11-Humss Date: October 14 2019

1.Chromosome

In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called
chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins
called histones that support its structure Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus—not
even under a microscope—when the cell is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up
chromosomes becomes more tightly packed during cell division and is then visible under a
microscope. Most of what researchers know about chromosomes was learned by observing
chromosomes during cell division.

Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides the chromosome
into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the chromosome is labeled the “p arm.” The long
arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm.” The location of the centromere on each
chromosome gives the chromosome its characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe the
location of specific genes.

2.Nucleotide

A nucleotide is one of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A
nucleotide consists of a base (one of four chemicals: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine) plus
a molecule of sugar and one of phosphoric acid.

3.Genes

A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA. Some
genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. However, many genes do not code for
proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million
bases. The Human Genome Project estimated that humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes.

Every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Most genes are the
same in all people, but a small number of genes (less than 1 percent of the total) are slightly
different between people. Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in their
sequence of DNA bases. These small differences contribute to each person’s unique physical
features.

Scientists keep track of genes by giving them unique names. Because gene names can be long,
genes are also assigned symbols, which are short combinations of letters (and sometimes numbers)
that represent an abbreviated version of the gene name. For example, a gene on chromosome 7 that
has been associated with cystic fibrosis is called the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance
regulator; its symbol is CFTR.

4. Protein Synthesis

The amino acids are linked by the formation of peptide bonds, and the resulting polypeptide
chain contains one of 20 different amino acids at each position. For protein synthesis, a messenger
RNA (mRNA) molecule copied from DNA provides the instruction for the synthesis of a specific
protein.

5. Cellular transcription

Transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new
molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). DNA safely and stably stores genetic material in the nuclei
of cells as a reference, or template. Meanwhile, mRNA is comparable to a copy from a reference
book because it carries the same information as DNA but is not used for long-term storage and can
freely exit the nucleus. Although the mRNA contains the same information, it is not an identical
copy of the DNA segment, because its sequence is complementary to the DNA template.

6. Cellular translation

The process of translation can be seen as the decoding of instructions for making proteins,
involving mRNA in transcription as well as tRNA. he genes in DNA encode protein molecules,
which are the "workhorses" of the cell, carrying out all the functions necessary for life. For
example, enzymes, including those that metabolize nutrients and synthesize new cellular
constituents, as well as DNA polymerases and other enzymes that make copies of DNA during
cell division, are all proteins.

In the simplest sense, expressing a gene means manufacturing its corresponding protein, and
this multilayered process has two major steps. In the first step, the information in DNA is
transferred to a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule by way of a process called transcription.
During transcription, the DNA of a gene serves as a template for complementary base-pairing, and
an enzyme called RNA polymerase II catalyzes the formation of a pre-mRNA molecule, which is
then processed to form mature mRNA (Figure The resulting mRNA is a single-stranded copy of
the gene, which next must be translated into a protein molecule.

7. RNA. mRNA, and tRNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into protein by the joint action of transfer RNA (tRNA)
and the ribosome, which is composed of numerous proteins and two major ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
molecules. ... Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the key to deciphering the code words in mRNA.

8. Codon

A sequence of three DNA or RNA nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino acid or
stop signal during protein synthesis. DNA and RNA molecules are written in a language of four
nucleotides; meanwhile, the language of proteins includes 20 amino acids. Codons provide the key
that allows these two languages to be translated into each other. Each codon corresponds to a single
amino acid (or stop signal), and the full set of codons is called the genetic code. The genetic code
includes 64 possible permutations, or combinations, of three-letter nucleotide sequences that can
be made from the four nucleotides. Of the 64 codons, 61 represent amino acids, and three are stop
signals. For example, the codon CAG represents the amino acid glutamine, and TAA is a stop
codon. The genetic code is described as degenerate, or redundant, because a single amino acid may
be coded for by more than one codon. When codons are read from the nucleotide sequence, they
are read in succession and do not overlap with one another.

9. Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Phenylketonuria (fen-ul-key-toe-NU-ree-uh), also called PKU, is a rare inherited disorder that

causes an amino acid called phenylalanine to build up in the body. PKU is caused by a defect in
the gene that helps create the enzyme needed to break down phenylalanine. Without the enzyme
necessary to process phenylalanine, a dangerous buildup can develop when a person with PKU
eats foods that contain protein or eats aspartame, an artificial sweetener. This can eventually lead
to serious health problems. For the rest of their lives, people with PKU — babies, children and
adults — need to follow a diet that limits phenylalanine, which is found mostly in foods that
contain protein. Babies in the United States and many other countries are screened for PKU soon
after birth. Recognizing PKU right away can help prevent major health problems.

10. Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an organism’s

characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way. Sometimes called genetic modification, is the
process of altering the DNA? in an organism’s genome? This may mean changing one base pair?
(A-T or C-G), deleting a whole region of DNA, or introducing an additional copy of a gene? It
may also mean extracting DNA from another organism’s genome and combining it with the DNA
of that individual. Genetic engineering is used by scientists to enhance or modify the characteristics
of an individual organism. Genetic engineering can be applied to any organism, from a virus? to
a sheep. Or example, genetic engineering can be used to produce plants that have a higher
nutritional value or can tolerate exposure to herbicides.

11. GMO

A genetically modified organism, or GMO, is an organism that has had its DNA altered or
modified in some way through genetic engineering. In most cases, GMOs have been altered with
DNA from another organism, be it a bacterium, plant, virus or animal; these organisms are
sometimes referred to as "transgenic" organisms. Genetics from a spider that helps the arachnid
produce silk, for example, could be inserted into the DNA of an ordinary goat. It sounds far-
fetched, but that is the exact process used to breed goats that produce silk proteins in their goat
milk, Science Nation reported. Their milk is then harvested, and the silk protein is then isolated to
make a lightweight, ultra-strong silk material with a wide range of industrial and medical uses.

The dizzying range of GMO categories is enough to boggle the mind. CRISPR, a novel genome
editing tool, has allowed geneticists to breed GMO pigs that glow in the dark by inserting jellyfish
bioluminescence genetic code into pig DNA. CRISPR is opening doors to genetic modifications
the likes of which were unimaginable just a decade ago. These are more comparatively wild
examples, but GMOs are already very common in the farming industry. The most common genetic
modifications are designed to create higher yield crops, more consistent products, and resist pests,
pesticides and fertilizer.
12. risk of using GMO

In each of these categories there exists a multiplicity of pathways by which effects could, in
principle, be brought about. Rational and responsible assessment of risk requires that the following
properties are all considered:

 source of the DNA of the target gene;

 source of the non-target DNA segments of the construct used;
 site(s) of incorporation of the transgene within the recipient genome;
 product of the transgene;
 interaction of the transgenic product with other molecules in host and consumer;
 possible molecular changes in transgene product during processing;
 pleiotropic effects of transgene;
 tissue specificity of transgenic expression; and
 numbers of transgenic organisms capable of interacting with natural systems).

13. Metabolism

Metabolism is a term that is used to describe all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the
living state of the cells and the organism. Metabolism can be conveniently divided into two
categories:

 Catabolism - the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy

 Anabolism - the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells

Metabolism is closely linked to nutrition and the availability of nutrients. Bioenergetics is a term
which describes the biochemical or metabolic pathways by which the cell ultimately obtains
energy. Energy formation is one of the vital components of metabolism.

14. Catabolism
 Catabolism is the part of the metabolism responsible for breaking complex molecules down
into smaller molecules. The other part of the metabolism, anabolism, builds simple molecules into
more complex ones. During the catabolism energy is released from the bonds of the large
molecules being broken down. Typically, that energy is then stored in the bonds of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). The catabolism increases the concentration of ATP in the cell as it breaks
down nutrients and food. The ATP, in such high concentrations, becomes much more likely to
give up its energy in the release of a phosphate. The anabolism then uses this energy to combine
simple precursors into complex molecules that add to the cell and store energy for cell division.

15. Anabolism

Anabolism collectively refers to all the processes of chemical reactions that build larger
molecules out of smaller molecules or atoms; these processes are also known as anabolic processes
or anabolic pathways. The opposite of anabolism is catabolism, the set of processes that breaks
down larger molecules into smaller ones. Anabolism and catabolism are the two types of metabolic
pathways. Metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions that take place in the cell. Anabolic
pathways use energy, while catabolic pathways release energy.

16. Digestive System

The human digestive system is responsible for food ingestion and digestion as well as the
absorption of digested food molecules and the elimination of undigested molecules. It consists of
a long tube called the gastrointestinal tract or GI tract (alimentary canal) and several accessory
organs. The major components of the GI tract are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine. The major accessory organs are the teeth, salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas.

17-18. Mechanical digestion and Chemical digestion

There are two kinds of digestion: mechanical and chemical. Mechanical digestion involves
physically breaking the food into smaller pieces. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the
food is chewed. Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that
can be used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva.
Saliva contains an enzyme (amylase) that begins the breakdown of carbohydrates. (An enzyme is
a protein that can catalyze certain biochemical reactions). The contraction of circular and
longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes food with enzymes and moves it along the gut

19 GERD

When you eat, food travels from your mouth through your esophagus and reaches a door-like
structure called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). This structure opens to allow food into the
stomach and closes to keep stomach contents from entering the esophagus. In gastroesophageal
tetanal reflux disease (GERD), the LES does not work properly, leading to stomach contents
traveling back into the esophagus. This is called acid reflux, also known as heartburn. Unlike the
stomach, which has a protective lining, the esophagus can get irritated when coming in contact
with the stomach acid.

20. Jaundice

Yellow staining of the skin and sclerae (the whites of the eyes) by abnormally high blood levels
of the bile pigment bilirubin. The yellowing extends to other tissues and body fluids. Jaundice was
once called the "morbus regius" (the regal disease) in the belief that only the touch of a king could
cure it.

When red blood cells are removed from the bloodstream, hemoglobin, the molecule in red cells
that carries oxygen, is broken down into bilirubin. The bilirubin is carried to the liver and excreted
into the intestine as a component of bile.

Jaundice can indicate liver or gallbladder disease. When the excretion of bilirubin is hindered,
excess bilirubin passes into the blood, resulting in jaundice. Inflammation or other abnormalities
of liver cells hinder the excretion of bilirubin into bile. Or the bile ducts outside the liver may be
blocked by a gallstone or a tumor. Jaundice can also result from the excessive breakdown of red
blood cells (a process called hemolysis) and too much bilirubin is released into the bloodstream.
This occurs typically in the hemolytic anemias (as opposed to the aplastic anemias in which not
enough red cells are produced). Jaundice is common in newborns because there is some hemolysis
during labor and delivery and the newborn's liver is immature and may not be fully up to the task
of handling the bilirubin for a few days. In Gilbert syndrome, the blood bilirubin levels are slightly
increased, enough to cause mild jaundice. This genetic condition is usually discovered
serendipitously during routine screening tests of liver function. It causes no symptoms and no
problems

21. Gas exchange

Air first enters the body through the mouth or nose, quickly moves to the pharynx (throat),
passes through the larynx (voice box), enters the trachea, which branches into a left and right
bronchus within the lungs and further divides into smaller and smaller branches called bronchioles.
The smallest bronchioles end in tiny air sacs, called alveoli, which inflate during inhalation, and
deflate during exhalation.

Gas exchange is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream, and the elimination
of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the lungs. It occurs in the lungs between the alveoli and
a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries, which are located in the walls of the alveoli.

The walls of the alveoli actually share a membrane with the capillaries in which oxygen and
carbon dioxide move freely between the respiratory system and the bloodstream. Oxygen
molecules attach to red blood cells, which travel back to the heart. At the same time, the carbon
dioxide molecules in the alveoli are blown out of the body with the next exhalation.

22. Skin system

The integumentary system is the set of organs that forms the external covering of the body and
protects it from many threats such as infection, desiccation, abrasion, chemical assault and
radiation damage. IN humans the integumentary system includes the skin – a thickened keratinized
epithelium made of multiple layers of cells that is largely impervious to water. It also contains
specialized cells that secrete melanin to protect the body from the carcinogenic effects of UV rays
and cells that have an immune function. Sweat glands that excrete wastes and regulate body
temperature are also part of the integumentary system. Somatosensory receptors and nociceptors
are important components of this organ system that serve as warning sensors, allowing the body
to move away from noxious stimuli.
23. Gills system

Is a type of respiratory organ found in many aquatic animals, including a number of worms,
nearly all mollusks and crustaceans, some insect larvae, all fishes, and a few amphibians. The gill
consists of branched or feathery tissue richly supplied with blood vessels, especially near the gill
surface, facilitating the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the surrounding water. The
gills may be enclosed in cavities, through which the water is often forcibly pumped, or they may
project from the body into the water.

24. Tracheal system

his chapter describes tracheal system of insects. Insects have a tracheal respiratory system in
which oxygen and carbon dioxide travel primarily through air-filled tubes called tracheae. Usually
the tracheal system penetrates the cuticle via closeable valves called spiracles and ends near or
within the tissues in tiny tubes called tracheoles. The tracheae primarily serve as pipes that
transport gases between the spiracles and the tracheoles, whereas the thin-walled tracheoles are
thought to be the main sites of gas exchange with the tissues. However, in many insects, the
tracheae are compressible, and dilations of the tracheae form thin walled air sacs that together
serve as bellows for enhancing the flow of gases through the tracheal system. In general, the size
of the tracheal system increases with age in order to support the increased gas exchange needs of
the larger insect.

Major changes in tracheal structure, including changes in spiracle number and tracheal system
organization, can occur at each molt and during the pupal period for endopterygote insects. The
organization of the tracheal system varies dramatically among insects, with spiracle number
ranging from 0 to 20 and with tracheal branching patterns varying widely across species, between
body regions, and during the developmental stages of holometabolous insects.

25. Lungs system

 The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and
expelling carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory system are the lungs, which carry
out this exchange of gases as we breathe. The lungs work with the circulatory system to pump
oxygen-rich blood to all cells in the body. The blood then collects carbon dioxide and other waste
products and transports them back to the lungs, where they're pumped out of the body when we
exhale, according to the American Lung Association. The human body needs oxygen to sustain
itself. After only about five minutes without oxygen, brain cells begin dying, according to the
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, which can lead to brain damage and
ultimately death.

26. Emphysema

Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath. In people with emphysema,
the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over time, the inner walls of the air sacs weaken
and rupture — creating larger air spaces instead of many small ones. This reduces the surface area
of the lungs and, in turn, the amount of oxygen that reaches your bloodstream. When you exhale,
the damaged alveoli don't work properly and old air becomes trapped, leaving no room for fresh,
oxygen-rich air to enter. Most people with emphysema also have chronic bronchitis. Chronic
bronchitis is inflammation of the tubes that carry air to your lungs (bronchial tubes), which leads
to a persistent cough. Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are two conditions that make up chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Smoking is the leading cause of COPD. Treatment may
slow the progression of COPD, but it can't reverse the damage.

27. Cystic fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic condition affecting more than 10,500 people in the UK. You
are born with CF and cannot catch it later in life, but one in 25 of us carries the faulty gene that
causes it, usually without knowing. Cystic fibrosis is a hereditary disease that affects the lungs and
digestive system. The body produces thick and sticky mucus that can clog the lungs and obstruct
the pancreas. Cystic fibrosis (CF) can be life-threatening, and people with the condition tend to
have a shorter-than-normal life span
28. Pneumonia

Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs. The air sacs may fill
with fluid or pus (purulent material), causing cough with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty
breathing. A variety of organisms, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause pneumonia.
Pneumonia can range in seriousness from mild to life-threatening. It is most serious for infants and
young children, people older than age 65, and people with health problems or weakened immune
systems.

29. The circulatory system

A network consisting of blood, blood vessels, and the heart. This network supplies tissues in
the body with oxygen and other nutrients, transports hormones, and removes unnecessary waste
products.

The heart is made of specialized cardiac muscle tissue that allows it to act as a pump within the
circulatory system. The human heart is divided into four chambers. There are one atrium and one
ventricle on each side of the heart. The atria receive blood and the ventricles pump blood.

The human circulatory system consists of several circuits:

 The pulmonary circuit provides blood flow between the heart and lungs.
 The systemic circuit allows blood to flow to and from the rest of the body.
 The coronary circuit strictly provides blood to the heart (not pictured in the figure
below).

30. Open Circulatory System

Open circulatory systems are systems where blood, rather than being sealed tight in arteries and
veins, suffuses the body and may be directly open to the environment at places such as the digestive
tract. Open circulatory systems use hemolymph instead of blood. This “hemolymph” performs the
functions of blood, lymph, and intestinal fluid – which are three different, highly specialized fluids
in animals with closed circulatory systems.

Instead of a complex and closed system of veins and arteries, organisms with open circulatory
systems have a “hemocoel.” This is a central body cavity found inside most invertebrate animals
where both digestive and circulatory functions are performed. This hemocoel may have “arteries”
through which the blood can reach tissues – but these arteries are not closed and do not circulate
blood as quickly as closed, muscle-assisted arteries.

31. Closed Circulatory System

Larger and more active animals, including all vertebrates, have a closed circulatory system.
This more complex system consists primarily of blood, the heart and a network of blood vessels.
The main functions of the circulatory system are gas exchange, hormone and nutrient distribution,
and waste elimination.

The two major processes of the system are pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. In the
former process, deoxygenated blood is passed through the lungs for gas exchange, in order to
receive oxygen from inhaled air. Next, systemic circulation distributes the newly oxygenated blood
throughout the body. The blood picks up carbon dioxide, a metabolism waste product, from cells,
and brings it back to the lungs again.

In a closed circulatory system, blood is directed through arteries to veins and to smaller blood
vessels throughout the body. As opposed to bathing all tissues and organs with blood, the blood
remains in vessels and is transported at high pressures to and from all extremities of the body at a
rapid rate.

32. Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a disease in which plaque builds up inside your arteries. Arteries are blood
vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood to your heart and other parts of your body. Plaque is made up
of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. Over time, plaque hardens
and narrows your arteries.

33. Myocardial infarction

 also known as a heart attack, occurs when blood flow decreases or stops to a part of the heart,
causing damage to the heart muscle. The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which
may travel into the shoulder, arm, back, neck or jaw.

The heart requires its own constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, like any muscle in the body.
The heart has four main arteries, two of them large, branching arteries that deliver oxygenated
blood to the heart muscle. If one of these arteries or branches becomes blocked suddenly, a portion
of the heart is starved of oxygen, a condition called "cardiac ischemia."

34. Ischemia

Food, water, exercise, sleep: Your body needs many different things to keep it going. One of
those things happens every time you breathe -- every “in” breath pulls oxygen into your lungs,
where it enters your blood. It then travels throughout your body in your blood vessels, veins, and
arteries.

Some of those blood vessels are big, like highways. Others are small, like back roads. But if any
of them gets stopped up, you have a serious problem called ischemia. This means some part of
your body isn’t getting enough blood, so it’s not getting enough oxygen, either. It can happen in
your brain, legs, and just about everywhere in between.

35. Homeostasis

is any self-regulating process by which an organism tends to maintain stability while adjusting
to conditions that are best for its survival If homeostasis is successful, life continues; if it’s
unsuccessful, it results in a disaster or death of the organism. The “stability” that the organism
reaches is rarely around an exact point (such as the idealized human body temperature of 37 °C
[98.6 °F]). Stability takes place as part of a dynamic equilibrium, which can be thought of as a
cloud of values within a tight range in which continuous change occurs. The result is that relatively
uniform conditions prevail.

36. Blood sugar levels biology

 The sugar content of blood is not a passive constituent. Blood sugar level is found to exert
enormous influence in regulating the functions of various tissues in different ways.

 On Stomach

Low blood sugar stimulates gastric secretion and gastric movements. Hunger contractions are
always stimulated by low sugar (as also by insulin injections). They stop when the blood sugar
rises.

 On Liver:

Glycogenesis in liver is stimulated when blood sugar level is high as contrast to the hypoglycaemic
condition when instead of glycogenesis, glycogenolysis occurs.

 On Muscles:

Muscles glycogen is formed when its glycogen content is low whereas it does not follow this
principle when its glycogen content is high in spite of high blood sugar level. Muscle glycogen
has got no glycostatic action.

 On Heart:

Fall of blood sugar level results lactic acid in muscle but these are converted into glycogen in
cardiac muscle.

 On Central Nervous System:

Since sugars are main fuel of central nervous system activity, the hypoglycaemia results
interference, i.e., hypoactivity of central nervous systems, e.g., feeling of fatigue, abnormal
behavior, i.e., anxiety and irritability, appearance of tremor and vasomotor disturbances, etc.

37. Thermoregulation

a process that allows your body to maintain its core internal temperature. All thermoregulation
mechanisms are designed to return your body to homeostasis. This is a state of equilibrium.

A healthy internal body temperature falls within a narrow window. The average person has a
baseline temperature between 98°F (37°C) and 100°F (37.8°C). Your body has some flexibility
with temperature. However, if you get to the extremes of body temperature, it can affect your
body’s ability to function. For example, if your body temperature falls to 95°F (35°C) or lower,
you have “hypothermia.” This condition can potentially lead to cardiac arrest, brain damage, or
even death. If your body temperature rises as high as 107.6°F (42 °C), you can suffer brain damage
or even death.

38. Immunity

immunity means being protected from something and being unaffected or not bothered by it.
Let's say you have immunity to heat - this means heat can't bother you whatsoever - walking up to
hot molten lava (about 2,000 degrees F!) would be no different than walking up to a river.

Amazingly, we already have a form of this superpower because of our immune system. Our
immune system protects us and helps fight off disease

39. Hormones

regulate various biological activities including growth, development, reproduction, energy use
and storage, and water and electrolyte balance. They are molecules that act as chemical messengers
in the body's endocrine system. Hormones are produced by certain organs and glands and are
secreted into the blood or other bodily fluids. Most hormones are carried by the circulatory system
to different areas, where they influence specific cells and organs.

Hormones can be classified into two main types: peptide hormones and steroid hormones.

 Peptide Hormones
These protein hormones are composed of amino acids. Peptide hormones are water-soluble
and are unable to pass through a cell membrane. Cell membranes contain a phospholipid
bilayer that prevents fat-insoluble molecules from diffusing into the cell.
 Steroid Hormones
Are lipid-soluble and able to pass through the cell membrane to enter a cell. Steroid
hormones bind to receptor cells in the cytoplasm, and the receptor-bound steroid hormones
are transported into the nucleus

40. Skeletal system

 The skeletal system provides support and protection for the body’s internal organs and gives
the muscles a point of attachment. Humans have an endoskeleton, where our bones lie underneath
our skin and muscles. In other animals, such as insects, there is an exoskeleton on the outside of
the body.

The human skeleton can be divided into two components: the axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed around the central axis of the body and thus includes the
skull, spine, and ribcage. It protects the brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs, esophagus and major sense
organs like the eyes, ears, nose, and tongue. The appendicular skeleton is related to the limbs and
consists of the bones of the arms and legs, as well as the shoulder and hip girdles
 Earth

&

Life Science
Submitted by: Joshua Saligumba

Submitted to: Sir. Clyde Perang