Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94

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Composites Part B
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A review on basalt fibre and its composites

V. Fiore a, *, T. Scalici a, G. Di Bella b, A. Valenza a
a
Department of “Ingegneria Civile, Ambientale, Aerospaziale, dei Materiali”, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy
b
CNR ITAE, Via Salita Santa Lucia sopra Contesse 5, 98126 Messina, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent years, both industrial and academic world are focussing their attention toward the develop-
Received 2 October 2014 ment of sustainable composites, reinforced with natural fibres. In particular, among the natural fibres (i.e.
Received in revised form animal, vegetable or mineral) that can be used as reinforcement, the basalt ones represent the most
22 November 2014
interesting for their properties. The aim of this review is to illustrate the results of research on this topical
Accepted 30 December 2014
Available online 12 January 2015
subject. In the introduction, mechanical, thermal and chemical properties of basalt fibre have been
reviewed. Moreover, its main manufacturing technologies have been described. Then, the effect of using
this mineral fibre as reinforcement of different matrices as polymer (both thermoplastic and thermoset),
Keywords:
A. Polymerematrix composites (PMCs)
metal and concrete has been presented. Furthermore, an overview on the application of this fibre in
A. Metalematrix composites (MMCs) biodegradable matrix composites and in hybrid composites has been provided. Finally, the studies on the
A. Ceramicematrix composites (CMCs) industrial applications of basalt fibre reinforced composites have been reviewed.
Basalt fibre © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Basalt is a natural material that is found in volcanic rocks orig-
inated from frozen lava, with a melting temperature comprised
between 1500
and 1700
C [1,2]. Its state is strongly influenced by
the temperature rate of quenching process that leads to more or
less complete crystallization.
Perhaps 80% of basalts are made up by two essential minerals;
i.e. plagiocene and pyroxene.
Analyzing the chemical composition it is possible to observe
that SiO2 is the main constituent and Al2O3 is the second one [1,3,4].
In Table 1 is reported the typical composition, as identified by
Militky et al. [1] and Dea
k et al. [3].
Basalt fibre, which was developed by Moscow Research Institute
of Glass and Plastic in 1953e1954, is a high-tech fibre invented by
the former Soviet Union after 30 years of research and develop-
ment, and its first industrial production furnace that adopted 200
nozzles drain board combination oven bushing process was
completed in 1985 at Ukraine fibre laboratory [5].
The base cost of basalt fibres varies in dependence of the quality
and type of raw material, production process and characteristics of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 091 23863721; fax: þ39 091 7025020.
E-mail address: vincenzo.fiore@unipa.it (V. Fiore).
the final product. As the cost, the chemical and mechanical prop-
erties depend from the composition of the raw material. Differ-
ences in terms of composition and elements concentration give
difference in thermal and chemical stability and more or less good
mechanical and physical properties [6].
Overall, the manufacturing process of this kind of fibre is similar
to that of glass fibre, but with less energy consumed and no addi-
tives, which makes it cheaper than glass or carbon fibres. Using a
natural volcanic basalt rock as raw material, basalt fibre is produced
by putting raw material into furnace where it is melted at
1450e1500
C. After this, the molten material is forced through a
platinum/rhodium crucible bushings to create fibres. This tech-
nology, named continuous spinning, can offer the reinforcement
material in the form of chopped fibres or continuous fibres, that can
be used in the textile field manufacturing process and have a great
potential application to composite materials. In addition to the
ability to be easily processed using conventional processes and
equipments, the basalt fibres do not contain any other additives in a
single producing process, which makes additional advantage in
cost [7].
Blowing melt technologies are proposed for the production of
short and cheap basalt fibres characterized by poor mechanical
properties [3]. Continuous basalt fibres are produced by spinneret
method (see Fig. 1) similarly to glass fibres. Recently, Kim et al. [8]
proposed melt-spinning method based on dielectric heating in
order to produce fibres on laboratory scale.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.12.034
1359-8368/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
Table 1
Typical composition of basal fibres (as reported by different authors [1,3]).
Constituent Content [wt%]
[1]
SiO2 43.3e47
Al2O3 11e13
Fe2O3 <5
CaO 10e12
MgO 8e11
Na2O <5
TiO2 <5
K2O <5
The increasing application of basalt fibre raised the question
whether basalt fibre is harmful to health.
Even if asbestos and basalt fibres present similar composition,
basalt seems to be safe, because of different morphology and sur-
face properties avoid any carcinogenic or toxicity effects, which are
presented by asbestos instead [9,10]. In particular, Kogan et al. [11]
made rats inhale air containing asbestos and basalt fibres for 6
months. In the case of asbestos fibres at a dose of 1.7 g kg1
(referred to the body weight of the rat), one third of the animals
died, while a dose of 2.7 g kg1 killed all the rats. In the case of the
basalt fibre, all the animals survived even when the dose reached
the 10 g kg1 concentration. Similar investigations were conducted
by McConnell et al. [12] and they also concluded that basalt fibres
pose no risk to human beings.
It is know that the fibrous fragments with diameter (d) of 1.5 mm
or less and length (l) of 8 mm or greater should be handled and
disposed of using the widely accepted procedures for asbestos. Fi-
bres falling within the following three criteria are of concern [13]:
 fibres with diameters lower than 1.5 mm (some say <3.5 mm)
remain airborne and are respirable;
 fibres with an l/d aspect ratio higher than 3 do not seem to cause
the serious problems associated with asbestos;
 fibres durable in the lungs do not cause problems if they are
decomposed in the lungs.
Since most of nonpolymeric fibres have diameter significantly
higher than 3.5 mm but break into long thin pieces, emission of
Fig. 1. A simplified scheme of a basalt fiberization processing line: 1) crushed stone
silo; 2) loading station; 3) transport system; 4) batch charging station; 5) initial melt
zone; 6) secondary heat zone with precise temperature control; 7) filament forming
bushings; 8) sizing applicator; 9) strand formation station; 10) fibre tensioning station;
11) automated winding station (reproduced with permission from [3]).
75
particles, including fibres, occurs during handling. For simulation of
these phenomena, the abrasion of basalt weaves was made by
Militký et al. [1]. The experimental results showed that, because the
[3]
mean value of fibre fragment diameter is the same as diameter of
fibres, no splitting of fibres during fracture occurs. The aspect ratio
42.43e55.69
l/d of basalt fibre fragments is equal to 20.8, higher than the critical
14.21e17.97
10.80e11.68 value.
7.43e8.88 Overall basalt fibres show several advantages, which make them
4.06e9.45 a good alternative to glass fibres as reinforcing material in com-
2.38e3.79
posites used in several fields such as marine, automotive, sporting
1.10e2.55
1.06e2.33 equipment, civil, etc. In particular, basalt fibres have mechanical
properties similar to those of glass ones (see Table 2).
Moreover, basalt fibres are non-combustible, they have high
chemical stability [4,15], and good resistance to weather, alkaline
and acids exposure. Moreover, basalt fibres can be used from very
low temperatures (i.e. about 200
C) up to the comparative high
temperatures (i.e. in the range 600e800
C) [3,7,16e18].
The thermal stability that depend from the composition of the
raw material and the presence of a large amount of micro-pores
that prevent convection and thermal radiation of the air are rea-
sons to think to use basalt fibres fabrics in thermal insulation and
passive fire protection applications [6,19,20].
In particular, the thermal gravimetric analysis performed by Hao
and Yu [20] shows that the mass loss occurs in the temperature
range of 200e350
C for both basalt and glass fibres (Fig. 2).
However, the basalt fibre has better thermal stability than glass
fibre. In Table 3 the parameters of thermal decomposition of the
fibres from analysis of TG curves are reported (To the onset tem-
perature of the decomposition, Ti the temperature at which the
mass loss is maximal, Tt the terminal temperature of the
decomposition).
The main factor determining the heat temperature stability of
basalt fibres is their crystallization behaviour. Crystallization ability
primarily depends on fibre chemical composition as well as heat
treatment conditions. In particular, due to its high content of iron
oxides, crystallization in basalt fibre begins with oxidation of
ferrous cations and formation of spinel structure phase on the fibre
surface: i.e. divalent cations (Ca2þ, Mg2þ, Fe2þ) diffuse from the
interior to the surface where they react with environmental oxygen
forming nanocrystalline layers CaO, MgO, (Mg,Fe)3O4. Moreover,
with increasing temperature the crystallization of pyroxene phases
takes place on the spinel crystals, which act as nucleation sites. The
crystallization of continuous basalt fibre during heat treatment was
studied in details [21,22]. It is worth nothing that the crystallization
ability of basalt fibre can be selectively controlled by doping with
other elements: for instance, the effect of zirconium oxide on the
crystallization and thermal stability of basalt fibres was analyzed by
Lipatov et al. [23].
For the first time, the chemical durability of basalt fibre was
studied by Ramachandran et al. as early as 1981 [24]. The authors
stated that this fibre has excellent resistance to alkaline attack, but
it has poor resistance to acids. The better mechanical behaviour of
the basalt fibres than glass ones after corrosion treatments was
then shown by Nasir et al. [25]. Even if the corrosion mechanism is
Table 2
E-Glass and basalt fibres properties compared (reproduced with permission
from [14]).
E-glass Basalt
Density (g/cm3) 2.56 2.8
Elastic modulus (GPa) 76 89
Tensile strength (GPa) 1.4e2.5 2.8
Elongation to fracture (%) 1.8e3.2 3.15
Specific E modulus (GPa per g/cm3) 30 31.78
Specific tensile strength (GPa per g/cm3) 0.5e1 1
76 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94

hybrid material, with the aim to modify the basalt fibres by the
synthesized epoxy/SiO2 hybrid material. The experimental results
showed that the hybrid coating is formed on the surface of the
basalt fibres, the surface roughness of basalt fibres is increased and
the tensile strength of basalt fibre multifilament yarn is improved.
In particular, when the content of SiO2 was 5%, the modification
effect has reached its best performance.
Another feature of the basalt fibres is their good compatibility
with the matrix materials even if there are some research focused
on the surface treatment of these fibres in order to modify their
surface morphology and improve their wettability with the matrix
material [30,31].

2. Polymer matrices

2.1. Thermoset polymer

In these last years, basalt fibres were used as reinforcement of

Fig. 2. TGA curves for glass and basalt fibres (reproduced with permission from [20]). thermoset polymers as epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester resins to
manufacture composite structures useful in several applications.
In particular, due to its good features as mechanical properties,
resistance to moisture absorption and to corrosive liquids and en-
similar, the degradation in E-glass fibres is more severe and it is
vironments, durability in service and great versatility, the epoxy
concluded that basalt fibres would be a suitable replacement in
resin has been the thermoset polymer most commonly investigated
corrosive environments. However, other authors showed better
as matrix for basalt fibre reinforced composites.
resistance of the basalt fibres in acid environment rather than in
Lopresto et al. [32] compared the quasi-static mechanical
alkali one [4].
properties of two epoxy laminates manufactured through vacuum
The ageing of glass and basalt fibres with different chemical
bag method: i.e. reinforced with E-glass and basalt plain weave
constitutions in NaOH and cement solutions was carried out by
fabrics. Due to the different areal weight of the fabrics used (i.e.
Scheffler et al. [16]. They showed that the corrosion in NaOH so-
200 g/cm2 and 290 g/cm2 for basalt and glass, respectively),
lution leads to a strong dissolution of the outer layer of the glass
different number of plies were impregnated to obtain laminates
and basalt fibres, whereas during ageing in cement solution at the
with the same thickness. The fibre volume fractions were measured
same pH-value a limited, local attack is revealed. In particular, in
through matrix burning tests resulting in values of 51% and 46%
NaOH solution the failure stress steadily decreases, being inter-
respectively for basalt and glass laminates. The experimental re-
rupted by phases of increasing stresses. In contrast, the filaments in
sults showed a high performance of the basalt material in terms of
cement solution do not reveal decreasing failure stresses over a vast
young modulus (Fig. 4), compressive and bending strength, impact
interval of temperature and time.
force and energy (Fig. 5). The authors stated that the mechanical
Rybin et al. [26] showed that the zirconia coating slows down
behaviour of both the analyzed systems in terms of stiffness seems
the corrosion of basalt fibre in alkali solution, with higher extent by
not to be influenced by the specific test so that the small variations
applying dense zirconia coating than the porous coating on fibre
in impact response are simply due to the difference in fibre volume
surface. Moreover, the uncoated and coated basalt fibres were used
fraction.
as reinforcements in cement matrix showing that the surface of the
Furthermore, the short-beam strength tests confirmed a quite
coated fibre is affected by the alkaline medium of the cement
good interfacial adhesion between basalt fibres and epoxy matrix,
matrix to a smaller extent than the surface of as-received basalt
not worse than the one between E-glass and epoxy matrix.
fibre.
Dorigato and Pegoretti [33] compared the quasi static tensile
High modulus, good strength and elastic behaviour make also
and fatigue properties of epoxy based laminates reinforced with
this kind of fibres a good alternative to the traditional ones and in
woven fabrics of basalt, E-glass and carbon fibres with the same
particular, continuous basalt fibres are competitive with glass fibres
areal density (i.e. 200 g/m2). All the laminates were prepared by
[3]. In Fig. 3, the tensile test diagrams of E-glass (GF), short basalt
means of vacuum bagging technique, thus obtaining volume fibre
fibres (SB) and continuous basalt fibres from three different man-
content equal to 63.5%, 56.3% and 61.3% for carbon, glass and basalt
ufacturers (CB1, CB2, CB3) are shown. All tested fibres have a rigid
reinforced epoxy, respectively. The experimental result showed
behaviour, without plastic deformation. The tensile modulus and
that the basalt fibres laminates present elastic moduli and strength
strength of continuous basalt fibres and glass fibre are quite similar,
values higher than those of the corresponding laminates reinforced
while short basalt fibres are considerably less stiff.
with glass fibres, with tensile strength values near to that of carbon
Several authors showed how this kind of fibre, in terms of
resistance and moduli, is comparable or better than glass fibres. For
this reason, it is possible to consider them as a valid alternative to Table 3
those one [10]. Parameter of thermal decomposition of basalt and glass fibres obtained from TG
curves (reproduced with permission from [20]).
The mechanical strength of basalt fibres is thought to be closely
related to the presence of surface heterogeneities such as surface Glass Basalt
flaws, structure defects and impurities [27]. These heterogeneities To (
C) 163.3 204.9
make the measured mechanical properties remarkably lower than Ti (
C) 300.8 324.1
their maximum theoretical values. Wei et al. [28,29] have synthe- Tt (
C) 850.3 795.7
sized by Sol-Gel method coatings made from pure epoxy and SiO2 original mass (mg) 7.74 8.67
loss of mass (%) 1.76 0.74
nanoparticle modified epoxy composite and from epoxy/SiO2
 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
Fig. 3. Typical tensile diagrams of basalt and glass fibre tensile tests (reproduced with
permission from [3]).
fibres based laminates. The investigation of the fatigue behaviour
indicated higher performances of the laminates reinforced with
basalt fabrics with respect to the corresponding glass fibre com-
posites, with an improved capability of sustaining progressive
damaging and slightly higher damping properties.
With the aim to determine their acceptability in tribological
applications, the two-body abrasive wear behaviour of basalt and
glass fabric-reinforced epoxy composites was also investigated
[34]. In particular, both composites were prepared by hand layup
technique using basalt and E-glass plain weave fabrics with areal
weight equal to 150 g/m2 and 360 g/m2, respectively. Fibre weight
fractions of 53.4% and 57.8% and void volume content of 3.59% and
1.98% were found for basalt and glass fabric-reinforced epoxy
composites, respectively. The quasi-static tensile, compressive and
inter-laminar shear properties of the composites were investigated
Fig. 4. Comparison of tensile, flexural and compressive Young modulus between basalt
and E-glass fibre composites (reproduced with permission from [32]).
77
Fig. 5. Absorbed impact energy and maximum impact force of basalt and E-glass
composites (reproduced with permission from [32]).
in this work. The experimental results showed that the basalt
reinforced epoxy composite had higher tensile, compressive and
interlaminar shear strength than glass composite. Moreover, the
good bonding between basalt fibres and epoxy resin, determined
by inter-laminar shear strength (Fig. 6) and Young's modulus test,
had a positive influence on the abrasive wear behaviour whereas
glass reinforced composites were detrimental to abrasive wear due
to poor bonding between fibres and resin.
Shokrieh and Memar [35] analyzed the stress corrosion behav-
iour of basalt/epoxy composites, manufactured by filament wind-
ing method, under bending loading and submerged in 5% sulphuric
acid corrosive medium. In particular, they applied three states of
stress, equal to 30%, 50% and 70% of the ultimate strength of
composites showing that the strength of composites degrades by
time and, when loading is more than 50% of the ultimate strength,
the degradation is accelerated. Moreover, degradations of bending
strength, bending modulus and fracture energy were modelled by
exponential functions. Broken cross sections of samples were
studied by microscopic observations, and extreme effects of plas-
ticization on samples have been observed.
The tolerance of basalt-fibre-reinforced epoxy composites to-
wards salt water immersion, moisture absorption, temperature and
moisture cycling was investigated by Liu et al. [36]. To this aim, the
authors used two twill fabrics (i.e. basalt and glass) with the same
weave pattern and yarn ratio in both warp and weft directions and
two polymers (i.e. epoxy resin and vinyl ester) as matrix, thus
manufacturing four composites having the same fibre volume
fraction (i.e. 37.7%).
The authors have selected these epoxy and vinyl ester resins
because are very common, low cost, and they have high heat re-
sistances (i.e. heat distortion temperature of epoxy resin equal to
74
C, glass transition temperature of vinyl ester equal to 99
C).
Overall, epoxy resins are more expensive, but show better me-
chanical properties and higher resistance to moisture absorption,
to corrosive liquids and to environmental agents, if compared
with the vinyl ester resins. Another positive aspect of the epoxy
resins is their low shrinkage during the curing process: i.e. the
vinyl ester resins shrink up to 12% in volume whereas the epoxy
resins shrink less than 5%. Due to the absence of styrene, the
epoxy resins have significantly less toxic emissions than the vinyl
ester ones during the curing process, making possible their use
also with “open-mold” manufacturing technologies (e.g. hand lay
up or vacuum bagging). As regard the seawater resistance, the
vinyl ester resins show comparable behaviour than the epoxy
ones.
78 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
Fig. 6. Interlaminar shear strength of laminated composites (reproduced with
permission from [34]).
Tensile and short beam tests were carried out showing that,
after a 240 days' ageing in salt water or water, a slight but sig-
nificant decrease in Young's modulus and tensile strength of
basalt composites was found. Freezeethaw cycling up to 199
cycles did not change the shear strength significantly, but ageing
in hot (40
C) salt water or water made the shear strength of
basalt composites decrease. The ageing results indicated that
both the interfacial region in basalt composites can be more
vulnerable to damage than that in glass composites and the
interfacial region of basalt reinforced composites requires modi-
fication prior to use in long-term applications involving exposure
to water.
He et al. [37] analyzed the impact damage modes and the post-
impact mechanical properties of three epoxy based composites: i.e.
reinforced by S-2 glass, aramid and basalt fibres. In particular, all
the unidirectional laminates were produced by hot-press moulding
procedure, thus obtaining the same fibre volume fraction (i.e. 60%).
The impact damage was induced by the Charpy pendulum machine
with the un-notched specimens whereas the post-impact were
analyzed by carrying out three-point bending tests in the directions
both of impact face and back face of the specimens. The experi-
mental results showed that, under low velocity impact, glass
reinforced beam have a mutational damage evolution whereas
damage is similar in basalt and glass beams at the initial stage. At
the high impact energy, basalt laminate exhibited a progressive
damage with the fibres on the back face tension fractured layer by
layer and aramid beam also displays a progressive evolution.
The reduction in residual flexural modulus is slightly larger than
that in strength, especially for aramid reinforced beam. The
discrepancy between the reductions in the flexural properties in
the direction of the back face and those of the impact face was
larger for aramid beam than that for glass and basalt ones. How-
ever, all these three composites beams showed a similar variation
law in residual flexural properties as the function of impact energy.
The comparison of damage features caused by impacts on glass
and basalt fibre reinforced laminates has been reported in the pa-
per of Sfarra et al. [38]. The analysis of hysteresis cycles obtained
from falling weight impact tests has been assisted by non-
destructive techniques, in particular interferometric and thermo-
graphic techniques, which all gave a distinctive contribution to the
study. The authors showed that the increased directionality of
impact damage observed in basalt fibre reinforced composites,
slightly superior to glass fibre reinforced ones, may represent a
limitation on the predictability of their behaviour. The experi-
mental results suggest that the production of glass/basalt fibre
hybrids in different configurations, though presenting an increased
manufacturing complexity, would nonetheless present additional
advantages in allowing a better predictability of impact damage
patterns.
The degradation in seawater of epoxy composites reinforced
will basalt and glass plain weave fabrics and fabricated using the
hot-pressing process, was compared monitoring both the mass gain
ratio and the strength maintenance ratio [39]. In particular, the
samples were immersed in an artificial seawater, prepared by
mixing the sea salt with distilled water and the salt concentration
was controlled at 6% in weight, at a temperature of 25
C up to 90
days. In general, they showed that the anti-seawater corrosion
property of the basalt fibre reinforced composites was almost the
same as that of the glass fibre reinforced ones (Fig. 7). Based on the
experimental results, the authors explored possible corrosion
mechanisms, indicating that an effective lowering of the Fe2þ
content in the basalt fibre could lead to a higher stability for the
basalt fibre reinforced composites in a seawater environment.
The chemical durability of unidirectional basalt fibre reinforced
epoxy composites was studied by Wang et al. [40]. To this aim,
composites were immersed in eight kinds of chemical mediums
(i.e. 30% vitriol, 5% hydrochloric acid, 5% nitric acid, 10% sodium
hydroxide, saturated sodium carbonate solution, 10% ammonia,
acetone and distilled water) for 15, 30, and 90 days at room tem-
perature and the monitoring of the flexural properties was carried
out after each period of immersion. Experiment results showed
that the corrosion behaviour of the composites differs greatly due
to the different corrosion mechanisms of basalt fibre in acid and
alkali mediums.
In particular, in alkali mediums, the flexural modulus keeps
close to the original value while the flexural strength declines
gradually. In acid mediums the flexural strength and flexural
modulus decline in the same way.
De la Rosa Garcia et al. [41] proved the good behaviour of epoxy
based composites reinforced with basalt unidirectional fibre as
bending reinforcement of pine timber beams.
Kim [42,43] studied the possibility of utilizing basalt chopped
fibre in order to prepare thermally stable composites using a bi-
component resin system based on epoxy and benzoxazine mono-
mer or two different curing systems for bisphenol F type epoxy
resin (i.e. an epoxy-amine curing system and an epoxy-anhydride
curing system).
Basalt fibre was used also to reinforce biobased epoxy resins by
Espana et al. [44]. In particular, they studied the influence of
different silane coupling agents on the mechanical properties of
Fig. 7. Tensile strength of the seawater treated samples as a function of immersion
time (reproduced with permission from [39]).
 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
composite laminates made from a commercial epoxy resin having
55% of its molecular structure originating from plants and basalt
woven fabrics.
The scientific literature also includes work regarding modifica-
tions of epoxy resin systems or chemical treatments of basalt fibres
to improve the mechanical properties of composites.
Chen et al. [45] analyzed the influence of functionalized multi-
walled carbon nanotubes on the properties of cross-ply epoxy
laminates reinforced with basalt fibres and functionalized multi-
walled carbon nanotubes. They showed that the reinforcement
effects of multi-walled carbon nanotubes on the composite elastic
modulus exceeded micromechanics based semi-empirical pre-
dictions and were independent of surface functionalization. This
work demonstrated the feasibility of in situ alignment and
dispersion of functionalized nanotubes in multi-scale epoxy based
laminates reinforced with basalt fibres.
Kim et al. [46] investigated the effect of the silane and acid
treatments of multi-walled carbon nanotubes on the flexural and
fracture behaviours of epoxy/basalt composites. To this aim, flex-
ural and mode I fracture tests were performed using acid-treated
and silane-treated carbon nanotube/epoxy/basalt composites,
respectively. The results showed that the flexural properties and
fracture toughness of silane-treated carbon nanotube/epoxy/basalt
composites are higher than those of acid-treated carbon nanotube/
epoxy/basalt composites. SEM examination revealed that the
improvement in the flexural and fracture properties of silane-
treated carbon nanotube/epoxy/basalt composites occurred due
to enhanced dispersion and interfacial interaction between the
silane-modified carbon nanotubes and the epoxy resin used as
matrix.
Kim et al. [47] showed also that the addition of the acid-treated
carbon nanotubes improves the wear properties of basalt/epoxy
woven composites, due to the homogeneous load transfer between
basalt fibres and epoxy matrix mixed with 1% in weight of carbon
nanotubes.
Lee et al. [48] showed the better tensile and thermal properties
of silanized carbon nanotube/woven basalt/epoxy composites in
comparison with those of unmodified and acid modified carbon
nanotube based composites. The effect of nano-reinforcements on
mode-I interlaminar fracture toughness of quasi-uniaxial basalt
fibre-reinforced epoxy laminates, manufactured by filament
winding method followed by vacuum bag to consolidate the part
and bleed out excess resin, was studied by Bashar et al. [49]. In
particular, a 50 mm thin ethylene tetrafluoroethylene film insert
was placed at the mid-plane of each laminate investigated, as a
crack initiator. An organically modified sodium-montmorillonite
nanoclay and an acrylic based tri-block-copolymer were chosen
for this study from among the many different nano-reinforcements
available. The authors showed that the fracture energy of the bulk
epoxy nanocomposites significantly increased with acrylic tri-
block-copolymer addition but remained unchanged with incorpo-
ration of nanoclay. Moreover, delamination fracture toughness was
not influenced by the presence of nanoparticles in the matrix. The
decrease fibre volume fraction, on the other hand, significantly
improved interlaminar fracture energy since the rigid fibres in
these composites constrict the stress field ahead of the crack.
Hence, increasing resin content enhanced composite delamination
energy by increasing the capacity for matrix deformation.
Kim et al. [50] studied the effects of surface treatment of a basalt
fibre by low-temperature atmospheric oxygen plasma on the
interlaminar fracture behaviour of basalt/epoxy woven composites.
The basalt-woven fabrics used in this study were firstly placed in an
acetone bath and washed in distilled water with ultrasonication to
remove surface sizing agents, then they were treated by low-
temperature atmospheric oxygen plasma. The experimental
79
results showed that the wettability of the basalt fibre was
remarkably increased, accompanied by physical etching and by the
formation of chemical functional groups containing oxygen and
nitrogen on the fibre surface. The interlaminar fracture toughness
of basalt/epoxy woven composites was improved by oxygen plasma
treatment and SEM micrographs of the fractured surface showed
that epoxy resin adhered well around the basalt fibres of the oxy-
gen plasma-treated specimen compared to that of the untreated
specimen. Based on the experimental results, the author stated that
an adhesive force between fibre/resin interfaces was improved by
oxygen plasma treatment, and this increased the interlaminar
fracture toughness of basalt/epoxy woven composites.
Ary Subargia et al. [51] studied the effect of different tourmaline
micro/nano particle loading, with and without a surfactant to
better disperse the tourmaline particles, on the mechanical prop-
erties of epoxy composite laminate reinforced with basalt fibres. In
particular, all the investigated composites were manufactured by a
vacuum assisted transfer resin moulding method, by using as
reinforcement woven basalt fabrics having areal density equal to
210 g/cm2. The experimental results showed that significant
improvement in both tensile and flexural strength and modulus
was achieved when tourmaline particles were incorporated in the
basalt/epoxy composite: i.e. the best result was obtained at 1% in
weight of tormaline loading with surfactant. The authors stated
that the enhanced performances of the laminates were due to a
good dispersion of tourmaline particles in the epoxy matrix that
provided increased surface area for strong interfacial interaction
and good load transfer.
Varley et al. [52] compared different modification methods to
better understand the influence of matrixefibre interaction on the
mechanical properties of epoxy-basalt composites. In particular,
they employed two basic strategies: i.e. the first was to apply
colloidal silica to increase the surface roughness of the fibre,
whereas the second to chemically attach an epoxy silane to the
fibre surface using sol gel methods. In addition to this, a hybrid
approach which combined these two strategies was used and,
finally, this hybrid functionalized surface of the fibre was further
modified through the addition of triethylenetetramine (Fig. 8).
In order to use basalt reinforced composites for structural ap-
plications, some authors have compared the use as matrices of
epoxy resins and vinyl ester ones. In particular, Czigany et al. [53]
investigated mechanical and failure behaviour of basalt fibre mat-
reinforced composites with vinyl ester and vinyl ester/epoxy
hybrid resins as a function of resin hybridization and treatment of
basalt fibre surface. In particular, the composites, with weight fibre
content equal to 30%, were produced by resin transfer moulding
method obtaining. Two coupling agents were used to improve the
adhesion of basalt fibres towards the resins used: i.e. the first one
contained epoxy functional groups and the second one vinyl
functional groups. In the hybrid resin system, the vinyl ester/epoxy
ratios were set equal to 1 to 3, 1 to 1 and 3 to 1, respectively. The
experimental results showed that the toughness of the brittle vinyl
ester was effectively improved by hybridizing with a suitable epoxy
resin. The authors stated that the hybrid resin systems in the
studied range possess an interpenetrating network structure,
which may be very advantageous in fibre-reinforced composites. In
particular, it was established that for the ratio of 1 to 1 vinyl ester/
epoxy hybrid resin-based composites both strength and toughness
could be enhanced at the same time when using surface treated
basalt fibres. Moreover, the authors proved that the shape and size
of the damage zone in the composites, detected by location of the
acoustic emission activity, are independent both of the type of
treatment of basalt fibre surface and of the resin composition.
Colombo et al. [54] studied the static and fatigue properties of
basalt fibre composites, using as matrix vinyl ester and epoxy
80 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94

Fig. 8. SEM micrographs of the multi-ply basalt compression laminates after failure for the (a) clean fibre, (b) the silane modified fibre, (c) the colloidal/silica modified fibre, (d) the
colloidal/silica/silane modified fibre, and (e) the colloidal/silica/amine-modified fibre (reproduced with permission from [52]).

resins. In particular, the technique used for composites
manufacturing is the vacuum infusion process and both the
panels showed fibre volume ratio equal to 50%. Different kinds of
mechanical tests are planned and performed: static tensile and
compression tests, static delamination tests, classical and step-
wise fatigue tests. The epoxy composites evidenced higher me-
chanical properties with respect to vinyl ester and the failure
mode is more compact, since fibres do not tend to explode, as
shown in Fig. 9. Moreover, considering fatigue curves, it was
evident a similar trend of fatigue curves of the two composites
compared specimens.
Thanks to their good properties, also vinyl ester resin have been
widely used as matrix for basalt fibre reinforced composites. Car-
misciano et al. [55] carried out a comparative study on basalt and E-
glass woven fabric reinforced epoxy based vinyl ester resin. In
particular, the authors used in this study fabrics with the same
specific areal density (i.e. 220 g/m2). The laminates were manu-
factured by resin transfer moulding method thus achieving fibre
volume fraction equal to 0.28 for both composites. The mechanical
properties of the composites were evaluated by carrying out three
point bending tests and short beam tests whereas the electrical
properties carrying out measurements of the complex permittivity
of the materials versus frequency. The experimental results showed
higher flexural modulus and apparent interlaminar shear strength
in comparison with E-glass ones but also a lower flexural strength
and similar electrical properties.
The compression behaviours of plain woven basalt/vinyl ester
resin composites under high strain rates have been investigated
experimentally and by use of finite element analyses by Zhang et al.
[56]. From the results of the finite element, the authors concluded
that the plain woven fabric structure and the rate dependent be-
haviours of the matrix are the key factors which affect the strain
rate sensitivity of the compressive properties.
De Rosa et al. [57] studied the post-impact performances of two
vinyl ester based composites: i.e. one based on woven fabric basalt
fibres, the other on woven fabric E-glass fibres. As in the previous
work, the basalt and E-glass fabrics were plain weave fabrics with
specific areal weight equal to 220 g/m2 and the matrix used was a
Bisphenol-A epoxy based vinyl ester resin. The laminates were
manufactured by resin transfer moulding method and the fibre
volume fraction for both composites was equal to 0.38. First the
non-impacted specimens were subjected to interlaminar shear
stress and flexural tests, then mechanical tests were repeated on
laminates impacted using a falling weight tower at three impact
energies (i.e. 7.5, 15 and 22.5 J). Tests were also monitored using
acoustic emission analysis of signal distribution with load and with
distance from the impact point. The experimental results showed
similar both damage tolerance to impact and also their post-impact
 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
Fig. 9. (a) Basalt-vinyl ester and (b) basalt-epoxy broken specimens after static tensile tests (reproduced with permission from [54]).
residual properties after impact did not differ much, with a slight
superiority for basalt fibre reinforced laminates. Moreover, the
authors stated that the principal difference is represented by the
presence of a more extended delamination area on E-glass fibre
reinforced laminates than on basalt fibre reinforced ones.
As for epoxy, also vinyl ester resins were modified to improve
their compatibility with basalt fibres.
In particular, Yusriah et al. [58] studied the effects of hollow
polymeric microspheres on specific mechanical properties and
thermal properties of glass, basalt, and carbon woven fabric rein-
forced vinyl ester composites. The experimental results showed
that the specific flexural and specific impact strength of the com-
posites were marginally increased with the addition of hollow
polymeric microspheres. On the other hand, it was found a
reduction of the flexural modulus. The thermal stability of the neat
vinyl ester was improved with the addition of woven glass and
carbon, but was consequently reduced with the further inclusion of
hollow polymeric microspheres. On the basis of the experimental
data, the authors stated that the major reinforcing effect of the
woven fibre-reinforced vinyl ester composites was governed by the
type of fibre used, while the addition of hollow polymeric micro-
spheres enhanced the ductility of the composites.
As discussed above, studies on the use of basalt fibres as re-
inforcements of thermoset polymer composites have been per-
formed using as matrix mainly epoxy resins and, in some cases,
vinyl ester ones. Polyester resin can also be used for reinforcement
due to its advantages like cost effective, easiness in processability,
lower density. Nevertheless, few informations are available in the
literature on the use of basalt fibres as a reinforcement of polyester
resins.
However, it is worth nothing that the first published paper of the
study on the basalt fibre as a possible polymer reinforcing material
was be focused on the effect of the use of silane coupling agents on
the mechanical properties of polyester based composites [59].
Manikandan et al. [60] studied the effect of fibre surface mod-
ifications on the mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester
reinforced with basalt and glass fabrics. In particular, composites
both with and without acid (i.e. H2SO4) and alkali (i.e. NaOH)
treatments of the fabrics (plain weave with areal weight equal to
220 g/m2), were manufactured using the hand layup technique at
room temperature. Tensile, shear and impact tests were performed
on the composites investigated. The results showed that the per-
formance of basalt fibre reinforced composites with unsaturated
polyester is superior to the glass fibre reinforced composite.
Moreover, the acid-treated basalt fibre reinforced composite shows
higher tensile strength values than other combinations, the glass
fibre composite is much more affected by the alkali treatment than
81
the basalt fibre reinforced composites. The acid-treated basalt fibre
reinforced composite had greater impact strength (i.e. the impact
energy absorbed in breaking, referred to the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen).
The responses of basalt unsaturated polyester laminates under
static three-point bending loading and low-velocity impact were
analyzed in the work of Gideon et al. [61]. Three kinds of laminates
(i.e. unidirectional, cross-ply and woven laminates) were fabricated
by hand lay-up process and hot pressed under pressure. On the
basis of the experimental data, the authors concluded that unidi-
rectional laminate was superior to the woven and cross-ply in static
loading while cross-ply and woven laminates was superior in dy-
namic loading, respectively. It was also observed that the failure of
unidirectional laminates was along the fibre direction while, for
cross-ply and woven, the damage was localized around the
impacted locations.
Gideon et al. [62] also studied the damage behaviours of plain-
woven basalt-unsaturated polyester laminates under low-velocity
impact from experimental at varying the impact energy and
finite-element approach. The finite-element method results were
in good accord with the experimental results regarding peak force,
maximum absorbed energy and damage area.
The mechanical properties (i.e. tensile, flexural and impact
properties) and the thermal stability of basalt fibre reinforced
poly(butylene succinate) composites were studied by Zhang et al.
[63]. To this aim, composites with fibre contents up to 15% in vol-
ume have been fabricated by injection moulding method.
The good thermal stability of basalt fibres allows to apply an
additional heat treatment (i.e. partial pyrolysis in nitrogen at high
temperatures) to a polymer matrix composite, which yields a
ceramic matrix composite with enhanced resistance to oxidation.

To this aim, Cerný et al. used polysiloxane resins as matrix pre-
cursors in several recent works [64e67].
It is worth noting that total pyrolytic transformation (i.e. the
transformation of an organic into an inorganic material) of siloxane
takes place only above 1000
C. The exposure of the basalt fibres to
this temperature is inappropriate since the amorphous fibre
showed a pronounced creep and the formation of crystalline phases
which causes the brittleness of the fibres, in the temperature range
of 600e700
C [64]. For this reason, the process of partial pyrolysis
(i.e. partial transformation of the matrix from polymer to refractory
silicon oxycarbide) must be developed at the temperature of at
most 750
C.
In particular, they studied the heat resistant of composites
reinforced with continuous basalt fibres made by incomplete py-
rolysis of a polysiloxane matrix, also analyzing the effect of the fibre
lubrication [65]. To this aim, unidirectional composites were
82 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94

fabricated by the wet-winding method and the obtained poly-
merematrix composites were further pyrolyzed in a nitrogen at-
mosphere to 650
C or 750
C. In order to assess their thermal
stability, some specimens, were exposed to hot air at 650
C or
750
C for up to 240 h prior to measuring their properties.
The experimental results showed that the flexural strength of
composites is sensitive to the presence of fibre lubrication and to
the pyrolysis temperature: i.e. both removal of lubrication and
increasing of the heat treatment temperature from 650 to 750
C
were found to diminish the flexural strength. Moreover, the py-
rolysis temperature was more determining for matrix-governed
elastic properties (i.e. shear modulus) than for those dominated
by the fibres (i.e. Young's modulus). It was also shown that a rela-
tively short exposition to hot air (i.e. 4 h at 750
C) both deterio-
rated the flexural strength of the composites studied in this work
and changed the failure mode to brittle fracture.
In Ref. [66] the authors studied the effect of several types of the
pyrolysis process (i.e. from the simple curing at 250
C up to the
treatment by total pyrolysis at the final temperature of 1000
C) on
the mechanical properties of composites manufactured similarly to
those studied in the previous work. The highest flexural strength at
room temperature was found for the composite treated by partial
pyrolysis at 650
C, showing an outstanding fracture resistance.
Nevertheless, the composite pyrolyzed at 750
C was found to be
more suitable for high-temperature applications, because of its
slower degradation (Fig. 10).
In a more recent work [67], the same authors analyzed two
variants of the matrix precursor (i.e. polymethylsiloxane and pol-
ymethylphenylsiloxane resins) in the manufacture of basalt plain
weave fabric/polysiloxane composites.
As in the previous work, in order to find favourable mechanical
properties of the developed materials, several pyrolysis processes
differing in the achieved maximum temperature were evaluated.
The experimental results showed that the composite with methy-
phenylsiloxane precursor exhibits favourable mechanical proper-
ties after final pyrolysis temperatures in the range of 650e750
C. In
the case of the composite with polymethylsiloxane matrix precur-
sor, the best mechanical properties were achieved by pyrolysis
terminated at 650
C.
Furan resins are another class of thermoset resins recently used
as matrix for basalt reinforced composites. Differently from
phenolic resins, which are synthesized from highly toxic and haz-
ardous compounds as phenol and formaldehyde, furan resins are
based on furfuryl alcohol, which is less toxic component. Besides,
the eco-formulations can reduce up to 50% of CO combustion.
Lopez De Vergara et al. [68] studied the impact behaviour of
basalt fibre reinforced furan composites manufactured by micro-
wave technology showing that the microwave cured composites
presents higher values for interlaminar shear strength, delamina-
tion threshold force, maximum load and penetration threshold
than the conventionally cured ones.
2.2. Thermoplastic polymer
The scientific literature reports also thermoplastic-based com-
posites reinforced with basalt fibres. In particular, polypropylene
and polyethylene have been widely used as thermoplastic matrices
for basalt fibres.
For the first time, Botev et al. [69] studied a series of
commercial-grade polypropylenes filled with different contents of
short basalt fibres, using as coupling agent a poly(propylene-g-
maleic anhydride), to determine the suitability of untreated short
basalt fibres as a reinforcing agent for polypropylenes and to
observe the variation of viscoelastic properties of the composites
prepared.
As reported in Table 4, the composites with no coupling agent
showed deterioration of stress and strain at yield with increasing of
the fibre content whereas the impact strength was fourfold higher
than that of unfilled polypropylene. On the other hand, it was
observed that the tensile properties of the obtained materials and
their impact strengths increased significantly with increasing of the
amount of the coupling agent in the blend.
After this first work, several authors focused their attention on
the study of mechanical properties of polypropylene filled with
basalt fibres. In particular, Szabo and Czigany [70] investigated the
static properties of polypropylene composites reinforced with
different short mineral fibres (i.e. basalt and ceramic) and with
different reinforcing contents. Matko et al. [71] used commercial
and non-commercial (i.e. reactive surfactants prepared in labora-
tory) maleic anhydride derivatives as coupling agents, to improve
the adhesion between basalt short fibres and polypropylene matrix.
The experimental results showed that both the commercial and the
prepared non-commercial interfacial additives are effective at low
concentration.
A comparative study on the tensile properties at various
temperature conditions of clay reinforced polypropylene, nano-
composites and chopped basalt fibre reinforced poly-
propyleneeclay nanocomposites was carried out by Eslami-
Farsani et al. [72] They showed that the addition of nanoclay
improves the yield strength and Young's modulus whereas it
reduces the ultimate tensile strength of polypropylene based
composites. Furthermore, the addition of chopped basalt fibres
improves the Young's modulus of the composites.

Table 4
Mechanical properties of PP filled with basalt fibres (reproduced with permission
from [69]).

Material Tensile yield Yield strain Izod impact

strength (MPa) (%) strength (J/m)

Unfilled PP 29.5 ± 0.20 17.5 ± 0.57 6 ± 0.3

PP þ 10 wt% basalt fibres 27.1 ± 0.46 13.8 ± 0.65 25.2 ± 0.6
PP þ 20 wt% basalt fibres 25.8 ± 0.33 12.1 ± 0.72 26.2 ± 2.4
PP þ 30 wt% basalt fibres 25.3 ± 0.48 10.7 ± 0.60 25.3 ± 2.1
PP þ 10 wt% basalt fibres 29.8 ± 0.70 11.9 ± 0.51 28.5 ± 0.6
þ 5 wt% PP-g-MA
PP þ 10 wt% basalt fibres 31.2 ± 0.84 11.6 ± 0.37 32.6 ± 2.5
þ 10 wt% PP-g-MA
PP þ 10 wt% basalt fibres 35.5 ± 0.48 10.8 ± 0.62 32.8 ± 0.9
Fig. 10. Temperature dependence of the flexural strength Rm of the composites
þ 20 wt% PP-g-MA
partially pyrolyzed at 650
C and 750
C (reproduced with permission from [66]).
 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
The effect of temperature, adhesion time, and surface treatment
of basalt fibres on the mechanical properties of composites based
on a high-density polyethylene and a copolymer of 1,3,5-trioxane
with 1,3-dioxolan reinforced with basalt fibres was investigated
by Bashtannik et al. [73]. The experimental results showed that the
surface modification of basalt fibres in acidic and alkaline media
intensifies the adhesion of thermoplastics to them. In particular, it
was revealed that the treatment in the acidic medium is more
efficient and considerably improves the mechanical properties of
composites.
Akinci [74] showed that the basalt fibres content influences the
structural integrity and the quasi static mechanical properties of
low density polyethylene based composites. In particular, the
elongation at break of the composites decreases by increasing the
basalt fibres amount. Moreover, it was revealed that the crystalli-
zation increases by increasing the basalt content and the basalt
weight percent increases the hardness. Low-density polyethylene
based composites reinforced with basalt filler were evaluated also
in term of friction and wear performance under dry sliding con-
ditions [75]. As shown in Fig. 11, the results showed that the wear
rates for neat matrix and basalt filled composites increase with
increasing loads and sliding speeds. Moreover, the wear rates of the
basalt filled composites were significantly affected from the basalt
content.
In addition to polyethylene and polypropylene, even other
thermoplastic polymers have been evaluated as matrix for basalt
fibre composites. For instance, the tribological behaviours of two
polytetrafluoroethylene-based composites reinforced with carbon
fibres and basalt fibres sliding against stainless steel under water
lubrication were investigated and compared with those of pure
matrix by Wang et al. [76]. The experimental results showed that
carbon fibres were well bonded with polytetrafluoroethylene ma-
trix differently from the basalt fibres which were poorly bonded
with the matrix. Due to the great accelerating effect of poor fibre/
matrix interfacial adhesion on water absorption, polytetrafluoro-
ethylene reinforced with basalt fibres with the highest crystallinity
unexpectedly showed the highest water absorption, resulting in
serious matrix plasticization and degradation of fibre/matrix
interfacial adhesion. As a result, as the reinforcement failure of
basalt fibres occurred, BF/PTFE exhibited the highest wear rate.
Zhang et al. [77,78] focused their attention on the tribological
properties of polyimide composites reinforced by short basalt fibres
also filled with solid lubricants as MoS2 and graphite. In the paper
[77] it was revealed that the low incorporation of basalt fibres leads
to improve the tribological behaviour of polyimide composites
Fig. 11. Variation of wear rate with basalt content depending on (a) applied load for sliding speed 1 m/s and on (b) sliding speed for applied load of 10 N (reproduced with
permission from [75]).
83
remarkably and the friction coefficient and wear rate decreased
with increases in the sliding speed and load. The authors also
showed that MoS2 and graphite as fillers significantly improved the
wear resistance of the basalt fibres reinforced polyimide compos-
ites [78].
Deak et al. [79] studied the effect of surface treatment with
coupling agents on the dynamic mechanical properties of
polyamide-6 reinforced with basalt fibres showing that the inter-
facial adhesion between basalt fibres and polyamide can be largely
improved by the application of silane coupling agents in the entire
temperature range evaluated. In another paper [80], Deak et al.
compared Polyamide 6 reinforced with long and short basalt fibres.
The results showed that long fibre reinforced thermoplastic com-
posites are particularly advantageous in the respects of dynamic
mechanical properties and injection moulding shrinkage. In
particular, the fibre orientation in long basalt fibre reinforced
products fundamentally differs from short basalt fibre reinforced
ones, resulting in more isotropic moulding shrinkage in case of long
basalt fibre reinforced composites. Moreover, the main advantage
of the used long fibre thermoplastic technology was that the special
long fibre reinforced pellet can be processed by most conventional
injection moulding machines.
The effect of nanotube content on the mechanical properties of
polyamide-6 reinforced with basalt fibres was investigated by
Meszaros et al. [81]. The experimental results showed that the
combination of macroscopic and nanosized reinforcements im-
proves the mechanical properties significantly, and synergetic ef-
fects can also be observed.
In another work [82], Meszaros et al. studied the mechanical
properties of basalt fibre and montmorillonite co-reinforced poly-
amide 6 matrix hybrid nanocomposites. In particular, the hybrid
nanocomposites showed high tensile and flexural properties, and a
synergistic effect of the co-reinforcement has been demonstrated.
Moreover, it was observed that the presence of short basalt fibres
can enhance the dispersion of the nanoparticles in the matrix.
The molten viscosity of polyamide-6 currently used in industry
was very high, which makes it difficult to impregnate thermoplastic
resin into fibre bundles. To overcome this problem, anionic reactive
processing was used as an alternative way to obtain polyamide-6. In
particular, initial low viscosity raw reactants (i.e. Monomer (Ɛ-
caprolactam) þ Activator þ Initiator) were injected through the
reinforcement, being it a low energy consumption process. The
result was a high molecular weight linear polymer (anionic PA-6).
Hoto et al. [83] analyzed the use of APA-6 as matrix material of
basalt fibres studying the dependency between injection flow rate
84 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94

and void content, which affects final mechanicals properties of the
composites.
The influence of basalt fibre on morphology, mechanical prop-
erties, contact angle, melting and crystallization behaviours of
polyamide 1012 was studied by Song et al. [84]. The experimental
results showed that the interface properties between basalt fibre
and polyamide 1012 were improved effectively by silane coupling
agent thus increasing the tensile and flexural strength of the
composites. Although basalt fibre does not change polyamide 1012
crystal structure, it alters the melting temperature and degree of
crystallinity of polyamide 1012. In addition, by virtue of the changes
in crystallization temperature, the nucleation ability of polyamide
1012 in composites is confirmed to be enhanced. Moreover, the
strong interaction between epoxy groups of silane coupling agent
and amide groups of polyamide 1012 elevates the hydrophobic
properties of composites.
Song et al. [85] studied the effect of basalt fibre content also on
morphology, melting and crystallization, structure, mechanical
properties of poly(vinylidene fluoride)/Poly(methyl methacrylate)
blends. As shown in Table 5, the tensile (st) and flexural strengths
(sf) increased by increasing the basalt fibres content up to 20% in
weight. The melting temperature (Tm) was not influenced by the
presence of the basalt fibres, but the degree of crystallinity (Xc) of
composites increased as basalt fibres content increase up to 20% in
weight 20%. Moreover, the heat resistance, evaluated by Vicat
softening temperature (VST), is improved due to basalt fibres.
2.3. Biodegradable polymer
As discussed in the introduction section of this review, basalt
fibres are not biodegradable but still considered as natural, because
they can be produced by using basalt rocks, which can be found in
nature and virtually in every country around the globe. For these
reasons, basalt fibre reinforced biodegradable polymer composites
are expected to provide environmentally friendly yet economically
justifiable structural and functional materials.
Among these, polylactid acid (PLA) is one of the most promising
candidates because of the possibility of producing from annually
renewable resources and its degradability to natural samples in a
short period in contrast with conventional plastics. Although a lot
of research studies reported the mechanical behaviour of various
vegetable fibres/PLA composites in detail, there are few articles
regarding PLA based composites reinforced with basalt fibres.
In particular, these mineral fibres were used for the first time as
reinforcement of PLA matrix by Chen et al. to fabricate composite
materials for hard tissue repair [86]. In particular, the authors
produced composites and pure PLA by the methods of solution
blending and freeze drying. The results showed that basalt fibres
can be uniformly dispersed in the PLLA matrix and significantly
improve the mechanical properties and hydrophilicity of the PLLA
matrix. Moreover, the authors stated that the presence of basalt
fibres may retard the polymer degradation rate and neutralize the
acid degradation from PLLA. Osteoblasts were cultured in vitro to
evaluate the cytocompatibility of the composite and the results
suggested that the presence of basalt fibres does not noticeably
affect osteoblastic behaviour and the designed composites are
osteoblast compatible.
Kurniawan et al. [87] studied the effects of atmospheric pressure
glow discharge plasma polymerization on basalt fibres on the
properties of basalt plain woven fabric/polylactic acid composites.
In particular, composites with 25% of fibres weight content were
produced by compression moulding method and plasma exposure
time of the fibres was varied from 0.5 to 6 min. This study showed
that plasma exposure time on basalt fibres affects mechanical
properties of the composites, evidencing a decline in mechanical
properties until the fibres was plasma polymerized beyond 1.5 min.
In particular, optimum plasma polymerization on basalt fibres was
achieved for 4.5 min of plasma exposure time. The SEM micrograph
of the cross section of optimally plasma polymerized basalt fibres/
PLA composite (Fig. 12) revealed gaps between matrix and plasma
polymerized basalt fibres. Moreover, it was shown that the regions
where basalt fibres adhere with PLA matrix are likely the sites of
silane and plasma polymer acrylic acid stacks occurred.
The tensile, flexural and impact properties of PLA composites
reinforced with basalt and glass fibres were compared by Liu et al.
[88]. To this aim, composites with fibre weight content up to 40%
were prepared by means of a twin screw extruder. The results
showed that basalt fibre/PLA composites had significant reinforcing
and toughening effect in comparison with glass fibre/PLA com-
posites. The impact strength of basalt fibre/PLA composites ach-
ieved the maximum value with the content of basalt fibre equal to
20%. To further toughen the PLA composites reinforced with 20% in
weight of basalt fibres, the authors used three kinds of elastomers:
i.e. ethyleneepropyleneediene rubber grafted with maleic anhy-
dride (EPDM-g-MAH), polyoxyethylene grafted with maleic anhy-
dride (POE-g-MAH) and ethylene-acrylate-glycidyl methacrylate
copolymer (EAGMA). However, it was shown that the introduction
of POE-g-MAH and EPDM-g-MAH can not improve the toughness of
basalt fibre/PLA composites whereas the EAGMA restricts the mo-
lecular mobility of PLA and leads to the formation of larger per-
centage of the amorphous phase, thus further increasing the
toughness of the composites.
Tabi et al. [89] focused their attention on PLA composites rein-
forced with chopped silane treated and untreated basalt fibres.
Composites with fibre weight content up to 40% were prepared
using extrusion and injection moulding methods. Quasi-static (i.e.

Table 5
Properties of PVDF/PMMA/Basalt fibre composites as reported by [85].

PVDF/PMMA PVDF/PMMA/ PVDF/PMMA/ PVDF/PMMA/

basalt fibre 10% basalt fibre 20% basal fibre 30%

st (MPa) 37.2 ± 1.0 50.4 ± 1.4 62.4 ± 0.7 54.7 ± 0.5

ε (%) 24.2 ± 0.40 5.8 ± 0.16 5.4 ± 0.24 3.6 ± 0.33
sf (MPa) 40.7 ± 1.9 85.2 ± 2.0 101.7 ± 2.9 93.8 ± 1.5
Xc (%) 54.9 57.4 62.1 56.6
Tm (
C) 167.4 167.1 166.9 166.8
Fig. 12. Cross section of optimally plasma polymerized BF/PLA composite (reproduced
VST (
C) 133 ± 0.24 136.9 ± 0.23 142.3 ± 0.16 146.1 ± 0.20
with permission from [87]).
 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94 85

tensile and three-point bending tests) and dynamic mechanical Cao et al. [95] presented a study on the tensile properties of
tests (i.e. notched and un-notched Charpy impact tests), dynamic hybrid carbon/glass and carbon/basalt reinforced polymers. Tensile
mechanical analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, heat tests were performed at different temperatures to verify the ther-
deflection temperature analysis, dimensional stability test, melt mal behaviour of the composites. Similar reductions of the tensile
flow index analysis and scanning electron microscopic observations strength of carbon/glass and carbon/basalt composites compared to
were carried out. On the basis of experimental data, it was shown the all carbon composites were found.
that silane treated chopped basalt fibres are much more effective in Ary Subagia et al. [96] investigated the effect of different
reinforcing PLA than natural fibres. stacking sequences of carbon and basalt woven fabrics on the
Tabi et al. [90] compared the properties of long fibre reinforced flexural properties of hybrid composite laminates, manufactured by
composites to chopped basalt fibre reinforced PLA composites vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding method. All the stacking
produced by using the conventional dry mixing, extrusion and in- sequences showed a positive hybridization effect and the flexural
jection moulding methods. In particular, tensile, three-point properties of hybrid composites were strongly dependent on the
bending and Charpy impact tests, dynamic mechanical analysis, sequence of fibre reinforcement. In particular, the interply hybrid
differential scanning calorimetry, heat deflection temperature composite with carbon fibre at the compressive side exhibited
analysis and scanning electron microscopic observations were higher flexural strength and modulus than when basalt fabric was
carried out. They showed that the mechanical properties of the long placed at the compressive side.
basalt fibre reinforced PLA was found to be superior to short basalt Hybrid epoxy composites with alternate stacking sequences of
fibre reinforced PLA. Moreover, fibre length analysis revealed that plain basalt and carbon fabrics were developed by Zhang et al. to
the remaining average fibre length highly increased, while electron improve the toughness properties of conventional carbon rein-
microscopy demonstrated that there is very strong adhesion be- forced composites [97]. The toughness properties of each laminate
tween the phases. Finally, it was found that the long basalt fibres were studied by an open hole compression test and the results
also have nucleating ability, however, not as efficient as short basalt showed that hybrid composites display higher open hole
fibres. compression strength than that of plain carbon fibre composites.
Wheat gluten and starch resin are other biodegradable poly- Fiore et al. [14] demonstrate the feasibility of use of basalt fibres
mers that have been considered in the last years as matrix for in substitution of glass one. To this aim, hybrid composites were
basalt-reinforced polymers. In particular, Ye et al. [91] examined manufactured by means of ply substitution techniques and tested
the biodegradation behaviour of wheat gluten/basalt composites by by three point bending and tensile tests. It was shown how the
putting specimens into soil of prescribed moisture content. The substitution of the most external lamina improves both the flexural
effect of silane coupling agents and of the adding of fire retardants and tensile properties (Table 6) in comparison with glass fibres mat
on the mechanical and the thermal properties of starch resin fabric reinforced composite. Moreover, this solution was then
reinforced with basalt plain fabrics was studied by Wittek e Tani- applied to a naval bulkhead demonstrating that, considering costs,
moto [92]. environment impact, and mechanical performances, this kind of
material could substitute the traditional GFRP in naval application.
2.4. Hybrid composites Petrucci et al. [98] compared the mechanical properties of
different hybrid composite laminates, based on basalt fibre com-
In the last decades, there has been growing attention towards posites as the inner core, and using also glass, flax and hemp fibre
hybrid composites for structural applications due to their better laminates to produce symmetrical configurations. In particular, all
properties than their individual material constituents. In hybrid the composite, having fibre volume contents in the range of
composites two or more types of fibres are simultaneously used as 21e23%, were manufactured by vacuum infusion method. Tensile,
reinforcement in a common matrix. Although hybrid laminates three-point bending and interlaminar shear strength tests were
may be produced in several different arrangements, in most cases carried out showing that the mechanical performance of all the
fibres have been intimately mixed in a lamina (i.e. intraply hybrid hybrid laminates appeared superior to pure hemp and flax fibre
laminates) or in separate laminae (i.e. interply hybrid laminates). reinforced laminates and inferior to basalt fibre laminates. Among
Due to their good properties, also basalt fibres began to be used as a the hybrids, the best properties were offered by those obtained by
brand new reinforcing material for hybrid and composite adding glass and flax to basalt fibre reinforced laminates.
laminates. The mechanical properties (i.e. tensile, flexural and impact
Czigany [93] analyzed the mechanical properties of poly- strengths) of phenol formaldehyde based composites reinforced
propylene reinforced with basalt, hemp, glass and carbon fibre and with hemp fibres, basalt fibres and hemp/basalt fibres were
their basalt hybrid composites. In order to achieve a sufficient investigated as a function of fibre loading by Ozturk [99]. The
interfacial adhesion, the fibres were treated with the reaction experimental result showed that the tensile strength of basalt
mixture of maleic acid anhydride and sunflower oil. The experi- reinforced composites increases by incorporation of basalt fibre up
mental result showed that the mechanical characteristics improve
in each case compared to the pure polypropylene matrix. In
particular, it was revealed that basalt fibre hybridization resulted in
Table 6
only a slight increase in the mechanical properties in case of hemp
Tensile properties of laminates analyzed (reproduced with permission from [14]).
fibre composites, while in case of carbon fibre and primarily glass
fibre composites, a significant improvement was experienced. N. of basalt Position of Tensile modulus Tensile strength
layers basalt (GPa) (MPa)
Chikhradze et al. [94] proposed the use of hybrid epoxy com-
posites reinforced by carbon, basalt and E-glass fibres for the 0 e 8.28 ± 0.34 145.4 ± 11.7
1 Lamina 1 9.82 ± 0.28 170.5 ± 7.39
manufacturing of wind turbines. A study on the influence of the
1 Lamina 2 9.6 ± 0.75 167.6 ± 8.5
substitution of carbon fibres by basalt ones was performed showing 1 Lamina 3 10.2 ± 0.67 168.6 ± 11.6
that at 20% and 40% substitution of carbon fibre for basalt gives 1 Lamina 4 10.7 ± 0.96 165.7 ± 9.5
approximately the same deterioration of the strength- and elas- 1 Lamina 5 10.1 ± 0.55 169.6 ± 7.8
ticity characteristics so that it is acceptable as solution in view of 1 Lamina 6 10.4 ± 0.46 170.4 ± 12.4
2 Lamina 1e6 14.1 ± 0.81 210.3 ± 20.7
economical optimization.
86 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
to 32% in volume and increases beyond this value whereas the
flexural strength decreased linearly with fibre loading. However,
the maximum impact strength was obtained for 48% basalt fibre
content. Moreover, the addition of basalt fibres decreased the
tensile strength of the hemp composites and the mechanical
properties of hemp composites are higher than that of basalt
composites for the same fibre loading.
Wu et al. [100] compared the fatigue behaviour of composites
subjected to a hybridization process using different materials. In
particular, six different types of epoxy polymers reinforced with
unidirectional fibres were used for this study: i.e. four traditional
(reinforced with carbon, polyparaphenylenl benzobisoxazole, glass,
and basalt fibres) and two hybrid ones (carbon/glass and carbon/
basalt).
The experimental results showed that the carbon/basalt hybrid
composites significantly improve the fatigue resistance in com-
parison to the homogeneous basalt composite, whereas the resis-
tance of the carbon/glass hybrid composites does not provide such
effects.
The flexural and impact properties of carbon/basalt fibres hybrid
laminates were compared with those of carbon/E-glass ones by
Dorigato and Pegoretti [101]. It was shown that the flexural
modulus of the composites depends on their composition accord-
ing to a rule of mixture, while an important synergistic effect is
detected for the ultimate flexural properties. Moreover, the Charpy
impact tests evidence a strength increase with increasing of basalt
and glass fibres content. In particular, the hybridization with basalt
fibres promotes an increase of the adsorbed impact energy due to
an enhancement of the fracture propagation component.
Wang et al. [102] studied the effect of fibre arrangement in 3D
woven hybrid basalt/Kevlar 129 composites on their low velocity
impact properties. To this aim, aramid and basalt fibres were used
to fabricate two epoxy structures: i.e. the first one, namely interply
hybrid composite, in which different yarn types were placed in
different layers and the second one, namely intraply hybrid com-
posite, in which each layer was composed of two types of alter-
nately arranged yarns. It was shown that the interply hybrid
composite has higher ductile indices, lower peak load, and higher
specific energy absorption in both warp and weft directions than
that of the intraply hybrid composite due to a layer-by-layer frac-
ture mode for the interply hybrid composite.
The superiority of basalt fibres in hybrid composite over glass
fibres for post impact behaviour is also demonstrated by De Rosa
et al. [103]. In a similar way, Sarasini et al. studied the behaviour of
glass-basalt [104] carbon-basalt [105] and aramid-basalt [106]
hybrid composites, manufactured by resin transfer moulding
technique, under low impact velocity. In particular, specimens
prepared with different stacking sequences were tested at three
different impact energies (i.e. 5 J, 12.5 J and 25 J) and their residual
post-impact mechanical properties were characterized by quasi-
static four point bending tests. The experimental results showed
that hybrid laminates with an intercalated configuration (i.e.
alternating sequence of basalt and glass, carbon or aramid fabrics)
exhibit higher impact energy absorption capacity and enhanced
damage tolerance capability than the traditional laminates.
Conversely, the most favourable flexural behaviour was shown by
hybrid laminates with symmetrical sandwich-like configuration
(with glass or carbon fabrics at the centre of the laminate as core in
glass or carbon-basalt structures, basalt fabrics as core in basalt/
aramid structures, respectively).
With the aim of combine the good mechanical properties of
basalt fibre with the excellent impact resistant of nylon fibre, the
low velocity impact behaviour of homogenous and hybrid com-
posite laminates reinforced by basaltenylon intra-ply fabrics was
experimentally investigated by Dehkordi et al. [107,108].
In the paper [107] five different types of woven fabrics (Fig. 13)
with different volume percentages of nylon (0%, 25%, 33.3%, 50%
and 100%) were used as reinforcement of epoxy resin. The effect of
nylon/basalt fibre content on maximum force, maximum deflec-
tion, residual deflection, total absorbed energy, elastic energy, size
and type of damage were studied at several low velocity impact
nominal energy levels (i.e. 16, 30 and 40 J). The experimental results
showed that the impact performance of these intraply hybrid
laminates is significantly affected by the nylon/basalt fibre content.
In a more recent paper [108], the authors performed low-
velocity impact and compression after impact tests at different
nominal impact energy levels (16, 30 and 40 J) on hybrid composite
laminates reinforced by basalt-nylon intraply fabrics. Five different
types of fabric were produced with a rapier loom: i.e. a homoge-
neous basalt fabric, a homogeneous nylon fabric and three hybrid
basalt/nylon fabrics with different volume percentages of nylon (i.e.
25%, 33.3% and 50%). For hybrid fabrics, the percentage of nylon or
basalt was equal in the warp and weft directions. The results
showed that at low impact energy, hybridization and variation in
basalt/nylon fibre content can not improve the impact performance
of composite plates. Vice versa, the impact performance becomes
more and more dependent on the content of nylon and basalt with
increasing impact energy.
Eslami-Farsani et al. [109] investigated the effects of thermal
cycles on impact resistance of carbon/basalt hybrid phenolic com-
posites, compared to those of all basalt and all carbon composites.
In particular, all the investigated composites were manufactured by
hand lay-up method, using plain woven carbon fabrics (areal
density equal to 198 g/m2) and twill woven basalt fabrics (630 g/
m2) as reinforcement. The experimental results showed that the
mean Charpy impact energy of the basalt/phenolic composites is
higher than that of the hybrid composites and all carbon compos-
ites, at all thermal cycles. Moreover, the Charpy impact energy of
carbon/phenolic composites and hybrid composites was not
significantly affected by thermal cycles. On the contrary, the impact
resistance of basalt/phenolic composites showed a sharp decline
with increasing thermal cycling, and reaches a plateau after a
certain cycles.
Fiore et al. [110] analyzed the possibility to join aluminium alloy
6086 and epoxy composites reinforced with basalt fibres by means
of three joining techniques: i.e. mechanical by self piercing riveting,
adhesive by co-curing technique and mixed in which the traditional
joining techniques were combined. Two manufacturing technolo-
gies (i.e. hand lay-up and vacuum bagging) were used both to
produce composite substrates and to realize co-curing adhesion
between the substrates to be joined. The experimental results have
shown that adhesive joints, realized by vacuum bagging method,
show higher average failure load and lower standard deviation than
those realized by hand lay-up. By comparing mixed joints, different
results are obtained: i.e. the hand lay-up joints show both higher
average failure load and standard deviation than those realized by
vacuum bagging (see Figs. 14 and 15).
In the last years, basalt fibres have been also used in hybrid
sandwich structures. In particular, Lopresto et al. [111] carried out
physics and mechanical tests on innovative sandwiches having as
core a polyurethane matrix filled with short basalt fibres. The
experimental results showed that better behaviours are found in
terms of compression strength and elastic modulus, compression
energy absorption capability, impact force and energy in compar-
ison with sandwiches made without any reinforcement in the
polyurethane core. From physics tests, a good behaviour as insu-
lator of the innovative sandwiches is noted together with an in-
crease in performances at the increasing of the reinforcement.
Torres et al. [112] studied the mechanical behaviour of com-
posite sandwich structures having basalt fibre reinforced bio-epoxy
 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94 87

Fig. 13. The structure of fabrics with different content of nylon: (a) 0%, (b) 25%, (c) 33%, (d) 50%, (e) 100% (reproduced with permission from [107]).

resin as skins and cork as core material. In particular, mechanical
properties of both skin and core materials were assessed through
flexural and tensile tests. Moreover, finite element simulations for
the mechanical stress analysis of the sandwich material were car-
ried out and a maximum allowable shear stress for material failure
under bending loads was established. The proposed green-
composite sandwich material was used for the fabrication of a
longboard as a case study for a sports equipment application.
Hoto et al. [113] studied the flexural behaviour and the water
absorption of asymmetrical sandwich composites manufactured by
means of vacuum assisted hand lay-up process. In particular, the
authors used a commercially available cork board as core and basalt
fibre unidirectional fabric, with areal weight equal to 400 g/m2, as
reinforcement for one of the skins. The other skin was made of flax
unidirectional fabric with the same areal weight equal to 200 g/m2.
A bio-based epoxy resin was also used as matrix for each skin.
Moreover, for some specimens the core material was altered
allowing resin infiltration between the granules. The experimental
results showed that the presence of different fibre skins greatly
influences the failure mechanism and significant enhancement of
the energy-absorbing capability are found when specimens are
loaded in the proper conditions. As shown in Fig. 16, it was found
that the water absorption of the specimens is significantly reduced
by the infiltration of resin between the granules of the core.
Khalili et al. [114] studied a new type of hybrid material
composed by steel, aluminium and basalt fibre epoxy composites
(BFRE) filled with micro glass powder (MGP) under tensile and
bending load. It was shown how adding MGP to the BFRE, it is

Fig. 14. Typical Loadedisplacement curves for hand ay-up joints (reproduced with Fig. 15. Typical Loadedisplacement curves for vacuum bagging joints (reproduced
permission from [110]). with permission from [110]).
88 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94

possible to increase the mechanical performances of the hybrid

material in term of both tensile and flexural properties and energy
absorption.

3. Metallic matrices

As discussed in the previous section of this review, basalt fibres

have been widely used as reinforcement both of thermoset and of
thermoplastic polymers in the last decades.
Due to their ceramic nature and to their less price than other
ceramic fibres, basalt fibres represent a good candidate as rein-
forcing components also in metallic matrices. Nevertheless, the
applicability of basalt fibre as a reinforcing material for metal-
ematrix composites (MMCs) has been marginally investigated.
Casting and powder metallurgy methods are the main techniques
for the manufacturing of metal matrix composites under different
pressure and thermal conditions. For this reason, the prospect of
using basalt fibre as reinforcement of metal matrices significantly
depends on the stability of fibres to the effect of processing
conditions.
A first approach to the manufacture of metal matrix composites Fig. 17. Variation of residual strength with holding time in the furnace at different
with basalt fibres as reinforcement was given by Akhlaghi et al. temperatures (reproduced with permission from [115]).
[115]. In particular, a study on the dependence of the strength from
the temperature and exposure time was performed. As shown in
Fig. 17, a severe loss of the strength was observed for long holding Sabet et al. [116] studied the feasibility of basalt/metal matrix
time and high temperature: i.e. the exposure time have not exceed composite through the study of the thermal behaviour of the fibres.
15 min. Despite this, the high stability of basalt was confirmed by In order to find the best range of the controlling parameter, the
the micro-morphological analysis that indicated that the fibres effect of high temperature and exposure time on the strength was
maintained their own shape. Furthermore, a high dependence of studied. As in the previous paper [115], it was shown how an
the porosity and void contents was observed. The different be- important drop of the strength happens for an exposure time over
haviours at high temperature between ceramic fibres and metallic 15 min. Moreover, the strength decreases as the processing tem-
matrix in terms of plastic deformation and flowing, even if a good perature increases. In order to find the best process parameters for
grade of adhesion is demonstrate by micrograph analysis, leads to a the production of the laminates, a study of the densification in
higher percentage of defect as higher is the fibres volume fraction. dependence of the pressure was performed. It was concluded that

Fig. 16. (a) Loadedisplacement curves of sandwich specimens with modified core (MO), (b) loadedisplacement curves of sandwich specimens with original core (OC), (c) water
absorption curves for different sandwich specimens and (d) water absorption curves for different core specimens (reproduced with permission from [113]).
 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
the optimum is reach for a pressure value of 630 MPa, temperature
value of 300
C and an exposure time of 15 min.
Vannan and Vizhian [117] show as squeeze infiltration could be
a good solution to manufacture short basalt fibres-Al alloy matrix
composites. In particular, the experimental observations showed
that a homogeneous dispersion can be obtained and an analytical
model can provide a tool to predict the elastic properties of this
kind of material. Furthermore, it was shown how, increasing the
volume fibres fraction, the ductility decrease.
Karthigeyan et al. [118] performed a deposition of copper
coating on short basalt fibres to improve the interface between the
metal matrix and reinforcement. The electroless process used to
deposit the copper coating onto the basalt fibre relies on a sequence
of sensitization time, activation time and metallization time. Aim of
this work was to optimize the above parameters to know the
amount of coating thickness. The authors stated that it is possible to
obtain a uniform and continuous coating of copper. In particular,
the maximum thickness is obtained at 15 min of sensitization time,
15 min of activation time, 3 min of metallization time, 45
C bath
temperature and pH 13.
4. Concrete matrices
Thanks to their excellent properties, basalt fibres have been
used also as reinforcement for concrete materials. In particular, Li
and Su [119,120] showed that the addition of basalt fibre can
significantly improve deformation and energy absorption capac-
ities of geopolymeric concrete while there is no notable improve-
ment in dynamic compressive strength. Jiang et al. [121] showed
that adding basalt fibres reduces markedly dry shrinkage of cement
mortar, especially at early ages. Moreover, the basalt fibres rein-
forced mortars have greater compressive and flexural strengths at
early hydration period but have little less strength at the age of 28-
days than mortar without fibres.
Dias and Thaumaturgo [122] investigated the influence of the
volume fraction of basalt fibre on the fracture toughness of geo-
polymeric cement concretes. To this aim, three point bending and
compressive tests were carried out on concrete samples reinforced
by different fractions of short basalt fibres (i.e. 0%, 0.5% and 1%).
According to the experimental results, geopolymeric concretes
showed better fracture properties and were so less sensitive to the
presence of cracks than conventional Portland cement. In partic-
ular, the basalt fibres were found to be more efficient in strength-
ening geopolymeric concretes than Portland cements. On the other
hand, they were found to be more efficient in toughening geo-
polymeric concretes than Portland cements only for the highest
fibre concentrations (i.e. Vf ¼ 1%).
The effect of basalt fibre on physical and mechanical properties
of concretes was also evaluated by Kabay [123]. To this aim, ten
mixtures were prepared by incorporating different amounts and
sizes of basalt fibres. The mechanical characterization showed that
improvements of flexural strength, fracture energy and abrasion
resistance can be obtained by using basalt fibre even at low con-
tents. Vice versa, inclusion of basal fibre in concrete resulted in a
decrease of the compressive strength.
Similarly, the effects of the volume fraction and length of basalt
fibres on the mechanical properties of concretes were analyzed also
by Jiang et al. [124]. To this aim, three types of fibre were used (i.e.
Polypropylene fibre and basalt fibres with length equal to 12 mm
and 22 mm, respectively). This work showed that the basalt fibres
significantly improve tensile strength, flexural strength and
toughness index of the composites, whereas the compressive
strength shows no obvious increase. Furthermore, it was found that
the fibre length also influences the mechanical properties.
89
Moreover, basalt fibres have been lately considered instead of
carbon fibres as technical textiles acting as reinforcement in
cement-based mortars (i.e. textile-reinforced mortars) [125,126].
In particular, an empirical nonlinear approach, based on the
crack control expression included in the Eurocode 2, was proposed
to predict the stress-strain behaviour under uniaxial tension of
basalt textile-reinforced mortars in Ref. [125]. In addition, a well-
known model as AvestoneCoopereKelly theory, which is based
on a tri-linear analytical approach, was also discussed and its
simulations compared with the experimental results. In paper
[126], the experimental results were analyzed and contrasted with
a non-linear numerical simulation with a 3D finite element code in
addition to the AvestoneCoopereKelly model. Both the Aves-
toneCoopereKelly model and the finite element analysis estimate
with good accuracy the tensile behaviour of the textile-reinforced
mortars.
Borhan [127] studied mechanical and thermal properties of
concretes manufactured using recycled waste mixed colour glass as
a partial replacement (i.e. 20%, 40%, and 60% by weight) for the
natural fine aggregate and chopped basalt fibres (i.e. 0%, 0.1%, 0.3%,
and 0.5% by total volume of the mix) as reinforcement. As shown in
Fig. 18, basalt fibres lead to an enhancement in concrete compres-
sive strength for all the mixes investigated. As regard the thermal
properties, a significant reduction in heat transfer for all tempera-
ture levels was found using high percentages of waste glass and
basalt fibres.
Besides its use as reinforcement of concrete based matrices,
basalt fibres were also used in polymer based composites as a
strengthening material for structural concrete members.
Through various experimental tests for durability, mechanical
properties, and flexural strengthening, Sim et al. [7] demonstrated
that, when moderate structural strengthening but high resistance
for fire is simultaneously sought, e.g. for building structures, basalt
fibres can be a good alternative to glass or carbon fibres in rein-
forced polymer (FRP) strengthening systems.
Chen et al. [128] compared the strengthening capacity and the
failure mode of concrete slabs strengthened with epoxy based
composites reinforced by carbon, glass and basalt fibres,
respectively.
For strengthening design, the authors have chosen a cross-
shape scheme, based on engineering practice, to simulate the
steel reinforcement in the slab. The experimental results showed
that there is almost no strengthening effect for a reinforced con-
crete slab when the cross-shape strengthening scheme was used,
except in the case of using carbon fibre reinforced polymer as a
strengthening material. Moreover, there was found a slight
improvement when using two layers of basalt fibre reinforced
polymer.
Campione et al. [129] compared the behaviour in compression
of concrete cylinders externally wrapped with basalt and carbon
fibres. In particular, the main variables investigated were the
number and type of plies (i.e. full or partial wrapping), the type of
loading (i.e. monotonic and cyclic actions) and the type of fibre (i.e.
basalt and carbon). The experimental results showed the possibility
of reducing the brittleness of unconfined concrete, resulting
significantly increased both the post-peak resistance and the axial
strain of confined concrete corresponding to BFRP failure.
Another application of basalt fibres as reinforcement of concrete
structures regards also bars made of thermoset polymer used in the
concrete structures instead of traditional steel reinforcement [130].
In particular, Zhu et al. [131] investigated the fire resistance of
reinforced concrete beams strengthened with near-surface-
mounted bars, which were composed of basalt fibre and three
different resin matrices: i.e. a heat-resistant vinyl ester resin, a
common vinyl ester resin and a heat-resistant epoxy resin.
90 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
Fig. 18. Compressive strength of concrete with different glass and basalt fibre contents: (a) 0% glass content (b) 20% glass content (c) 40% glass content and (d) 60% glass content
(reproduced with permission from [127]).
Pearson et al. [132] compared the long-term behaviours of pre-
stressed basalt fibre reinforced polymer bars and steel ones. To this
aim, three basalt reinforced polymer samples, two steel high yield-
reinforcing bars, and one high tensile steel cable sample were
tested carrying out creep tests at room temperature and setting
tension equal to 16 kN. The experimental results showed that pre-
stress loses are seen to be equal or less with basalt reinforced bars
and steel in comparison to steel cable.
Banibayat and Patnaik [133] have produced basalt reinforced
bars, for potential use as internal reinforcement of concrete, by
means of a new type of automated wet lay-up process. In particular,
this process derives from a conventional wet lay-up method but it
is automated from bobbins to bars in a single stage. The bars are
wrapped during the process with a helix to give the desired un-
evenness and to achieve superior bond strength with concrete. This
study revealed that the basalt reinforced bars manufactured by
using the new automated wet-layup process shows variation in
mechanical properties similar to that of fibre reinforced bars
manufactured by other methods. However, it was shown that this
process has economic benefit compared to the traditional pul-
trusion method due to its simplicity and cost effectiveness resulting
from less stringent production controls.
Due to their strong tensile properties and corrosion resistance,
basalt fibre reinforced polymer bars are also deemed as a substitute
material of steel bar to enhance the durability of reinforced con-
crete bridges [134].
Recently, some researches were focused on the feasibility of the
use of basalt fibre also in hot mix asphalt concrete [5,135,136]. In
particular, in the paper by Morova [5], it was observed that the use
of basalt fibre additions in hot-mix asphalt concrete had a positive
impact for stability. Nevertheless, it may be considered by adding
them only to binder course in order to avoid the negative effects
due to basalt fibres that can be damage for vehicle tires. Although
additional costs may be required to add basalt fibres to the asphalt
mixtures, when its overall long-term contributions are taken into
account, it is still considered that basalt fibre asphalt concrete can
be utilized in the binder course.
Gao et al. [137e139] studied the water stability and the per-
formances at low and high temperatures of asphalt concretes
reinforced with basalt fibres, showing the beneficial effect of basalt
fibre on the evaluated performances.
5. Industrial applications
Thanks to their optimal properties, basalt fibres could be
widely applied to many fields, such as corrosion resistance stuff in
the chemical industry [140], wear and friction stuff in the auto-
mobile industry [141], target area of anti-low velocity impact
[102], reinforcing material in construction [6], high temperature-
insulation of automobile catalysts [142], fire protection [143] and
resistance [144].
In the automotive, basalt fibres are widely used for production
of car headliners. The main competitive advantage of basalt in this
application is its outstanding recyclability, which is currently one
of the key factors for automobile producers. In particular, a lami-
nate for headliner is constituted by a core having an adhesive layer
provided adjacent opposing sides thereof. Basalt fibre structural
reinforcement layers are provided adjacent each adhesive layer. A
scrim layer is provided next to one reinforcement layer while a
film barrier and covering are provided adjacent the other rein-
forcement layer.
 V. Fiore et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 74e94
Moreover, basalt fibres are increasingly used in automotive
brake disc pads and clutch facing applications. The technical ad-
vantages for their use in these applications than other typical ma-
terials are: 2e3 times longer service life of the break assembly;
durable frictional contact with metal without its wear down;
higher and more stable friction factor; increased shock resistance,
extended working temperature range, resistance to chemically
aggressive conditions, low water absorbency, eco friendliness.
In building, basalt can be used for several applications. It can be
used in order to produce pultruded profiles or rebar for concrete
reinforcement. In this last case, the basalt is an alternative to steel
and fibreglass. The main advantages of basalt rebar are:
- it is tougher and lighter than steel;
- it is naturally resistant to alkali, rust and acids;
- moisture penetration from concrete does not spall;
- it needs no special coating like fibreglass rods;
- it has the same thermal expansion coefficient as concrete;
- it reduces the thickness and spacing between the rods and the
concrete and surface;
- it is easily cut to length with regular tools;
- it does not conduct electricity;
- it is optimal for marine environments and chemical plants ap-
plications where corrosion is a continuous concern.
Basalt fabrics into an adequate thermosetting resin can be used,
in substitution of carbon, to improve earthquake-resistant prop-
erties in existing buildings.
Fibre reinforced concrete is a cement-based composite material
that has been developed in recent years. It is used in construction
for its excellent flexural-tensile strength, resistance to splitting,
impact resistance and excellent permeability, and frost resistance.
It is an effective way to increase toughness, shock resistance and
resistance to plastic shrinkage cracking of the mortar. Basalt fibre
for cement and concrete is not expensive, it is a competitive
alternative product of polypropylene and polyacrylonitrile fibres. It
is easy to disperse when mixed with cement concrete and mortar.
Fresh basalt fibre reinforced concrete has good characteristics, such
as volume stability, good workability, good stability, excellent
thermal resistance, anti-seepage, crack resistance and impact
resistance.
The internal permanent and semi-permanent partitioning of
building interiors into rooms, hallways, elevator shafts, require
panels that are easy to handle and to work and that have a high
resistance to fire value: 60e120 s and more. The basalt fibres are a
good alternative for this application.
In road engineering, basalt fibre chopped strand plays rein-
forcing role in asphalt concrete. It can effectively improve some
performances of pavement in tensile strength, toughness and
rutting deformation resistance.
In energy infrastructure, basalt fibre composites can be used in
order to realize wind power blades. Glass suppliers have responded
to the carbon-fibre competition for making longer and lighter
blades. However, basalt manufacturers offer basalt continuous
rovings and fabric that are nearly 30% stronger, 15e20% stiffer, and
8e10% lighter than the E-glass. This gives blade makers a less costly
solution than carbon fibre for blades 40-m long or longer.
Basalt fibre composites are widely used in sport equipments. In
particular, some sportive applications where they are successfully
utilized all around the world are: water skies; car and motorcycle
outer parts; bicycles, kayaks, canoes and paddles; sky poles; skies
and snowboards; tennis rackets.
Basalt fibre is pretty new material in ballistic application for
light armoured vehicles and it is currently tested by some panels
producers in USA, Europe and Asia. Benchmark product in this
91
application is S2 glass but producers are interested to find more
cost effective fibre. With the price of US$ 5 per 1 kg, basalt fibre is
extremely prominent option compared to US$ 15 per 1 kg of S2
glass. Finally, basalt fibre composites are also used to made pipes
and compressed natural gas cylinders [145] manufactured by
means of filament winding technique. In this last case, the basalt
fibre is found to process just like glass fibre and no fabrication
problems are encountered in the winding of the cylinders. More-
over, the basalt fibre also exhibits excellent wet-out during fabri-
cation. This gives filament winders the opportunity to reduce their
expenses and get quality products at effective cost. For this reason,
in the last decade some European companies have also produced
composite cylinders with basalt fibre as reinforcement. After cyclic
testing, such structures, which are designed for 200 bars of working
pressure, exhibited high fatigue stress (17,000 cycles of loading and
unloading at 260 bar pressure) with the burst pressure of 625 bar
after that.
6. Conclusions
Basalt fibres can be considered environmentally friendly and
non-hazardous materials. It is not a new material, but its applica-
tions are surely innovative in many industrial and economic fields,
from building and construction to energy efficiency, from auto-
motive to aeronautic, thanks to its good mechanical, chemical and
thermal performances. Hence, basalt fibre has gained increasing
attention as a reinforcing material especially compared to tradi-
tional glass fibres.
The production process, even if it is very similar to the glass fi-
bres one, does not require additives and a lower amount of energy
is needed with benefits in terms of environmental impact, eco-
nomics and plants' maintenance.
The base cost of basalt fibres depend on the quality and the
chemical composition of the raw material and this leads to have
several kind of fibres with different thermal, chemical and me-
chanical properties.
Basalt fibres within polymer (i.e. thermoplastic, thermoset and
biodegradable), metallic and concrete matrices exhibit promising
properties. Due to this, these fibres have the potential to be the next
generation materials for structural application for infrastructure,
automotive industry and consumer applications.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to all the publishers (e.g. Elsevier
Publishers, SAGE, Springer, John Wiley and Sons) and authors who
permitted to use figures and tables from their publications.
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