ratio is taken as14:1. Optimum moisture and dry density
Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g= 677 g shall be established by preparing cubes with varying
moisture contents. Compaction of the mix shall be done
Weight of saturated aggregate in water = (W1-W2)g = in three layers with vibratory hammer (fig:3) fitted with a
1053 g
58
square or rectangular foot. For compaction standard cube Table 2. Particle Size Distribution
of size 150×150×150 mm is used.
Particl Retaine Percentag Cumulativ %
The table 2 shows the experimental values of dry density e size d weight e retained e retained
fine
and moisture content. (mm) (gm) (%) (%)
Maximum dry density and optimum moisture content is r
obtained from dry density vs moisture content (%)
relationship as shown in fig 2.
Maximum dry density obtained = 1.98g/cc 19 0 0 0 0
Optimum Moisture Content = 6.9%
9.5 737 73.7 73.7 26.3
4.75 185 18.5 92.2 7.8
2.36 16 1.6 93.8 6.2
0.6 8 0.8 94.0 5.4
0.3 24 2.4 97.0 3.0
0.15 10 1.0 98.0 2.0
0.075 9 0.9 98.9 1.1
Pan 10 1.0 99.9 0.1
19 0 0 0 0
Table 3. Water Content and Dry Density
Water Weight of Wet Dry Density

Fig. 2. Moisture content vs. Dry density Content compacted Density (gm/cc)
(%) sample(gm) (gm/cc)
5 5872.500 1.740 1.657
5.5 6540.750 1.938 1.836
6 6982.875 2.069 1.952
6.5 7080.75 2.098 1.969
7 7138.125 2.115 1.978
7.5 6955.875 2.061 1.917
8 6945.75 2.058 1.905
Fig. 3 Moisture content vs. Dry density 2.5 Compressive strength Testing of standard cube
Compressive strength of concrete cube test provides an
idea about all the characteristics of concrete. By this
single test one judge that whether Concreting has been
Different tests has been conducted for determination of done properly or not. Compressive strength of concrete
strength of cement treated base and E(elastic modulus) depends on many factors such as water-cement ratio,
value. The following are some of the important tests that cement strength, quality of concrete material, quality
has been performed in this regard. control during production of concrete etc.
• Compressive strength Testing of standard cube For this particular project the mix ratio of 1:14
• Flexural strength Testing of standard beam (cement : aggregate) and specimen size of 15cm X 15cm
• Modulus of elasticity(E) determination X 15cm has been used. To conduct the test IS:516-1959
has been followed.
59
modulus is the ratio of stress and strain. Thus diving

stress value of strain , E value can be found out.
Two samples has been tested for 7 days and Results of
the E value test has been shown in table 5
Table 4. Flexural Strength Tests
Sample Flexural Average Deflect Average

strength Strength at ion at 7 deflection
No.
at 7 days 7 days days at 7 days
(MPa) (MPa) (mm) (mm)
Fig. 4 Crushed bricks for compression test
Compressive strength results at 3 days and 7 days for Sample 0.5 4.8
three samples has been shown in table 3 1
Sample 0.4 0.42 4.2 4.27
Table 3. Compressive Strength Tests 2
Sample 0.36 3.8
3
Sample Compress Average Compres Average
ive Strength at sive Strength Table 5. E Value Test
No.
strength 3 days strength at 7 days
Sample Max Max strain E value Average E
at 3 days (MPa) at 7 days (MPa)
Stress at at 7 days (stress/ value at 7
(MPa) (MPa) No.
7 days strain) days
Sample 1.1 3.6
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1
Sample 0.98 1.08 3.8 3.7
2
Sample 1.15 3.65 Sample 3.68 0.001 3680
3 1
Sample 3.45 0.0009 3709.67 3694.83
2.6 Flexural strength Testing of standard beam 2
3
Flexural test evaluates the tensile strength of concrete
indirectly. It tests the ability of unreinforced concrete
beam or slab to withstand failure in bending. The results
of flexural test on concrete expressed as a modulus of
rupture which denotes as (MR) in MPa or psi. Beam size
of 100 mm width, 100 mm depth, and span of 500 mm
has been used for this particular test. Cement concrete
ratio of 1:14 has been used for mix. To conduct the test
IS:516-1959 has been followed.
The results obtained for 7 days test has been shown in
table 4
2.7 Elastic Modulus(E Value) of cylinder
E value or elastic modulus is the ability of a material to
resist against any deformation. Thus E value has a great
significance in this particular project, which will enable
to understand about the property of the material used and
how much suitable it is, if it is used as base material.
A cylinder of size 30cm x 15 cm has been used for the Fig. 5 Sample prepared for testing
test. Compressometer has been used to know the
deflection. The compressive strength of the cylinder is 3. Summary and Conclusion
determined by giving a load at a uniform rate . The load In order to use crushed bricks as base material stabilized
at which cylinder will fail, this load is ultimate laod. by cement, it need to satisfy various strength criteria. In
Diving this load by the surface area of cylinder will give this project an attempt has been made to understand the
compressive strength. And at this ultimate load, max strength characteristics & deflections of 1:14 ratio
deflection is noted down. Thus strain (ratio of actual (cement : aggregate) mix of crushed bricks.
length and deformation) can be found out. Elastic
60
In the earlier studies, mostly stone has been used Research, e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-
as coarse aggregate. But in this study, stone has been 0936 Volume-03, Issue-04, pp-236-244.
replaced by crushed bricks. And an effort has been done
to understand the strength behavior of 1:14 mix. A vi. Kevin J. Gaspard, P.E.(2000), “Evaluation of
comparison of obtained results with earlier study (Table Cement Treated Base Courses”, Louisiana
11) show that bricks also perform well in the test. Bricks Transportation Research Center Louisiana
quality and its gradation is an important factor to increase Department of Transportation and Development
the binding strength along with the cement. It may be 4101 Gourrier Ave. Baton Rouge, LA 70808.+
possible to get more strength if more rich mix such as
1:12, is used and smaller bricks sizes are used. There may vii. W. Spencer Guthrie & Maile A. Rogers (2010),
be a scope to use fly ash to used with cement, which will “ variability in construction of cement-treated
significantly increase the impermeability of the mix. For base layers: material properties and contractor
all this issues, a further study can be conducted in future. performance” , Brigham Young University 12
Provo, UT 84602, Transportation Research
The following conclusion can be made from the Board 38 89th Annual Meeting 39 January 10-
performed project. 14, 2010 40 Washington, D.C.
i. Though the selected mix 1:14 , has performed

well, but to gain more suitable results more rich
mix can be used. Hence a future study is
required for this purpose.
ii. Bricks quality and its gradation should be
maintained properly to get good results.
iii. To increase the impermeability, a future study
can be carried out using fly ash along with
cement.
References
i. Arulrajah A, Miri M, Hamed D (2013),

“Crushed Brick as a Supplementary Material in
Cement Treated Crushed Concrete Pavement
Applications”, Informal Report: Swinburne
University of Technology, Australia , pp. 6-33
ii. Ismail A, Baghini M. S, Bin Karim M. R, Shokri

F, Ramez A, Firoozi A. A and Firoozi A. A
(2014), “Laboratory investigation on the
strength characteristics of CementTreated Base”,
Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 507
(2014) pp 353-360
iii. Lijun S, Xinwu W (2012), “Analysis of Load

Stress for Asphalt Pavement of Lean Concrete
Base”, 2012 International Conference on
Applied Physics and Industrial Engineering, pp.
405-410.
iv. Kumar B (2012), “Properties of pavement

quality concrete and dry lean concrete with
copper slag as ﬁne aggregate”, International
Journal of Pavement Engineering, Vol. 14, No.
8, 746–751,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2012.72905
9
v. O. S. Aderinola (2014), “Development of

Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design for
Tropical Climate Using Cement-Treated Base
Layer “ , American Journal of Engineering
61
A STUDY ON THE EFFECT OF ADMIXTURE IN GROUTED

MACADAM
Chiranjib Debbarma
Dibakar Debbarma
Abhijit Roy
Jince P Zachariah
E-mail: cdebbarma0@gmail.com, dibakardebbarma2@gmail.com, royabhijit2032@gmail.com, jincepzachariah@gmail.com,
ps_partha@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: A new type of pavement has been gaining popularity over the last few years in the U.K. It
comprises a surface course with a semi-flexible material that provides significant advantages in comparison to
both concrete and conventional asphalt, having both rut resistance and a degree of flexibility. It also provides
good protection against the ingress of water to the foundation, since it has an impermeable surface.The semi-
flexible material, generally known as grouted macadam, comprises an open-graded asphalt skeleton with 25 to
35% voids into which a cementitious slurry is grouted. This hybrid mixture provides good rut resistance and a
surface highly resistant to fuel and oil spillage. Such properties allow it to be used in industrial areas, airports
and harbours, where those situations are frequently associated with heavy and slow traffic.
Keywords: Admixture; Grouted; Macadam; pavement; asphalt.
1. Introduction
Grouted macadam constitute poorly understood be divided into 2 major stages including the laying
branch of pavement technology & have generally of porous asphalt concrete & grouting of polymer
been relegated to a role in certain specialist the desire temperature such as 50-60 degree
pavements whose performance is predicted on celcius, the next stage is to grout the high
purely empirical evidence. Therefore the main performance polymer modified cement mortar into
objectives of this project were related to better the PAC layer
understanding the properties of this type of
material, in order to predict its performance more 3. Methodology
realistically & to design pavements incorporating
grouted macadam more accurately.In general point 3.1 Marshall test
of view of recent work which have been done in In this test, the bituminous mix design is done in
last few years, the specific research objective of such a way that it aims to determine the proportion
this investigation that can be identified as follows : of bitumen, filler, coarse aggregate and fine
i.To determine percentage of bitumen for preparing aggregate to produce a mix which is workable,
open graded bituminous mix (OGBM) of specified strong, durable and economical.
percentage of air void for proper grouting.
ii.To study the effect of inclusion of admixture in 3.2 Indirect tensile strength test
cement slurry in open graded bituminous mix The indirect tensile strength test (IDT) is used to
through grouting. determine the tensile properties of the bituminous
iii.To compare the various properties of dense mixture which can further be related to the cracking
grade bituminous mix, open grade bituminous mix, properties of the pavement.
grouted bituminous mix (at different water-cement
ratio). 𝑺t = 2000𝑃/𝜋𝐷𝑡
2. Theoretical Background where,
S t = Indirect Tensile strength, kpa
2.1 Construction of semi-flexible pavement
Since the semi-flexible pavement is the P = Maximum load, N
combination of Porous Asphalt Concrete (PAC) & t = Specimen height immediately before test, mm
high performance polymer modified cement mortar D = Specimen diameter.
materials, the construction of semi-pavement can 4. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
modified cement mortar material.After laying of
porous asphalt & when the surface temperature of 4.1 Material test result
porous asphalt concrete (PAC) has been reduced to
62
A Study on Effect of Admixture in Grouted Macadam
Table-1 Test results of aggregates
Property Test Result of test

Bulk Specific Gravity For coarse aggregate 1.885
Water Absorption For coarse aggregate 11.21%
Apparent Specific Gravity For coarse aggregate 2.39
4.2 Marshall stability tests results
Table-2 Marshall test results
Air
Bitumen Stability Flow VMA VFB
Sample Content( Voids G t (g/cc) G m( g/cc ) V b (%)
(kN) (mm) (%) (%)
%) (V v )(%)
1 5 8.6 2.75 20.53 2.24 1.78 8.48 29.01 29.23
2 6 8.645 2.53 21.62 2.22 1.74 9.85 31.47 31.3
3 7 8.975 2.96 15.07 2.19 1.86 12.17 27.24 44.68
4 8 9.31 2.875 14.74 2.17 1.85 13.7 28.44 48.17
5 9 9.91 2.74 11.68 2.14 1.89 15.6 27.28 57.18
Bitumen % Vs. Stability

10
9.5
Stability(kN)
8.5
0 5 %
Bitumen 10
Fig. 1 Bitumen % Vs stability
Fig. 2 Marshall samples
63
Unit Weight Vs. Bitumen Bitumen % Vs. Flow Value

Unit Weight (gm/cc)
Content
4
1.9
Flow Value(mm)
3
1.8 2
1
1.7
0
0 5 10
0 5 10
Bitumen Content(%) Bitumen %
Fig. 3 Unit weight Vs bitumen content Fig. 6 Bitumen % Vs flow value
VFB Vs. Bitumen Content VMA Vs. Bitumen Content

80
60 32
VFB (%)
30
VMA (%)
40
20 28
0
26
0 5 10
0 Bitumen5Content(%)10
Bitumen Content(%)
Fig. 4 VFB Vs bitumen Content Fig. 7 VMA Vs bitumen content
Air voids Vs Bitumen Content
30
Air Voids(%)
20
10
0
0 5 10
Bitumen Content(%)
Fig. 5 Air voids Vs bitumen Content
Optimum binder content- Optimum binder II. Bitumen content correspond to maximum
content is found out by taking average value of unit weight.
following three bitumen content found from above III. Bitumen content correspond to 25% air
graph including economical considerations : voids.(21% in these study)
I. Bitumen content correspond to maximum Taken OBC considering these
stability. considerations = 6%
64
4.3 Marshall stability tests results for grouted samples:
Table -3 Marshall test results(Grouted)
Water- No. of Stability Flow Air Gt Gm Vb VMA VFB

Days of
Cement (kN) (mm) Voids ( g/cc ) (%) (%) (%)
Curing. (g/cc)
Ratio (V v )
7 12.44 3.8 19.04 2.10 1.70 8.7 27.74 31.36

0.5
28 26.85 4.73 18.09 2.10 1.72 8.81 26.90 32.75
7 13.55 3.14 15.24 2.10 1.78 9.12 24.36 37.44

0.6
28 27.28 4.86 16.67 2.10 1.75 8.96 25.63 34.96
7 16.43 2.48 14.76 2.10 1.79 9.17 23.93 38.32

0.7
28 27.72 5 15.71 2.10 1.77 9.06 24.77 36.58
7 18.94 3.44 15.24 2.10 1.78 9.12 24.36 37.49

0.8
28 44.71 5.4 14.77 2.10 1.79 9.17 23.94 38.3
7 23.44 4.4 11.43 2.10 1.86 9.53 20.96 45.47

0.9
28 61.7 5.8 12.38 2.10 1.84 9.43 21.81 43.24
7 26.03 4.42 12.38 2.10 1.84 9.43 21.81 43.24

1.0
28 53.73 3.5 14.28 2.10 1.80 9.22 23.5 39.23
7 28.62 4.48 10 2.10 1.89 9.68 19.68 49.19
1.1
28 45.76 1.2 8.09 2.10 1.93 9.89 17.98 55
W/C Ratio Vs. Stability W/C Ratio Vs. Flow
40 5
4
Flow(mm)
30
Stability(kN)
3
20 2
1
10
0
0 0 0.5 1 1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 W/C Ratio
W/C Ratio
Fig. 8 W/C Ratio Vs stability Fig. 9 W/C Ratio Vs flow
65
W/C Ratio Vs. Air Voids W/C Ratio Vs. VMA

20 30
Air Voids(%)
15 20
VMA(%)
10
5 10
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
W/C Ratio W/C Ratio
Fig. 10 W/C ratio Vs air voids Fig. 14 W/C ratio Vs VMA
W/C Vs. Stability

W/C Ratio Vs. VMA
40
30
Stability(kN)
VMA(%)
20
20
10
0
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
W/C Ratio 0 0.5W/C Ratio 1 1.5
Fig. 11 W/C ratio Vs VMA Fig. 15 W/C Vs stability
W/C Ratio Vs.VFB W/C Ratio Vs. Flow

60 8
6
Flow(mm)
40
VFB(%)
4
20
2
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
W/C Ratio W/C Ratio
Fig. 12 W/C ratio Vs VFB Fig. 16 W/C ratio Vs Flow
These are based on 7 days curing period.
W/C Ratio Vs. Air voids

20 W/C Ratio Vs VFB
60
Air Voids(%)
15
10 40
VFB(%)
5
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0
W/C Ratio 0 0.5 1 1.5
W/C Ratio
Fig. 13 W/C ratio Vs air voids
Fig. 17 W/C ratio Vs VFB
66
4.4 Indirect tensile strength test (IDT) results for grouted samples:
Optimum Bitumen Content = 6%

Table-4 IDT Results(Grouted)
Water- No. of Days of Maximum Specimen Specimen

Cement Curing. Load Height(mm) Diameter
Strength(kpa)
Ratio (N) (mm)
7 193 83 100 14.80

0.5
28 1135 80 100 90.32
7 201 82 100 15.60

0.6
28 1239 80 100 98.59
7 218 83 100 16.72

0.7
28 1342 80 100 106.79
7 237 80 100 18.85

0.8
28 1337 82 100 103.8
7 259 80 100 20.61

0.9
28 1332 81 100 104.68
1.0 7 320 80 100 25.46
28 1380 83 100 105.84
1.1 7 398 80 100 31.67
28 1428 80 100 113.63
W/C Ratio Vs. IDT Strength

W/C Ratio Vs. IDT Strength 150
40
Indirect Tensile
Strength(kpa)
30 100
Indirect Tensile
Strength(kpa)
20
50
10
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5W/C Ratio1 1.5
W/C Ratio
Fig.18 For 7 days curing Fig. 19 For 28 days curing
67
5. Conclusion
The bitumen content vs flow value graph The 7 days strength in this case is almost
shows that flow value gradually increases with 20% of the 28 days strength.
bitumen content. The flow value is more for higher
bitumen content. References
As per the Marshall test, the stability value
keeps on increasing upto 9% bitumen content. So AMADEUS, (2000). Advanced Models for
the optimum bitumen content maybe 9% or more Analytical Design of European Pavement
than 9%. For economical reasons an OBC of 6%
has adopted for this research. Structures. European Commission. Brussels.
For Grouting with an OBC of 6% , the BACMI, (1992). Bituminous Mixes and Flexible
cement slurry with 0.9% W/C ratio shows adequate
strength even though strength is more at 1.1 W/C Pavements – An Introduction. British Aggregate
ratio, Void is less when 0.9 W/C cement slurry is Construction Materials Industries. London.
used and it is more suitable in practical field.
The 7 days Marshall stability strength is Boundy, R., (1979). Development of a
almost 80% of the 28 days strength. Resin/Cement grouted coated Macadam Surfacing
In case of IDT test the strength goes on
increasing with W/C ratio upto 1.1. Material. M. Phil. thesis. University of Nottingham.
Nottingham.
68
USE OF SOIL NAILING FOR EXCAVATION STABILITY AND SLOPE STABILITY
IMPROVEMENT- ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDIES
Prof. G L Sivakumar Babu and Vikas Pratap Singh

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore 560012
ABSTRACT: Soil nailing is being used in many geotechnical applications to improve stability
of excavated vertical cuts and existing natural slopes. This paper presents analysis of a few case
studies on the stabilization of a vertical cut and improvement of slope stability using soil-nailing
technique. The stability and design were examined by finite element analysis using strength
reduction method. It was found that the vertical cut stability/slope stability improved due to the
reinforcing effect of nails. The numerical analysis of case study illustrates that the technique is a
viable technique to improve the stability of vertical cuts and stability of existing slopes.
Keywords: Soil Nailing; Stabilization; Vertical Cut; Strength Reduction; Finite Element
Analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Soil nailing has been used extensively as an in-situ reinforcement technique in many parts of the
world. The design and analysis are essentially based on limit equilibrium methods (Gassler and
Gudehus, 1981; Juran, 1985). One of the important aspects of the analysis of in-situ earth
reinforcement is in understanding the behaviour of soil-nailed retaining walls. In a soil-nailed
retaining wall, the properties and material behaviour of three components—the native soil, the
reinforcement (nails) and the facing element—and their mutual interactions significantly affect
the performance of the structure. The behaviour of reinforced soil walls can be understood to
some extent by studying the state of stress within the reinforced zone (Rowe and Ho, 1996). In
addition, various factors such as the construction sequence, the installation of nails, the
connection between the nails and the facing are likely to influence the behaviour. These
influences are not adequately addressed in the conventional design procedures based on limit
equilibrium methods, with which the wall in the present study was designed. Hence, for a better
understanding of the behaviour, it is necessary to assess the stability and performance of soil-
nailed walls using numerical simulations.
1.1 Applications of soil nail walls
Soil nail walls are particularly well suited to excavation applications for ground conditions that
require vertical or near-vertical cuts. They have been used successfully in highway cuts; end
slope removal under existing bridge abutments during underpass widening; for the repair,
stabilization, and reconstruction of existing retaining structures; and tunnel portals.
Soil nail walls can be considered as retaining structures for any permanent or temporary vertical
or near-vertical cut construction, as they add stabilizing resistance in situations where other
retaining structures (e.g., anchor walls) are commonly used and where ground conditions are
69
suitable. The relatively wide range of available facing systems allows for various aesthetic
requirements to be addressed. In this application, soil nailing is attractive because it tends to
minimize excavation, provides reasonable right-of-way and clearing limits, and hence,
minimizes environmental impacts within the transportation corridor.
Figure 1 Examples of the use of Soil Nail Walls in Temporary and

Permanent Cut Applications
Soil nail walls are particularly applicable for uphill widening projects that must be constructed
either within an existing right-of-way or in steep terrain. Figure 1 shows examples of the use of
soil nail walls in temporary and permanent cut applications.
1.2 Objective
The objective of current study is to emphasize on the feasibility of soil nail wall as an effective
technique of stabilization of vertical cuts/existing slopes. To accomplish this purpose three case
studies are described.
Case study I
(1) A 6.8m high vertical cut in soil was supported using Soil-Nail wall system. The cut was made
for the approach road to the subway underneath a busy highway connecting two sections in an
area of considerable importance in Bangalore. A Soil-Nail wall system was designed
conventionally based on the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA, 2003) guidelines. An
extensive geotechnical investigation was carried out to assess in-situ soil conditions. The entire
soil-nail wall system was numerically simulated using a finite element code PLAXIS. Various
design variables were studied and compared. In particular, emphasis is laid on the effect of
nailing on deformations and global factor of safety.
1.3 In-situ soil investigation and reinforcement properties
The in-situ ground is a residual soil deposit weathered to a moderate degree. No groundwater is
found within the influence zone. The unit weight of the soil is approximately18 kN/m3.
70
Undrained shear tests on undisturbed saturated samples indicate that the large-strain total friction
angle is 250, and cohesion is in the range 10–20 kPa. The spacing and length of reinforcements
were worked out based on the methods of Gassler and Gudehus (1981)and FHWA (1990). The
overall factor of safety was computed as 1·5, and the factor of safety against pullout was 2.0.
Ribbed mild steel bars 20 mm in diameter and 3500 mm long were used as nails and driven into
the excavated soil.
The interfacial friction angle between soil and nail, φu, was determined from direct shear tests on
representative soil samples, compacted to the field density and moisture content. The area of
ribs/striations over the nail surface was measured as 6 %. This was represented in the direct shear
box test by a mild steel plate (60 mm x 60 mm x 2 mm) with equivalent striations at the
interface. The steel plate was fixed to a wooden plate (60 mm x 60 mm x 8 mm) and was used as
the bottom half of the sample; the soil sample was compacted to the field conditions, and sliding
tests were carried out under different normal pressures of 25 kPa, 50 kPa and 100 kPa. The
samples were sheared at a rate of 0·4mm/min, which can be considered to represent undrained
conditions in the field. Pore water pressure was not measured, and the interface parameters are
expressed in terms of friction angle and cohesion. The interfacial friction angle between nail and
soil, φu, was obtained as 250, and cohesion was in the range 10–20 kPa. The interface properties
and the soil properties were nearly the same, as the striations present on the plane surface cause
the failure plane to pass through the soil. The properties of the native soil and the reinforcement
are given in Table 1.
1.4 Construction sequence
The construction procedure consisted of excavation, nailing of the reinforcement, and

construction of RCC facing. First, the soil was excavated to a depth of 1500 mm, and nails were
driven at the desired spacing in both the horizontal and vertical directions. Nominal
reinforcement for the RCC facing was provided and rigidly connected to the nails by welding.
Subsequently, a 100 mm thick RCC facing was constructed. The process was repeated until the
desired depth of excavation was reached.
2. NUMERICAL SIMULATION
For the numerical simulation, two-dimensional finite element code PLAXIS (1993) version 7.2
was used. Mohr-Coulomb model is used to model soil, and for nails along with facing elements
an elastic model is used. Beam elements were used to model nails and facing elements. Input
parameter definitions in PLAXIS take care of averaging the effect of a three-dimensional
problem to a two-dimensional problem. Figure 2 shows the modelled state of the Soil-Nailed
wall.
71
Figure 2 Finite Element Model for the Soil-Nailed Wall
Table 1. Properties of the Native Soil and the Reinforcement

Parameter Symbol Unit Value
Wall Layout
Height H m 6.80
Face Batter α Degrees 0.0
Slope of Backfill β Degrees 0.0
Soil Properties
Cohesion c kPa 10 - 20
Friction Angle φ Degrees 25
Unit Weight γ kN/m3 18
Modulus of Elasticity ES MPa 20
Poisson’s Ratio ν -- 0.3
Nail Properties
Length LN m 3.50
Diameter D m 0.02
SV x
Spacing mxm 0.5 x 0.5
SH
Modulus of Elasticity EN N/m2 2 x 1011
Soil-Nail Interface
φu Degrees 25
Friction
RCC Facing Properties
Thickness t m 0.1
2
Modulus of Elasticity EC N/m 2 x 1010
Cross-sectional Area m2/m
A 0.1
length
Moment of Inertia m4/m 8.334 x
I
length 10-5
72
2.1 Simulation of excavation stages
Accomplishment of physical modelling, including simulation for gravity stresses using K0-
procedure, was followed with the calculation program. Simulation of the entire soil-nail wall
construction process was carried out in a sequence of construction stages. In each construction
stage a sufficient number of calculation steps were used to obtain an equilibrium-state. Since the
properties of the soil at the location are highly variable, the representative values of soil cohesion
10, 15 and 20 kPa were used for numerical analysis. Also, factor of safety is determined after
each construction stage using strength reduction technique.
2.2 Strength reduction technique
PLAXIS uses strength reduction technique (also known as Phi-C Reduction technique, Matsui
and San, 1992) for the calculation of factor of safety. The advantage of this method is the
identification of critical failure mechanism automatically, which is normally assumed in the
conventional analysis. Dawson et. al, (1999) showed that the factors of safety calculated from
this approach are very close to the values obtained from conventional methods in geotechnical
analysis. They also indicated that this method is more general and flexible and it is more
advantageous particularly when the failure mechanism is complex.
2.2.1 Procedure
The basis for this method is that many laboratory tests indicated that the failure shear strain zone
coincided with the rupture surface and hence the failure mechanism of soils is directly related to
the development of shear stress/strain. Hence, the strength parameters 'tan ’and 'cohesion' of
the soil are successively and simultaneously reduced until failure of the structure occurs
following equation (1).
tan φ input c input

= = 1.0 (1)
tan φ reduced c reduced
The parameters with the subscript 'input' refer to the input properties and parameters with the
subscript 'reduced' refer to the reduced properties used in the analysis. This ratio is set to 1.0 at
the start of a calculation to set all material strengths to their actual values. These values with
subscript 'reduced' are successively reduced until failure of the structure occurs. At this point the
factor of safety is given by equation (2)
available strength
FS = (2)
strength at failure
This approach resembles the method of calculation of factor of safety conventionally adopted in
geotechnical analyses. It should be noted that when using Phi-C reduction in combination with
73
advanced soil models, these models will actually behave as a standard Mohr-Coulomb model,
since stress-dependent stiffness behaviour and hardening effects are excluded from the analysis.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Global factor of safety is obtained using strength reduction technique after each construction
stage. Three sets of observations corresponding to cohesion value of 10 kPa, 15 kPa and 20 kPa
were obtained and the improvement in factor of safety is observed. Table 2 indicates the obtained
factors of safety. An improvement of about 1.5 – 2.5 times in values of factor of safety is
observed. Also, it could be noticed that a global factor of safety in the range of 1.20 – 1.53 is
obtained for the entire depth (6.8 m) of excavation supported using nails. This value reasonably
agrees with the minimum range 1.20 – 1.30 of recommended factor of safety for global stability,
as per FHWA guidelines. Figure 3 shows the graphical representation of variation of factor of
safety with the depth of excavation.
Table 2 Factors of Safety obtained using Strength reduction Technique

Depth of Factor of Safety
Excavation, m Without Nailing With Nails
Cohesion, C , kPa 10 15 20 10 15 20
1.50 1.32 (1.48) 1.87 (2.22) 3.29 (2.96) 3.40 4.48 5.17
3.00 -- (0.74) 1.06 (1.11) 1.18 (1.48) 2.03 2.43 2.86
4.50 -- -- (0.74) 0.96 (0.98) 1.62 1.87 2.18
6.00 -- -- -- (0.74) 1.28 1.51 1.72
6.80 -- -- -- 1.20 1.37 1.53
Note: Figures in bracket indicates theoretical factor of safety based on critical excavation depth
concept.
Another important aspect studied is the deformations in the soil nailed wall system. It could be
noticed that a maximum horizontal deformation of 7.60 mm is observed for the nailed wall,
contrary to that of 27.25 mm for excavation of 6m without nailing. This shows a significant
reduction (about 70%) in the displacement of the vertical cut. Table 3 shows the comparison of
extreme horizontal displacements for different excavation stages. Figure 4 represent graphically
the variation of extreme horizontal displacements with the depth of excavation.
In addition to the stability and deformations aspect of soil-nail wall system, various design
parameters with regard to development of axial forces, shear forces, moments and deformations
in individual nail and facing elements were also taken into account. Some of these results are as
shown in Figure 5 to 8 and are summarized in Table 4. Earth pressure distribution behind the
nailed wall is as shown in Figure 9. A maximum value of 96 kN/m2 passive earth pressure is
obtained. The trend of variation of forces and moments are found to conform to theoretical
expectations. It also justifies the effectiveness of numerical simulations.
74
Table 3 Horizontal Displacements with Excavation Stages
Extreme Horizontal Displacement , mm
Depth of Without Nails With Nails
Excavation, m Cohesion, C , kPa Cohesion, C , kPa
10 15 20 10 15 20
1.5 1.20 1.20 1.21 1.24 1.25 1.25
3.0 3.45 2.04 1.86 2.23 1.67 1.66
4.5 -- 7.33 6.03 5.20 3.83 3.48
6.0 -- -- 27.25 11.23 9.05 7.60
6.8 -- -- -- 16.17 12.55 11.00
Table 4 Summary of Design Parameters for Nails and Facing Elements

Cohesion, C , kPa
Parameter
10 15 20
Nails
Extreme Horizontal Displacement, mm 15.46 10.00 9.31
Extreme Vertical Displacement, mm 9.42 9.87 9.74
Extreme Axial Force, kN/m 48.28 46.27 42.10
Extreme Shear force, kN/m 5.77 6.94 7.00
Extreme Bending Moment, Nm/m 276.46 333.06 339.26
Facing Elements
Extreme Axial Force, kN/m 28.45 36.97 38.28
Extreme Shear force, kN/m 25.59 23.04 23.73
Extreme Bending Moment, kNm/m 5.02 3.49 2.52
Extreme Horizontal Displacement, mm 16.17 12.55 11.00
Extreme Vertical Displacement, mm 28.34 27.98 27.67
75
Factor of Safety
1 2 3 4 5 6
0
1
Depth of Excavation, m 2
3 C = 10 kPa
4 C = 15 kPa
C = 20 kPa
5
6
7
Figure 3 Variation of Factor of Safety with the Depth of Excavation

Max Horizontal Displacement, mm
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
Depth of Excavation, m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
C = 10 kPa without Nails C = 10 kPa With Nails C = 15 kPa without Nails

C = 15 kPa with Nails C = 20 kPa without Nails C = 20 kPa with Nails
Figure 4 Variation of Horizontal Displacement of Vertical Cut with Depth of Excavation
Max Horizontal Displacement Max Axial Force , kN/m

of Nail, mm 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0 5 10 15 20
0
0
1
1
Depth of Nail, m
2
Depth of Nail, m
2
C = 10 kPa
C = 10 kPa 3
3 C = 15 kPa
C = 15 kPa 4
4 C = 20 kPa
C = 20 kPa 5
5
6 6
7 7
Figure 5 Variation of Maximum Horizontal Figure 6 Variation of Maximum Axial

Displacement of Nails with Depth Force in Nails with Depth
76
(a.) Axial Forces (b.) Bending Moments (c.) Shear Forces
Figure 7 Variation of Axial Force Figure 8 Variations of Axial Forces, Shear Forces and
along Nail Length (Alternate Nail Bending Moments in Facing Elements
from Top shown)
A* A* A*
(a.) C = 10 kPa (b.) C = 15 kPa (c.) C = 20 kPa
Figure 9 Variation of Earth Pressures behind the Soil –Nailed Wall
77
Case study II
This is a case study of stabilising a vertical cut supporting a masonry retaining wall in a hilly
terrain, which is being developed with considerable investments and infrastructure. The soil in
the area is a residual soil and drained test results indicate that though the soil has adequate
frictional capacity, long-term stability of such cuts cannot be ensured. Calculations showed that
the vertical cut is just marginally safe in the existing condition; hence, soil nailing was used for
improvement of stability.
0.4 m
Existing retaining 4.5 m
wall 7.5 m height

9m
3m
3.8 m Random rubble

4.5 m masonry retaining
wall
Vertical cut 4.5 m Unsupported
vertical cut
height Figure 10. Details showing vertical cut along with retaining wall
2.75 m
20 mm dia.
nails at
500 mm c/c
5m
Figure 11. Details of soil nailing technique
78
Vertically cut soil
Figure 12: Development of shear strain contours reinforced vertical cut
Case study III
This is a case study of 11m excavation, nails were used to improve stability and pull out tests
were conducted. A system of driven nails of 20 mm diameter, varying in length from 4.5 m to
7.0 m were used to support temporarily excavated soil. Nail spacing was 0.5 m in both horizontal
and vertical directions. Face of the wall was supported using a welded wire mesh and 100 mm
cover of lean shotcrete. Fig. 13 shows the stabilised excavation and Fig. 14 shows the pull out
test in progress.
Fig. 13
79
Fig. 14 Pull out test in progress
The pull out resistance of the nails is in the range of 14 kN/m and confirms that the values used
in the design are in order.
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
The results provide an understanding of the effect of soil-nailing on the global stability of
vertical cuts using numerical simulations. The results and analysis indicate that the soil-nailed
wall is stable with respect to both stability and deformation considerations. Further, it could be
concluded that soil nailing is a viable and economical option for supporting vertical cuts
particularly in locations where site-constraints are more predominant and project duration is very
limited.
5. REFERENCES
Dawson E. M., Roth W. H. A. and Drescher A. (1999) Slope stability analysis by strength
reduction. Geotechnique, 49, No. 6, 835–840.
Matsui, T. and San, K-C. (1992) Finite element slope stability analysis by shear strength
reduction technique, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 59-70.
PLAXIS (1993) Reference Manual, Delft University of Technology & PLAXIS B.V., The
Netherlands
FHWA (2003) Carlos A. Lazarte, Victor Elias, R. David Espinoza, Paul J. Sabatini, Geotechnical
engineering circular No. 7 , Soil Nail Walls , 0-IF-03-017.
80
1
HILL-ROAD REHABILITATION WITH GEOSYNTHETICS

Site: Palace Gate, Gangtok, Sikkim
User department: UDH&D, Govt of Sikkim
Length of road stretch: 170m
Project start date: 19/02/2010
Project completion date: 28/04/2010
Agencies involved: M/s Tejase Overseas (material supplier), designed and supervised jointly by: Flexituff
International Ltd & Geofabrics India.
AN OVERVIEW OF THE SITE:

Palace Gate in Gangtok, a heritage site, is one of the major tourist attractions of Sikkim. The road along
this famous site used to suffer major settlements (see pic) year after year. The observed settlements were as
high as 50cm on the valley side at some stretches and approximately 40cm on the hill side of the road at
some other stretches. There were instances of subsidence and severe fractures (deep crevices) in the middle
and side of the road adjoining the toe-drain which were almost non-existent. At some stretches, the entire
pavement had moved away from the toe-drain by almost half a meter (see pic). Soil sustaining the road was
nondescript and had least or no cohesion, and angle of repose was very low and that too appeared fictitious.
Absence of eyebrow/catch drains along slope down-hill aggravated slope erosion during rains.
SETTLEMENT OF 50CM ON VALLEY-SIDE
PAVEMENT SEPARATED BY 1M FROM THE TOE-DRAIN (HILL-SIDE):
TECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SITE:

In the absence of real data and on the mere basis of above-described observations, a detailed analysis was
undertaken which concluded that absence of information about sub-surface drainage, landslide details (area
falls in z-v), and inadequate data about the soil mass atop the hill portion holding the road were the major
stumbling blocks in designing a reliable solution to the problem. In summary, the major problem was
81
2
‘subsidence’ which appeared to actually trigger other consequential problems like cracks in the road
surface, lateral displacement of the road cross-section, etc.
Our team opted for a detailed site investigation (a massive challenge!) covering various aspects of the
geology, topography, rainfall, and the seismic movements in the surrounding areas as well. However, given
the expediency and the empirical need of the situation especially in view of the fast approaching next spell
of monsoon, only some properties could be studied in detail and rest were derived out of the available and
observed values. Our analysis finally led to two important factors that ultimately governed the entire design
and execution philosophy there onwards: [a] To provide most effective and possible means of drainage
over & inside the road surface and in the areas directly impacting the road performance, & [b] reinforcing
the existing soil mass and the road overlays to make them more self-sufficient in bearing the stresses they
were subjected to by movement of traffic and the adjoining land masses (to some extent).
IDENTIFIED CAUSES OF FAILURE:

In the ultimate analysis, it was concluded that the failures could be attributable to a combination of factors
including but not limited to geological, morphological, physical & human too! The most conclusive factor
that was sifted out of series of discussions with the local road users and the government officials was that
all the prominently visible and sudden disturbances in that road occurred mostly after a prolonged rainfall.
Generally this takes the form of either an exceptional short-lived event, such as the passage of a tropical
cyclone or even the rainfall associated with a particularly intense thunderstorm or of a long duration rainfall
event with lower intensity such as the cumulative effect of monsoon. In the former case it is usually
necessary to have very high rainfall intensities, whereas in the latter the intensity of rainfall may be only
moderate - it is the duration and existing pore water pressure conditions that are to watch. The importance
of rainfall as a trigger for landslides/subsidence of soil masses cannot be under-estimated. A global survey
of subsidence and landslide occurrence in the last seven years revealed that over 90% were triggered by
heavy rainfall. One rainfall event for example in Sri Lanka in May 2003 triggered hundreds of landslides,
killing 266 people and rendering over 300,000 people temporarily homeless. In July 2003 an intense rain
band associated with the annual Asian monsoon tracked across central Nepal, triggering 14 fatal landslides
that killed 85 people.
Principally this is because the rainfall drives an increase in pore water pressure within the soil. The figure A
illustrates the forces acting on an unstable block on a slope. Movement is driven by shear stress, which is
generated by the mass of the block acting under gravity down the slope. Resistance to movement is the
result of the normal load. When the slope fills with water, the fluid pressure provides the block with
buoyancy, reducing the resistance to movement. In addition, in some cases fluid pressures can act down the
slope as a result of groundwater flow to provide a hydraulic push to the landslide that further decreases the
stability. Whilst the example given in Figures A and B is clearly an artificial situation, the mechanics are
essentially as per a real landslide.
82
3
A: Diagram illustrating the resistance to, and causes of, movement in a slope system consisting of an
unstable block: B: Diagram illustrating the resistance to, and causes of, movement in a slope system
consisting of an unstable block.
In some situations, the presence of high levels of fluid may destabilise the slope through other mechanisms,
such as: Fluidization of debris from earlier events to form debris flows, Loss of suction forces in silty
materials, leading to generally shallow failures (this may be an important mechanism in residual soils in
tropical areas following deforestation), & Undercutting of the toe of the slope through river erosion.
OVERWHELMING BENEFITS OFFERED BY GEOSYNTHETICS:

In view of the above-described site conditions, urgent need for completing the work very fast, and all this
to be achieved under the ever-desirable need for keeping the costs down (preferably lower than the existing
cost estimates), we’re faced with a real tricky situation which was further compounded by the fear of the
monsoon season that was looming large - fast approaching in that heavy rainfall area (here, rains start as
early as Feb-Mar and continue up to Nov-Dec). Geosynthetic application in roads, in its infancy as it is in
India, works out a costlier affair if one compares its initial cost against the conventional cost.
But given its indisputable benefits, it was decided to adopt this method to the exclusion of earlier
conventional methods by allowing scope for not compromising on the safety and stability aspects of the
road users. The benefits thus offered were enormous viz [a] using geotextiles and geogrids to disallow
intermixing of layers of road crust, [b] preventing lateral movement of subgrade with the use of 3D-
confinement cells, [c] controlling and guiding the entire pore pressure build-up inside the road crust
(literally making it a free-draining road) with the help of Megaflo, [d] precluding (or restricting to a great
extent) differential settlement of the road (by distributing the load uniformly across the road-width through
grids and geocells), [e] using the local factor endowments (soil) having low angle of repose and unskilled
labour (providing local employment and skills to the ultimate beneficiaries of the geosynthetic products),
[f] lending a direct control over the design factors that to a large extent account for many unseen future
83
4
adversities like traffic density in excess of the designed values and the unruly behaviour of the traffic (a
common phenomenon on Indian roads – enough proof that we live in a truly free & democratic country!!),
[g] no-weather-constrained work execution (most of the geosynthetic materials can be used in all weather
conditions with slight care and precaution), and most of all [h] a very speedier method of construction to
allow the road to be opened to traffic at the shortest possible time period!
RECOMMENDED METHOD/DESIGN WITH GEOSYNTHETICS:

We finally concluded with the following recommendations:
Reconstructing the entire road crust with Reinforced Earth Wall concept with the help of geogrids and
non-woven geotextiles with a 3D-confined (geocell) leveling pad at the subgrade and at base. Erosion
control mats to be laid on the valley side. Megaflo (flat-panel drainage system – see pic) to be installed
along the entire hill-side and inside of the road crust including as cross-drainage for having very high
compressive strength (up to 200 KPa). Eyebrow ditches to be constructed on the valley-side slope. Toe-
drain to be completely eliminated & the entire drainage including on the hill-slope side was to be laid
inside the construction.
AS-BUILT cross-sectional DRAWING OF THE REHABILITATED AREA
84
5
PERFORMANCE AND LESSONS LEARNT:

Performance during the last eight (8 years) has been more than satisfactory as the road sinking has stopped.
Although some sinking of the road crust has happened but it is not on the road stretched worked upon. No
gap between the hill slope and the road has been observed so far and the purpose of providing more width
on the road without actually cutting down the hills has been successfully achieved. Use of Paving fabric in
this high intensity rainfall area has proven its worth by retaining the top bitumen layer and the riding
quality intact. The subsurface drainage used at the GSB level has been working satisfactorily and there is
no sign of distress on the valley side too. On the whole, the need for maintenance has been almost negated
and the number of overlays conventionally due almost every year has been reduced to 3 times.
The biggest lesson learnt from this case was that DETAILED & APPROPRIATE DATA COLLECTION &
ITS ANALYSIS TO IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM must not be sacrificed in favour of expediency and
presumed design sufficiency. The GEOSYNTHETIC-BASED SOLUTION should be built around solving
the identified problem. In summary, mere excellent design or geosynthetics is not the solution, neither is
exceptional execution skills deployed. Properties of geosynthetics can be duly utilised only by following a
strictly disciplined process involving Specific Problem identification, Defining performance parameters to
meet the users’ needs, System design for securing desired performance, selection of geo-products precisely
meeting stated design outputs, and exceptionally disciplined execution under an approved QAP. An
innocuous-looking and insignificant action like handling geotextile rolls (just 0.001% of a large project) at
site (storing, shifting etc) can make or mar the entire project worth billions!!
Author: Rajeeva Upadhyay

BE Civil, MBA (Marketing/Finance)
Currently working as COO (Geosynthetics) at Flexituff International Ltd.
(The author himself has been involved in all stages of this project right from problem identification,
concept development through to execution and even performance monitoring)
85

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UPCOMING BUILDING OF IEI, TRIPURA STATE CENTRE

Technicians, Builders, Contractors, Entrepreneurs, for all, IE (I) is a platform of activities of

[Er. T. Lodh, FIE] [Er. T. Bhattacharya, MIE]

AMIE Section A & B Summer Seminar on

IEI NETWORKING THE WORLD OF ENGINEERS

ENHANCE YOUR CARRIER WITH IEI

Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal, FIE Er. Tapan Lodh, FIE

Chairman : Er. Tapan Lodh, FIE

Co-Chairman : Er. Tapas Bhattacharya, MIE

Organising Secretary : Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal, FIE

Joint-Organising : Er. Samir Kanti Bhusan, MIE

Organising Committee : Er. Subrata Banik, NH, Govt. of Tripura

Technical Committee : Er. R. K. Majumder, FIE, Imme. Past Chairman, IE(I),TSC

Contact Details : Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal, Mob: 9436582750,

Er. Tapas Bhattacharya, Mob: 9436120300,

IE(I), Tripura State Centre, Tel: 03812304700,

Co-Chairman: Er. Samir Kanti Bhusan, MIE

Er. Narendra Dalal, MIE

Convener: Er. Shankar Bhowmik, MIE

Jt. Convener: Er. Jibesh Datta, MIE

Er. Lipika Haldar, AMIE

Members: Er. Subrata Banik, FIE

Er. B. Chakrabarti, MIE

Er. Abhijit Bhattacharjee, AMIE

Er. Nirmal Ch. Samal, FIE

Er. Sumit Kr. Majumder, AMIE

Er. Rati Ranjan Debnath, MIE

Er. Anjan Kumar Das, MIE

Er. Subhra Nandi, MIE

Er. Sanjib Chowdhury, AMIE

Ex-Officio Members: Er. Asit Bhaumik, FIE

Er. Susanta Dutta, MIE

Dr. Rajib Saha, AMIE

Er. Tapan Ch. Pal, AMIE

Paper Author/Authors Page

1. Ground Improvement Techniques ― Few Dr. Sujit Kumar Pal 1-3

1. Compaction and CBR Characteristics of Layered AshutoshVerma 4-8

2. Flexible Pavement Evaluation Based on the Dinesh Jaiswal 9-12

3. Influence of Jute Geotextile on the CBR Behavior Bipul Sen 13-18

4. Improvement of Soft Soil using Sand Compaction Abhiparna Dasgupta 19-22

5. Investigation of Physical Properties of Soils and Jhuma Mitra 23-26

6. Experimental and Numerical Validation of AshutoshVerma 27-32

7. Assessment of Behaviour of Soil Mixes as Swagata Deb Roy 33-35

8. Use of Shredded Plastics for Ground Rajat Debnath 36-41

9. Structural Health Monitoring of Bridges – A Dr. Richi Prasad Sharma 42-46

10. A Study on Effect of Epoxy Resin in the Protyay Podder 47-49

14. A Study on the Effect of Admixture in Grouted Chiranjib Debbarma 62-68

2. Hill-Road Rehabilitation with Geosynthetics Rajeeva Upadhyay 81-85

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES – FEW OBSERVATONS

DR. SUJIT KUMAR PAL

COMPACTION AND CBR CHARACTERISTICS OF LAYERED SOIL

2.1 Silty sand as collected from KMC Constructions and experimentally

Following the proctor results, CBR tests confirming to

Table-3 Composition of layered strata

1 Sandy soil (unstabilised)

4. Test results and discussions

While the maximum dry density (MDD) value first

Fig. 2 Variation of OMC with fly ash (S-C-S)

Fig. 5 Variation of MDD with fly ash (C-S-C)

Fig. 7 Variation of CBR with fly ash (C-S-C)

Fig. 6 Variation of CBR with fly ash (S-C-S)

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT EVALUATION BASED ON THE FALLING WEIGHT

3. Objective of the Study