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Introduction
Strategic interaction
Strategic variables
Number of firms n
π ( qi ;Q− i ) = ⎡⎣P (Q ) − c ⎤⎦ qi
Residual demand
Nash equilibrium
The Nash equilibrium has each firm choosing output optimally given the
(equilibrium) output of all competitors.
First-order conditions
P ′ ( q1 + q2 ) q1 + P ( q1 + q2 ) − c = 0
P ′ ( q1 + q2 ) q2 + P ( q1 + q2 ) − c = 0
Rearranging, we find
⎡ Q qi ⎤ ⎡ α ⎤
P ⎢1 + P ′ ⎥ = P ⎢1 + i ⎥ = c
⎣ P Q⎦ ⎣ ε ⎦
Best response
qi* = qi* ( q j )
Totally differentiating the first-order conditions, we find that there firm i’s best
response is decreasing in the output of its competitor.
Comparison
Figure (best response curves and diagonals between monopoly and perfectly
competitive points).
Example
Suppose P (Q ) = 1 − Q .
2
1 − q2 − c
Then best-response functions become q1* ( q2 ) =
2
1− c 2
Equilibrium outputs become: qi* = , Q * = 2q * = [1 − c ].
3 3
1
Compare with monopoly and perfectly competitive outcomes: Q m = [1 − c ] ,
2
Qc = 1 − c .
Oligopoly
First-order conditions
P ′ ( qi + Q− i ) qi + P ( qi + Q− i ) − c = 0 ,
where Q− i = ∑ j ≠ì q j .
1
Price-cost margin at the symmetric equilibrium ( α i = α = ):
n
P −c H 1
= = .
P ε nε
H = ∑ i =1[α i ] is
n
where the Hirschman-Herfindahl index of market
concentration.
1− c n
Linear example: qi* =
n +1
, Q* =
n +1
[1 − c ]
Residual demand
⎧0 if pi > p j
⎪
Di ( pi ; p j ) = ⎨ 21 D ( pi ) if pi = p j
⎪D ( p ) if p < p
⎩ i i j
3
where D ( p ) is market demand at price p.
Best-response curves
Equilibrium
min pi < c would imply that the firm with the lowest price was running a
deficit;
c ≤ pi < p j would imply that firm i could increase profits by increasing price
towards that of firm j
Product differentiation: firms would have market power, i.e. would not lose
all customers even if price exceeds those of competitors.
4
Continue charging p m so long as both firms have charged p m in all
previous periods. Otherwise, charge a price equal to marginal cost.
Along the equilibrium path, each firm earns half the monopoly profit in each
period:
π i = π m = ⎡⎣ p m − c ⎤⎦ D ( p m ) .
1 1
2 2
The maximum payoff a firm could gain by charging a different price would be
from charging a price just below the monopoly price, in which case the firm
would capture the entire market:
πi = π m
1 1 m
π ≥πm
1− δ 2
or
1
δ≥ .
2
One may show (see Cabrals textbook) that the discount factor may be written
1
δ= h [1 + g ]
1+ r f
where r is the annual interest rate, f is the frequency with which (i.e. number
of times) firms change their prices over the year, h is the probability that the
market is not interrupted over the next period (due, for example, to the entry
5
of a superior product that eliminates firms’ sale) and g is the market growth
rate.
So the (effective) discount factor is greater, and (tacit) collusion more likely,
How reasonable is the assumption that a price war lasts forever once some
firm deviates from the collusive price?
Note: the shorter the punishment period, the more difficult it is to sustain
collusion.
What about the assumption that deviations are immediately observed and
reacted to?
(Tacit) collusion may also refer to other types of decisions, such as market
splitting, quality regulations, restrictions on advertising and no-use of
bonuses and discounts.
Oligopoly
1 1 m
π ≥πm
1− δ n
or
1
δ ≥ 1− .
n