Volcanic Hazards

Volcanic hazards
S186_1
Volcanic hazards
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Volcanic hazards
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This free course is an adapted extract from the Open University

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Volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis
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Volcanic hazards
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978-1-4730-1828-0 (.kdl)
978-1-4730-1060-4 (.epub)
Volcanic hazards
Contents
 Introduction
 Learning outcomes
 1 Overview
 1.1 Volcanic hazards
 1.2 Volcanic Ash
 1.3 Volcanoes and tsunamis
 1.4 Lahars, jökulhlaups and gasses
 1.5 Test what you've learned
 Conclusion
 Keep on learning
 Acknowledgements
Volcanic hazards
Introduction
This course, Volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis,
discusses the various hazards posed by volcanic eruptions,
illustrated by examples from recent eruptions. While you read this
course and complete the activities afterwards, it would be a good
idea to compile your own table of hazards, with as many examples
of each one as you can find. You will meet the term 'micrometre' in
connection with the size of very tiny ash particles; a micrometre is
one-millionth of a metre, which is one-thousandth of a millimetre.
This OpenLearn course provides a sample of level 1 study in

Science.
Volcanic hazards
Learning outcomes
After studying this course, you should be able to:
 demonstrate general knowledge and understanding of

the hazards posed by volcanic eruptions and methods
to predict, monitor and mitigate risk as well as some
notable eruptions
 understand the contribution that science can make to
informed debate on environmental hazards and risk
mitigation
 locate information on specified internet sites, and use
this in conjunction with other knowledge to make
reasoned deductions.
Volcanic hazards
1 Overview
Throughout this course, we will be referring to subjects discussed
in the book 'Teach Yourself Volcanoes, Earthquakes and Tsunamis'
(TYVET) by David Rothery, an extract of which is supplied below.
Reading 1 Teach yourself volcanoes,

earthquakes and tsunamis
Please download and read the following excerpt from 'Teach
Yourself Volcanoes, Earthquakes and Tsunamis' by David Rothery.
You should read this before continuing with the following pages.
View document
1.1 Volcanic hazards

Ask a friend or a family member to name a volcanic hazard: they
will probably say 'lava'. (Try it! It can help you to improve your
understanding if you talk to people about your studies.) However,
having read this course, you should realise that lava flows are a
comparatively minor problem in most cases. Although, except in
the rare case of a successful diversion attempt, immovable
property is destroyed by lava (Figures 1 and 2), people have to be
particularly unfortunate (or stupid) to be killed by a lava flow. You
will see a hazardous lava flow in Activity 1.
Volcanic hazards
Figure 1 Burial of a store in Kalapana, Hawaii, between (a) April and (b and
c) June 1990 (colour versions of TYVET Figure 5.1).
View description - Figure 1 Burial of a store in Kalapana,

Hawaii, between (a) April and (b and c) June ...
Figure 2 A burning house in Kalapana, Hawaii, surrounded by a thin sheet

of pahoehoe in 1990.
View description - Figure 2 A burning house in Kalapana,

Hawaii, surrounded by a thin sheet of pahoehoe ...
Pyroclastic flows are much more dangerous than lava flows.

Figure 3 shows two clear views.
Volcanic hazards
Figure 3 (a) The deadly pyroclastic flow on Montserrat in the Caribbean, 25
June 1997 (another view of the event in TYVET Figure 5.8). (b) The thin
deposit left by the pyroclastic flow in (a).
View description - Figure 3 (a) The deadly pyroclastic flow

on Montserrat in the Caribbean, 25 June ...
Activity 1a The Nyiragongo eruption in 2002

30 minutes
Go to the Global Volcansim Program website and click on the

'Reports' tab, then select 'Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network'
and from there 'Bulletin Archive' (not 'Selected Bulletin'). Insert
'December' and '2001' in the drop down menu and click 'Show
Issue'.
In this activity we're looking at the 12/2001 (December 2001)

report that (bizarrely) gives details of events in January 2002.
Read the report as far as the fourth paragraph after Figure 12, and
note particularly the spread of lava right through the town of Goma
shown on the Figure 12 map.
Scroll down until you find the report dated 04/2002, and note in
particular the Figure 15 map and the photographs that follow,
especially Figure 21.
Now compose a single sentence to describe the location and

nature of the sites where the lava flows originated.
Volcanic hazards
View answer - Activity 1a The Nyiragongo eruption in 2002
1.2 Volcanic Ash

At the time of writing, the most recent VEI 6 eruption is that of
Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991 (Figure 4), notable for a
plinian eruption column, 35 km high, which led to a heavy airfall as
well as column-collapse pyroclastic flows.
The threat posed to aircraft by volcanic ash clouds is another

matter. However, it is worth emphasising here that the disposition
of ash clouds and the airfall that is deposited below them are
controlled by the wind direction(s) during the eruption. Figure 5
maps the pattern of airfall distribution from the 18 May 1980
eruption of Mount St Helens showing clearly the effect of wind
blowing from the west. Please see Box 1 for an explanation of the
contoured information on maps such as Figure 5.
Figure 4 The VEI 6 plinian eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, 12

June 1991 (a slightly different view from TYVET Figure 5.11).
View description - Figure 4 The VEI 6 plinian eruption of

Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, 12 June ...
Volcanic hazards
Figure 5 Thickness distribution of airfall from the 18 May 1980 eruption of

Mount St Helens (1 inch ≈ 2.5 cm).
View description - Figure 5 Thickness distribution of airfall

from the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount ...
Box 1 Contoured information on maps

On maps, and on many kinds of two-dimensional plots where the
value of a quantity changes from place to place, it is common to
show lines (contour lines) that link places of equal value. You may
be familiar with topographic maps on which contour lines link
points of equal height above sea level. In Figure 5, contour lines
have been drawn linking all points of equal thickness of the airfall
deposited by a particular eruption. The outer contour marks the
limits of where ash was found. The next contour in encloses the
Volcanic hazards
area where more than half an inch of ash was deposited, and the
innermost contour encloses the area where more than 2 inches of
ash were deposited. The thickness of the deposit between one
contour line and the next must be a value somewhere between the
values on the lines. In this example, the thickness range is
indicated by colour coding (according to the key on the map) rather
than by labelling the contour lines.
1.3 Volcanoes and tsunamis

The collapse of a volcano (or, more usually, part of it) links
volcanology with tsunami studies. A debris avalanche is a hazard
in its own right but, if it enters the sea or a lake, it can cause a
tsunami that is capable of taking lives even on a distant shore. So-
called 'megatsunamis' caused by the collapse of a large part of a
volcanic island (Figure 6) are a matter of controversy. Collapses
definitely occur because giant debris avalanche deposits have
been mapped on the ocean floor, but scientists don't know whether
such events are generally rapid enough to cause a serious
tsunami.
Activity 1b
By what methods can volcanic activity cause tsunamis other than a
debris avalanche or giant landslide?
View answer - Activity 1b
Volcanic hazards
Figure 6 Output of a computer model showing the possible effect of a

collapse of Cumbre Viejo in La Palma, Canary Islands generating a
megatsunami in the Atlantic Ocean. Numbers are height in metres at the point
corresponding to the nearest yellow dot; red is above normal (wave crests)
and blue is below normal (wave troughs). (TYVET Figure 5.17 is frame H in
this sequence.)
View description - Figure 6 Output of a computer model

showing the possible effect of a collapse of ...
Box 2 One tsunami, two tsunamis?

Tsunami is in origin a Japanese word. The Japanese language has
no plural form for most nouns, so some English authors use
tsunami interchangeably for both singular and plural. That does
not look right to me. In this course I treat tsunami as a naturalised
English word, and write tsunamis so it is always clear when I am
referring to more than one. I think you would be very surprised if
instead of lahars I used the Indonesian plural of lahar , which is
laharlahar.
1.4 Lahars, jökulhlaups and gasses
Volcanic hazards
The eruption that claimed most lives in the 100 years before this
course was written was the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in
Colombia, which caused a lahar that annihilated the town of
Armero
A jökulhlaup (if you pronounce it 'yer-kul-h-loip' you won't be far

wrong) is in some ways a dilute equivalent of a lahar. It consists of
a violent flood of water transporting rocks, gravel and often blocks
of ice, but the nature of the material available at its source means
that it lacks the high load of ash and/or mud that distinguishes a
lahar. You will have studied a jökulhlaup in Activity 1.
Gas emitted from volcanoes poses many problems. It can blight

land downwind from a persistently active volcano (Figure 7),
poison the grazing after a large eruption, and accumulate in
depressions or flow downhill to asphyxiate people. When you visit
the Global Volcanism Program website you will probably see
gases identified by their chemical formula rather than name, so
they are listed for you here in Table 1. With the exception of water
vapour and hydrogen fluoride, these gases are all denser than air
so, if emitted passively (rather than being expelled in a hot and
therefore buoyant eruption column), they will tend to flow downhill.
Volcanic hazards
Figure 7 Contrasting conditions (a) away from and (b) beneath the
persistent sulfur dioxide plume from the Masaya volcano in Nicaragua (colour
versions of TYVET Figure 5.23).
View description - Figure 7 Contrasting conditions (a) away

from and (b) beneath the persistent sulfur ...
Table 1 Chemical formula of common volcanic gases
N For
a mu
m la
e
ca CO2
rb
on
di
ox
id
e
hy HF
dr
og
en
flu
ori
de
wa H2O
ter
va
Volcanic hazards
po
ur
hy H2S
dr
og
en
sul
fid
e
sul SO2
fur
di
ox
id
e
Activity 2 The Grimsvötn jökulhlaups
15 minutes
Go to the Global Volcanism Program website, and the

Icelandic volcano, Grimsvötn page. Select 'Reports', then
'Available Bulletin Reports'. At the time of writing, there are reports
of jökulhlaups in 1972, 1982, 1983, 1996, 1998, 2004 and 2011 but
by the time you look there may have been another one. For this
activity, I simply want you to look at the photographs of the 2004
event, which are Figures 7-10. If you click on any of these, you will
see an enlarged image which lets you see more detail (use your
browser's 'Back' button to return to the previous view).
In particular, I would like you to note the gravelly coastal plain in

Figure 10 flooded by the jökulhlaup that you can see emerging
from the distant glacier but (in this case) not washing away the
Volcanic hazards
adequately engineered road that had been rebuilt after the 1996
jökulhlaup.
Look at Figure 8. Write a description (two or three sentences)

describing what you can see below the angled eruption column.
Which way was the wind blowing (relative to this view)?
View answer - Activity 2 The Grimsvötn jökulhlaups
Activity 3 Long Valley skier fatalities in 2006

10 minutes
Go to the Global Volcanism Program website, and the

western USA volcano, Long Valley and select the report for
06/2006.
Read the section of the report for that date headed Ski-area
accident, and then write a description (one or two sentences)
stating which volcanic gases are mentioned, and which one
caused the deaths.
View answer - Activity 3 Long Valley skier fatalities in 2006
1.5 Test what you've learned

Now that you've reviewed this course and completed the activities,
try answering these questions to test what you've learned.
Question 1
Volcanic hazards
Give at least three reasons why TYVET Table 5.2 (p. 118) would
be an unreliable guide to the relative proportions of fatalities from
various volcanic causes during the next 100 years.
View answer - Question 1
Question 2
If you were at the foot of an erupting volcano and wanted to
escape with your life, would you rather see a lava flow or a
pyroclastic flow heading towards you, and why?
Question 3
List the different ways in which a pyroclastic flow can be initiated,
and for each case cite one example of a specific eruption where
this occurred.
Question 4
Describe the hazards associated with ongoing airfall, and any
relevant preventive measures. (One sentence per hazard)
Question 5
Volcanic hazards
Describe one way in which a lahar can begin during an eruption,
and one way in which a lahar can begin after an eruption. Give a
recent example in each case. (One sentence for each)
Volcanic hazards
Conclusion
This free course provided an introduction to studying volcanoes,
earthquakes and tsunamis. It took you through a series of
exercises designed to develop your approach to study and
learning at a distance, and helped to improve your confidence as
an independent learner.
This OpenLearn course is an adapted extract from the Open

University course s186 Volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis
Volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis.
Volcanic hazards
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Volcanic hazards
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Volcanic hazards
Acknowledgements
This course was written by David Rothery.
Course image: Scot Nelson in Flickr made available under

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
2.0 Licence.
The material acknowledged below is Proprietary and used under

licence (not subject to Creative Commons licence). See Terms
and Conditions.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources:
Figures 1 & 2 Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, United States
Geological Survey
Figure 3 Peter Francis
Figure 4 Richard P. Hoblitt, photograph taken 12th June
1991, Cascades Volcano Observatory, United States Geological

Survey
Figure 5 USGS 1997, Modified from Tilling, Topinka and Swanson,

1990, Eruptions of Mount St Helens. Present and Future, USGS
Special Interest Publication;
Volcanic hazards
Figure 6 Ward, S. N, and Day, S. (2001), 'Cumbre Vieja Volcano -
Potential collapse and tsunami at La Palma, Canary Islands'
Geophysical Research Letters , 28(17) 2001, American
Geophysical Union;
Figure 7 David Rothery
Rothery, David, A, (2010) Chapter 5 from Volcanoes,

earthquakes and tsunamis, Teach Yourself ® series
('TYVET'), published by Hodder Education, Copyright ©
David A. Rothery.
This book forms part of the course S186 Volcanoes,

Earthquakes and Tsunamis.
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders. If any

have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased
to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
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This free course is adapted from a former Open University course

called 'Molecules, medicines and drugs (SK185)'.
Volcanic hazards
Activity 1a The Nyiragongo eruption

in 2002
Answer
I used information on the map (Figure 15) and the caption to
Figure 21, to decide upon the following simple description: Lava
was erupted via dykes that supplied magma from the central
conduit to secondary vents low on the southern flank of the
volcano. Your wording was probably different, but I hope you
mentioned the terms I underlined. You may also have mentioned
fissures or fissure eruption.
Back to Session 1 Activity 2
Volcanic hazards
Activity 1b
Answer
By underwater explosions, by pyroclastic flows entering the water,
and by the collapse of a submarine caldera.
Volcanic hazards
Activity 2 The Grimsvötn

jökulhlaups
Answer
I hope you wrote something like this:
Below the eruption column curtains of ash can be made

out, falling towards the ground. The ground beneath the
column (which is actually the top of a glacier) is blackened
by the airfall that has accumulated there. The column is
deflected to the left, showing that the wind was blowing
from right to left when this picture was taken.
(If you were particularly insightful, you might also have noted that
the pattern of airfall on the ground shows that the wind direction
has remained constant throughout the eruption.)
Incidentally, if you tried to find a description of the 1996 jökulhlaup

on this site, you will have been disappointed because the 1996
reports only cover the eruption leading up to the jökulhlaup.
Volcanic hazards
Activity 3 Long Valley skier fatalities

in 2006
Answer
The report mentions H2S (which Table 1 identifies as hydrogen
sulfide), of which one sometimes 'gets a whiff' [rotten eggs] while
riding in the nearby chairlift, but what appears to have killed the
ski-patrol officers was CO2 (carbon dioxide) that probably made up
90% of the air in the snow-hole into which they had fallen. With
that in mind, I hope you wrote something like:
The two volcanic gases mentioned in the report are

hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. It was the carbon
dioxide that appears to have caused the deaths.
As a point of interest, this incident was at Mammoth Mountain,

where tree deaths because of carbon dioxide in the soil are
described near the foot of TYVET p. 158. You may have noticed
the map showing 'tree kill' immediately above the Ski-area
accident report.
Volcanic hazards
Question 1
Answer
1. The data in the table are incomplete or unreliable for
many parts of the globe, especially in the first half of
the 400-year period considered.
2. Few eruptions of VEI 7 and above occurred in that
period. A single such eruption could change the
balance completely.
3. Population growth is continuing to put more people at
risk.
Volcanic hazards
Question 2
Answer
You would prefer to see a lava flow because pyroclastic flows
travel much faster than lava flows (about 100 km per hour),
whereas most lava flows barely exceed walking pace (although the
exceptional Nyiragongo flow in 1977 moved at 30 km per hour).
So, provided you are alert and able, you could get out of the way
of a lava flow (unless escape routes are blocked), whereas you
would be much less likely to evade a pyroclastic flow.
Volcanic hazards
Question 3
Answer
A pyroclastic flow can be initiated by:
1. dome collapse, e.g. Mount Pelée in 1902 (also Unzen

in 1991, Soufriere Hills, Montserrat in 1997 and many
others)
2. directed blast, e.g. Mount St Helens in 1980
3. column collapse, e.g. Mount Pinatubo in 1991 (also El
Chichón in 1982, Vesuvius in AD 79, and many others).
Volcanic hazards
Question 4
Answer
The weight of an airfall deposit can cause roofs to collapse, so it is
sensible to sweep them clean during an eruption. Large bombs
can cause damage by the speed of their impact so, if you are
caught in the open while bombs are falling, it is safer to watch the
bombs and dodge them when necessary rather than turning and
running. Fine ash can cause respiratory problems, so try to avoid
stirring it up and wear a face mask. Vehicles can be ruined if ash
gets into the engine or lubrication systems, or if the engine
overheats because the radiator is clogged by ash, so drive slowly
or not at all.
Volcanic hazards
Question 5
Answer
A lahar can begin during an eruption if it causes snow or ice to
melt, as happened at Nevado del Ruiz in 1985. [You could also
have suggested Ruapehu in 1953 or Mount St Helens in 1980.] A
lahar can happen after an eruption when heavy rain falls on airfall
ash deposits, such as after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in
1991. [You could also have suggested heavy rainfall on weak,
fumarolically altered rock, as on Casita volcano in 1998.]
Volcanic hazards
Figure 1 Burial of a store in

Kalapana, Hawaii, between (a)
April and (b and c) June 1990
(colour versions of TYVET Figure
5.1).
Description
Figure 1 Burial of a store in Kalapana, Hawaii, between (a) April and (b and c) June
1990 (colour versions of TYVET Figure 5.1).
Back to Session 1 Figure 1
Volcanic hazards
Figure 2 A burning house in

Kalapana, Hawaii, surrounded by
a thin sheet of pahoehoe in 1990.
Description
Figure 2 A burning house in Kalapana, Hawaii, surrounded by a thin sheet of
pahoehoe in 1990.
Volcanic hazards
Figure 3 (a) The deadly pyroclastic

flow on Montserrat in the
Caribbean, 25 June 1997 (another
view of the event in TYVET Figure
5.8). (b) The thin deposit left by
the pyroclastic flow in (a).
Description
Figure 3 (a) The deadly pyroclastic flow on Montserrat in the Caribbean, 25 June
1997 (another view of the event in TYVET Figure 5.8). (b) The thin deposit left by
the pyroclastic flow in (a).
Volcanic hazards
Figure 4 The VEI 6 plinian eruption

of Mount Pinatubo in the
Philippines, 12 June 1991 (a
slightly different view from TYVET
Figure 5.11).
Description
Figure 4 The VEI 6 plinian eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, 12 June
1991 (a slightly different view from TYVET Figure 5.11).
Volcanic hazards
Figure 5 Thickness distribution of

airfall from the 18 May 1980
eruption of Mount St Helens (1
inch ≈ 2.5 cm).
Description
Figure 5 Thickness distribution of airfall from the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount
St Helens (1 inch ≈ 2.5 cm).
Volcanic hazards
Figure 6 Output of a computer

model showing the possible effect
of a collapse of Cumbre Viejo in
La Palma, Canary Islands
generating a megatsunami in the
Atlantic Ocean. Numbers are
height in metres at the point
corresponding to the nearest
yellow dot; red is above normal
(wave crests) and blue is below
normal (wave troughs). (TYVET
Figure 5.17 is frame H in this
sequence.)
Description
Figure 6 Output of a computer model showing the possible effect of a collapse of
Cumbre Viejo in La Palma, Canary Islands generating a megatsunami in the Atlantic
Ocean. Numbers are height in metres at the point corresponding to the nearest yellow
dot; red is above normal (wave crests) and blue is below normal (wave troughs).
(TYVET Figure 5.17 is frame H in this sequence.)
Volcanic hazards
Figure 7 Contrasting conditions (a)

away from and (b) beneath the
persistent sulfur dioxide plume
from the Masaya volcano in
Nicaragua (colour versions of
TYVET Figure 5.23).
Description
Figure 7 Contrasting conditions (a) away from and (b) beneath the persistent sulfur
dioxide plume from the Masaya volcano in Nicaragua (colour versions of TYVET
Figure 5.23).

Volcanic Hazards

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Page 2 of 42 17th June 2019

About this free course

This free course is an adapted extract from the Open University

This version of the content may include video, images and

You can experience this free course as it was originally designed

Copyright © 2016 The Open University

Unless otherwise stated, this resource is released under the terms

Page 3 of 42 17th June 2019

We believe the primary barrier to accessing high-quality

This is because the learning experience will always be the same

When using the content you must attribute us (The Open

The Acknowledgements section is used to list, amongst other

Page 4 of 42 17th June 2019

We have also identified as Proprietary other material included in

Unauthorised use of any of the content may constitute a breach of

We reserve the right to alter, amend or bring to an end any terms

All rights falling outside the terms of the Creative Commons

Head of Intellectual Property, The Open University

Page 5 of 42 17th June 2019

 1.2 Volcanic Ash

 1.3 Volcanoes and tsunamis

 1.4 Lahars, jökulhlaups and gasses

 1.5 Test what you've learned

Page 6 of 42 17th June 2019

This OpenLearn course provides a sample of level 1 study in

Page 7 of 42 17th June 2019

 demonstrate general knowledge and understanding of

Page 8 of 42 17th June 2019

Reading 1 Teach yourself volcanoes,

1.1 Volcanic hazards

Page 9 of 42 17th June 2019

View description - Figure 1 Burial of a store in Kalapana,

Figure 2 A burning house in Kalapana, Hawaii, surrounded by a thin sheet

View description - Figure 2 A burning house in Kalapana,

Pyroclastic flows are much more dangerous than lava flows.

Page 10 of 42 17th June 2019

View description - Figure 3 (a) The deadly pyroclastic flow

Activity 1a The Nyiragongo eruption in 2002

Go to the Global Volcansim Program website and click on the

In this activity we're looking at the 12/2001 (December 2001)

Now compose a single sentence to describe the location and

Page 11 of 42 17th June 2019

1.2 Volcanic Ash

The threat posed to aircraft by volcanic ash clouds is another

Figure 4 The VEI 6 plinian eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, 12

View description - Figure 4 The VEI 6 plinian eruption of

Figure 5 Thickness distribution of airfall from the 18 May 1980 eruption of

View description - Figure 5 Thickness distribution of airfall

Box 1 Contoured information on maps

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1.3 Volcanoes and tsunamis

View answer - Activity 1b

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Figure 6 Output of a computer model showing the possible effect of a

View description - Figure 6 Output of a computer model

Box 2 One tsunami, two tsunamis?

1.4 Lahars, jökulhlaups and gasses

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A jökulhlaup (if you pronounce it 'yer-kul-h-loip' you won't be far

Gas emitted from volcanoes poses many problems. It can blight

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View description - Figure 7 Contrasting conditions (a) away