DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND

COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Introduction to Power System
chapter –one

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 STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEMS
• Power System is a network of high tension wires/cables by which the generated Electrical power is
transmitted and distributed throughout a region.
• Generating stations, transmission lines and the distribution systems are the main
components of an electric power system. Generating stations and a distribution
system are connected through transmission lines, which also connect one power
system (grid, area) to another. A distribution system connects all the loads in a
particular area to the transmission lines.
• Power System consists of the following main components:

Generation System- Energy Conversion Methods

Transmission System- Ultra-high, Extra-high, High and Medium Voltage levels

Distribution System- Low voltage levels

The Load or Energy sink- Resistive, Capacitive and inductive Electrical devices
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1. Generation system
• Types of Energy Conversion Methods/Generation Systems:
1. non- conventional (renewable energy sources )
 are sources that are continuously replenished by natural processes.
• PV System and Solar Thermal
• Hydropower
• Wind Power  Geothermal
 Biomass(Renewable conversion systems)
2. Conventional (non-renewable energy sources )
 Are sources that are not continuously refilled by natural processes
• Diesel Generator
• Gas Turbine
• Steam Turbine
• Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) and Steam Injected Gas Turbine
• Nuclear power (Conventional systems) 3
 2. Power Transmission System
• Electric power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating
power plants to electrical substations located near demand centers.
• The power plants typically produce 50 cycle/second (Hertz), alternating-current (AC)
electricity with voltages between 11kV and 33 kV. At the power plant site, the 3-phase
voltage is stepped up to a higher voltage for transmission on cables strung on cross-country
towers. To have greater efficiency, High voltage (HV) and extra high voltage (EHV)
transmission is the next stage from power plant to transport the generated power over long
distances at voltages like; 230 kV, 400 kV and 500 kV etc. Power transformers are used to
setup the voltage levels for power transmission on cross-country. Transmission system
consists of transformers, transmission towers and transmission lines.
• Power transmissions are also classified as main transmission and sub transmission.
• Main transmission line covers from 230kv to 800kv and
• Sub transmission covers from 66kv to132kv
• Sub-transmission network at 132 kV, 110 kV and 66 kV constitutes the next link towards
the end user
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• according to EN 60 071, voltage levels are classified as follows:
• Below 1kV: Low Voltage (LV)
• Between 1 kV and 45 kV: Medium Voltage (MV)
• Between 45 and 300 kV: High Voltage (HV)
• Between 300 kV and 750 kV: Extra High Voltage (EHV)
• Above 800 kV: Ultra High Voltage (UHV)

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 Sub transmission
• Sub transmission is part of an electric power transmission system that runs at
relatively lower voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all distribution substations to
the high main transmission voltage, because the equipment is larger and more
expensive. So, this high transmission voltage should be stepdown to relatively low
voltage. At this sub-transmission line we can give supply for large industries and
large load companies.

3. Distribution network
• An electric power distribution system is the final stage in the delivery of electric
power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers.
• The distribution system is responsible for the conveyance of the bulk power in the
transmission to the consumers with lower voltage networks.
• To distribute the electric power among the consumers (usually using MV overhead
lines)
• Distribution substations step-down the transmission voltage level to lower voltage
levels (suitable for the loads/consumers.
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 Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission
voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV (e.g. 12 kV, 13.8 kV, 15 kV,
6.6 kV, etc) with the use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium
voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises.
• Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage of household
appliances, shopping centers, and other local loads and typically feed several customers
through secondary distribution lines at this voltage (380 or 400 V). Commercial and
residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines through service
drops.
• The distribution lines are also classified in to two.
• Primary distribution (15kv to 33kv) which is directly connected from distribution
substation and installed to the main street line in the city and contains only three lines.
• Secondary distribution (220v for single phase and 380-400v for three phase) which used
to utilize supply for the demand or individual house holds. It is installed in the individual
roads inside the city and contains four lines

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8
 Types of Transmission lines
Depending on the types of current that are transported in the over head line, transmission
lines are classified as:
Dc transmission lines
AC transmission lines

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Types of Transmission lines ….
AC Transmission Line
The ac transmission line is used for transmitting the bulk of the power
generation end to the consumer end. The power is generated in the generating
station. The transmission line transmits the power from generation to the
consumer end. The power is transmitted from one end to another with the help
of step-up and step down transformer.

Most of the electric power that are transported fro the generation to the load are
AC transmissions because at the generation the DC generator has high harmonic
and sparking behavior. Due to this effect, instead we use AC generator and AC
transmission.

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Types of Transmission lines ….
AC transmission system
Dc transmission system

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 Types of Transmission lines ……
Comparison between AC and DC Txn
AC Transmission DC Transmission
 it transmits AC current  it transmits DC current
High voltage drop It has low voltage drop
It has three conductors It has two conductors
Synchronization problem may occurred Synchronization problem not
Transformer is required occurred
Coronal loss will be occurred Coronal loss will not be occurred
From short up to long but shorter than It uses for more length transmission
dc Txn It has no skin effect
It has skin effect

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Apparent Power and Power Factor
• The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of voltage and current. It takes
from the formula of real(active) and instantaneous power given below.
• The real power(P)= VrmsIrms cos(θ𝑣 − θ𝑖) then, the rms product of current and voltage
are called apparent power which is denoted by “S”.
S=VrmsIrms……(VA)
The factor in which cos(θ𝑣 − θ𝑖) is called power factor. It is the cosine angle between
voltage and current.
• The power factor is dimensionless, since it is the ratio of the average power to the apparent
power, P.F= P/S…….=cos(θv-θi)
• The power factor angle is equal to the angle of the load impedance if V is the voltage across
the load and I is the current through it. This is evident from the fact that:

alternatively

• Note: The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current. It is also the cosine
of the angle of the load impedance.
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 Complex Power
• Complex power is “the complex sum of real and reactive powers”. It is also termed as
apparent power, measured in terms of Volt Amps (or) in Kilo Volt Amps (kVA). The
rectangular power of complex power is given below:
S=P+jQ
• Where, S is complex or apparent power, P is real power measured in terms of Watts and Q is
reactive power measured in terms of Volt Amps Reactive (generally in kVAR).
• Moreover, the complex power has magnitude and phase angle. The polar form of complex
power is given below.

• Where, the real power is produced by linear component, P =VI cos φ and the reactive power
is produced by non-linear components, Q =VI sin φ.
• In addition, the complex power for transformer can be written as, S=VI.
• The complex power for transmission lines is, S=VI*, where I* is complex conjugate of
current.
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• We notice the magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power; hence, the complex
power is measured in volt-amperes (VA). Also, we notice that the angle of the complex
power is the power factor angle.
• The complex power may be expressed in terms of the load impedance Z. the load
impedance Z may be written a
then Vrms  ZIrm

Thus:
• Since Z=R+jX
S =I2 rms(R + jX) = P + jQ
where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power; that is

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• The real power P is the average power in watts delivered to a load; it is the only useful
power. It is the actual power dissipated by the load. The reactive power Q is a measure of
the energy exchange between the source and the reactive part of the load. The unit of Q is
the volt-ampere reactive (VAR) to distinguish it from the real power, whose unit is the watt.
• The relation between reactive power and the power factor on the load is summarize as
below
Q=0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
Q<0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
Q>0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).

The total summarize expression

of the complex, apparent, real, reactive
and power factor are:
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• Example: The voltage across a load is v(t) 60 cos(ωt -10) V and the current through the element in
the direction of the voltage drop is i(t)1.5 cos(ωt + 50) A. Find:
(a) the complex and apparent powers,
(b) the real and reactive powers, and
(c) The power factor and the load impedance

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 Balanced three-phase networks
A. Balanced Three-Phase Voltages
• If the voltage sources have the same amplitude and frequency and are out of phase with each
other by the voltages are said to be balanced. This implies that:
• Balanced phase voltages are equal in magnitude and are out of phase with each other by
120.
• If the system is balanced the summation of phasor voltage across the line and the neutral
line is zero and the magnitude of the phase voltage to the neutral is equal.

The sum of the current through each lines are ZERO and the current passing through the
neutral line are in STAR connection is zero.
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 ………………and ….. In = -(Ia +Ib + Ic) = 0
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There are four possibilities that the source and the load impendence connection systems.
• Y-Y connection
• Y- connection
• -  connection
• Y-  connection
• Considering the figure below is Y-Y connection of source and load impendence in which a
three-phase system with Y-connected source and Y-connected load are balanced.

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• We assume a balanced load so that load impedances are equal. Although the ZY impedance is
the total load impedance per phase, it may also be regarded as the sum of the source
impedance Zs, line impedance Zl and load impedance ZL for each phase, since these
impedances are in series. since the source impendence and line impendence are closely the
same and they are small. if they will not given totally, the total impendence will be equal to
the load impendence. Generally ZY = Zs+ Zl+ ZL
By adding the above impendence and simplifying the Y-Y connections to find the current
passing through the line and the diagram is shown below.

applying KVL
for each lines
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• Since the system is balanced, it is studied by per phase and the diagram is shown in the
figure below.
then the current passing through the line is:

Example: calculate the line current in the balanced three phase Y-Y connection system.

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• We obtain Ia from the single-phase analysis as:

• You should be do for delta –delta ,delta star and star delta connections!!!

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 Power, current and Voltage Transformer
A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage of
an A.C. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially consists of
two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic core.

• Potential Transformer (PT) The first of these special transformers is a device specially
designed to sample a high voltage and produce a low secondary voltage directly
proportional to it. Such a transformer is called a potential transformer.

• Current Transformer (CT): A current transformer is a device that is used for the
transformation of current from a higher value into a proportionate current to a lower value.
It transforms the high voltage current into the low voltage current due to which the heavy
current flows through the transmission lines is safely monitored by the ammeter.

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 Chapter Two
Mechanical Design Of The Transmission Line
Chapter outlines
 Introduction
Main components of over head transmission lines
Potential distribution over the suspension insulators
Corona effect
Sag and tension

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• An overhead line is subjected to uncertain weather conditions and other external
interferences. This calls for the use of proper mechanical factors of safety in order to
ensure the continuity of operation in the line. In general, the strength of the line should
be such so as to provide against the worst probable weather conditions.
Main Components of Overhead Lines
• An overhead line may be used to transmit or distribute electric power. The successful
operation of an overhead line depends to a great extent upon the mechanical design of
the line. While constructing an overhead line, it should be ensured that mechanical
strength of the line is such so as to provide against the most probable weather
conditions. In general, the main components of an overhead line are:
• Conductors: which carry electric power from the sending end station to the receiving
end station.
• Supports: which may be poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable level
above the ground.
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• Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from the ground.
• Cross arms which provide support to the insulators.
• Miscellaneous items such as phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti-
climbing wires etc.
• The continuity of operation in the overhead line depends upon the judicious choice of
above components.
A. Conductor Materials
• The conductor is one of the important items as most of the capital outlay is invested for it.
Therefore, proper choice of material and size of the conductor is of considerable
importance. The conductor material used for transmission and distribution of electric
power should have the following properties :
high electrical conductivity.
high tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses.
low cost so that it can be used for long distances.
low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small.
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• Commonly used conductor materials. The most commonly used conductor materials
for overhead lines are
Copper
Aluminum
steel-cored aluminum
galvanized steel
cadmium copper.
• Copper: Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical
conductivity and greater tensile strength. It has also the following behaviors.
• Copper has high current density. It means the current carrying capacity of copper per
unit of X-sectional area is quite large. This leads to two advantages. Firstly, smaller X-
sectional area of conductor is required and secondly, the area offered by the conductor
to wind loads is reduced.
• It is highly conductive behavior. But due to its highly cost and availability, we can’t use
it as the transmission line instead we use aluminum conductor.
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• Aluminum conductor: is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much smaller
conductivity and tensile strength.
• It has low conductivity and requires large cross sectional are the conductor to carry the
same conductor with copper.
• Due to low tensile strength it creates sag
• Low specific gravity
• Aluminum conductor being light, is liable to greater swings and hence larger cross-arms
are required.
• the supporting structures for aluminum need not be made so strong as that of copper
conductor since it is light

• Considering the combined properties of cost, conductivity, tensile strength, weight etc.,
aluminum has an edge over copper. Therefore, it is being widely used as a conductor
material.
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• Steel cored aluminum(aluminum conductor steel reinforced): Due to low tensile
strength, aluminum conductors produce greater sag. This prohibits their use for larger
spans and makes them unsuitable for long distance transmission.
• In order to increase the tensile strength, the aluminum conductor is reinforced with a core
of galvanized steel wires.
The steel cored aluminum conductors have the following advantages :
The reinforcement with steel increases the tensile strength but at the same time keeps the
composite conductor light. Therefore, steel cored aluminum conductors will produce
smaller sag and hence longer spans can be used.
Due to smaller sag with steel cored aluminum conductors, towers of smaller heights can
be used.
To know the number of strands in the conductor:
Total NO of strands= where: x is No of layer
diameter of the conductor D=(2x-1)d, where d is diameter of each strand
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Example: If the conductor have two layers, the total number of the strand is 3(22)-
32+1=7,number of aluminum conductor is six and there is one single strand of steel
conductor and if the single strand has 2.5mm the D=(22-1)2.5=7.5mm
B. Line Supports
• The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are various types of poles and
towers called line supports. In general, the line supports should have the following
properties :
High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind loads etc.
Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.
Longer life.
Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.
The line supports used for transmission and distribution of electric power are of various
types including wooden poles, steel poles, R.C.C. poles and lattice steel towers.
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• Wooden poles: These are made of seasoned wood (sal or chir) and are suitable for
lines of moderate X-sectional area and of relatively shorter spans, say up to 50 meters.
Such supports are cheap, easily available, provide insulating properties and, therefore, are
widely used for distribution purposes in rural areas as an economical proposition. Double
pole structures of the ‘A’ or ‘H’ type are often used to install horizontal cross arm on the
pole
The main objections to wooden supports are :
tendency to rot below the ground level
comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)
cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
less mechanical strength and
require periodical inspection.

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• Steel poles: The steel poles are often used as a substitute for wooden poles. They possess
greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer spans to be used. Such poles are
generally used for distribution purposes in the cities. The steel poles are of three types viz.,
rail poles
 tubular poles and
rolled steel joints
• RCC poles. The reinforced concrete poles have become very popular as line supports in
recent years. They have greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer spans
than steel poles. Moreover, they give good outlook, require little maintenance and have good
insulating properties.
• The main difficulty with the use of these poles is the high cost of transport owing to their
heavy weight. Therefore, such poles are often manufactured at the site in order to avoid
heavy cost of transportation

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• Steel towers: In practice, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete poles are used for
distribution purposes at low voltages, say up to 33 kV. However, for long distance
transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are invariably employed. Steel towers have
greater mechanical strength, longer life, can withstand most severe climatic conditions and
permit the use of longer spans. The risk of interrupted service due to broken or punctured
insulation is considerably reduced owing to longer spans. Tower footings are usually
grounded by driving rods into the earth. This minimizes the lightning troubles as each
tower acts as a lightning conductor.
B. Insulators
• The overhead line conductors should be supported on the poles or towers in such a way
that currents from conductors do not flow to earth through supports i.e., line conductors
must be properly insulated from supports. This is achieved by securing line conductors to
supports with the help of insulators.
 The insulators provide necessary insulation between line conductors and supports
 prevent any leakage current from conductors to earth.
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• In general, the insulators should have the following desirable properties.
High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load etc.
High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents to earth.
High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is high.
The insulator material should be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks otherwise the
permittivity will be lowered.
High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.
Types of Insulators
There are several types of insulators but the most commonly used are:
 pin type
Suspension type
strain insulator
shackle insulator
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Pin type insulators. The part section of a pin type
insulator is shown in Fig i.
As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is secured
to the cross-arm on the pole. There is a groove on the
upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor.
The conductor passes through this groove and is bound
by the annealed wire of the same material as the
conductor. [See Fig. (ii)].

Pin type insulators are used for transmission and

distribution of electric power at voltages up to 33 kV.
Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type
insulators become too bulky, hence uneconomical and
heavy cases difficult for maintenance.

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• Strain insulators. When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the
line is subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain
insulators are used. For low voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain
insulators. However, for high voltage transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an
assembly of suspension insulators as shown in the figure below.

Strain insulator shackle insulator

Shackle insulators. In early days, the shackle insulators were

used as strain insulators. But now a days, they are frequently
used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be
used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position.
They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross 36
arm.
• Suspension type insulators. The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as the
working voltage is increased. Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33
kV. For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators
shown in the figure they consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by
metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this
string while the other end of the string is secured to
• the cross-arm of the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11 kV. The
number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working voltage. For instance,
if the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided on the string.

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Advantages suspension type insulator
Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond
33 kV.
Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage ,usually 11
kV. Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be
connected in series.
If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the
damaged disc can be replaced by the sound one.
The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connection
at the cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any direction and can
take up the position where mechanical stresses are minimum.
 In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory
to supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set
of conductors. The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily
obtained in the suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.
The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the
conductors run below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this arrangement
provides partial protection from lightning. 38
 Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String
• A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs connected
in series through metallic links.
• The porcelain portion of each disc is in between two metal links. Therefore, each
disc forms a capacitor C as shown in the figure below (i). This is known as mutual
capacitance or self-capacitance. If there were mutual capacitance alone, then
charging current would have been the same through all the discs and consequently
voltage across each unit would have been the same i.e., V/3 as shown in Fig. (ii).
• However, in actual practice, capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each
disc and tower or earth. This is known as shunt capacitance C1. Due to shunt
capacitance, charging current is not the same through all the discs of the string [See
Fig. below (iii)]. Therefore, voltage across each disc will be different.
• Obviously, the disc nearest to the line conductor will have the maximum* voltage.
Thus referring to Fig. (iii), V3 will be much more than V2 and V1.

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Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String…..

The following points may be noted regarding the potential distribution over a string of suspension
insulators :
 The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not distribute itself uniformly
across the individual discs due to the presence of shunt capacitance.
 The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move towards the cross-
arm, the voltage across each disc goes on decreasing.
 The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to be punctured.
Therefore, means must be provided to equalize the potential across each unit.
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Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String…..
String Efficiency
• As stated above, the voltage applied across the string of suspension insulators is not
uniformly distributed across various units or discs. This unequal potential distribution is
undesirable and is usually expressed in terms of string efficiency. The ratio of voltage
across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the voltage across the disc
nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency i.e.,
Voltage across the string
• String efficiency =
n Voltage across disc nearest to conductor
• where n = number of discs in the string
• String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution
along the string. The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage
distribution.

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Improvement methods of string efficiency
1.Using Longer Cross Arm: Reducing the ground capacitance relative to the
capacitance of insulator unit (reduce m where m = C1/C) This can be done by
increasing the length of cross arm and hence taller supporting tower which
uneconomical.
2. Grading of insulator units: It can be seen that the unequal distribution of voltage is
due to the leakage current from the insulator pin to the tower structure. The solution is
to use insulator units with different capacitances. This requires that unit nearest the
cross arm should have minimum capacitance (maximum XC) and the capacitance
should increase as we go towards the power line. The insulators are capacitance graded
i.e. they are assembled in the string in such a way that the top unit has the minimum
capacitance, increasing progressively as the bottom unit (i.e., nearest to conductor) is
reached. Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance, this method tends to
equalize the potential distribution across the units in the string.
3. Static Shielding (Guard Ring): This method uses a large metal ring surrounding
the bottom insulator unit and connected to the line. This ring is called a grading or
guard ring which gives a capacitance which will cancel the charging current of
ground capacitance.
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Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String…..

43
Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String…..

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Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String…..

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 Mathematical analysis of string efficiency using guarding ring
Analysis of guarding ring methods of improving string efficiency is different from the other
methods. Suppose A 3 unit insulator string with guarding. The capacitance to ground and to
guarding/line/ are 15% and 10% of the capacitance of each unit respectively.
At point A:
I2+i’=i+I1: V2 2πfC + ( V2+ V3) 2πf 0.1C = V1 2πf 0.15C +
V1 2πfC :

……………………….i
V V1 V2+V3
At point B:

V1+V2 V3
………ii

Inserting equation i in to ii then, the equation becomes:

= 46
V= V1+V2+V3
Pictorial overview of guarding ring
Guarding ring

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 Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String…..
Example: In a 33 kV overhead line, there are three units in the string of insulators. If the
capacitance between each insulator pin and earth is 11% of self-capacitance of each
insulator, find (i) the distribution of voltage over 3 insulators and (ii) string efficiency.
shows the equivalent circuit of string
insulators.
Let V1, V2 and V3 be the voltage across top,
middle and bottom unit respectively. If C is
the self-capacitance of each unit, then KC
will be the shunt capacitance.

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 Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String…..

H.S: Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 similar insulators. If the
voltage across the line unit is 17·5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage. Assume that the
shunt capacitance between each insulator and earth is 1/8th of the capacitance of the insulator
itself. Also find the string efficiency.

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Example: Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 identical insulators of self-
capacitance C farad. The shunt capacitance of connecting metal work of each insulator is 0·2C to
earth and 0·1 C to line. Calculate the string efficiency of the system if a guard ring increases the
capacitance to the line of metal work of the lowest insulator to 0·3 C.
Solution:

……………(ii)

…………...(iii)
Total voltage, V

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H.S: Each of three insulators forming a string has self-capacitance of “C” farad. The shunt
capacitance of each cap of insulator is 0·25 C to earth and 0·15 C to line. Calculate the voltage
distribution across each insulator as a percentage of line voltage to earth and the string
efficiency.
Solution: and also:
• 3 = 31·7% compute the string efficiency if the voltage
= 29·4% across the line is 33kv and it has 4 insulators
=38·9%
String efficiency = 85·7%

Note: you don’t forgot that the nominated voltage for shunt capacitor to the pole/earth/ and to
the line/ guarding ring/ are different in configuration. The voltage nominated on Shunt
capacitor to the line decreases from top to bottom and vis versa but the voltage nominated on
Shunt capacitor to the earth increases from top to bottom.
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 Corona
• When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose spacing is
large as compared to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the condition of
atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the applied voltage is low. However, when the
applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical disruptive voltage, the conductors
are surrounded by a faint violet glow called corona.
• The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone,
power loss and radio interference. The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher
the luminous envelope becomes, and greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio
noise. If the applied voltage is increased to breakdown value, a flash-over will occur
between the conductors due to the breakdown of air insulation.
• The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead
transmission line is known as corona.

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 Corona…..
Factors Affecting Corona
• The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state of the atmosphere as well as
by the conditions of the line. The following are the factors upon which corona depends :
Atmosphere: As corona is formed due to ionization of air surrounding the conductors,
therefore, it is affected by the physical state of atmosphere.
• Conductor size: The corona effect depends upon the shape and conditions of the
conductors. The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more corona because
unevenness of the surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage.
• Spacing between conductors: If the spacing between the conductors is made very large as
compared to their diameters, there may not be any corona effect. It is because larger
distance between conductors reduces the electro-static stresses at the conductor surface,
thus avoiding corona formation.
• Line voltage: The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low, there is no change in the
condition of air surrounding the conductors and hence no corona is formed.
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 Corona…..
Important Terms
Critical disruptive voltage: It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona
occurs.

54
Corona…..

55
Corona…..

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 Corona…..
Example: 3-phase line has conductors 2 cm in diameter spaced equilaterally 1 m apart. If the
dielectric strength of air is 30 kV (max) per cm, find the disruptive critical voltage for the
line. Take air density factor δ = 0·952 and irregularity factor mo = 0·9.
Solution:

Example2:A 3-phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1·5 cm radius conductor
spaced 2 meter apart in equilateral triangular formation. If the temperature is 40ºC and
atmospheric pressure is 76 cm, calculate the corona loss per km of the line. Take mo = 0·85.

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 Corona…..
Solution: from the above the power losses due to corona is given by:

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona
Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a high voltage
overhead line, a balance should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence
virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the
electrostatic stresses between the conductors.
Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.
Disadvantages
Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the
line.
Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical
action.
The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal
voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighbouring
communication lines. 59
 Corona…..
Methods of Reducing Corona Effect
The corona effects can be reduced by the following methods :
By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona
occurs is raised and hence corona effects are considerably reduced. This is one of the
reasons that ACSR conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area are used in
transmission lines.
By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the spacing between conductors, the
voltage at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be eliminated.
However, spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure
(e.g., bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to a considerable extent.

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 Sag in Overhead Lines…
• While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are under safe tension.
If the conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save conductor
material, the stress in the conductor may reach unsafe value and in certain cases the
conductor may break due to excessive tension.
• The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point on the conductor is
called sag.

Conductor sag and tension: This is an important consideration in the mechanical design of
overhead lines. Tension is the stretching of conductors in between two poles. Tension and sag
are vis versa properties. High tension means light conductor, low sag but cases mechanical
failure of the conductor. High sag, low tension, high weight conductor and cases short circuit
fault due to wind effect. 61
 Sag in Overhead Lines…
Calculation of Sag
• In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension in the conductors is within
safe limits. The tension is governed by conductor weight, effects of wind, ice loading and
temperature variations.
• There are three considerations to calculate sag and tension of a conductor when:(i) supports
are at equal levels and (ii) supports are at unequal levels.
When supports are at equal levels: Consider a conductor between two equilevel supports
A and B with O as the lowest point as shown in Fig. below. It can be proved that lowest
point will be at the mid-span.
• Let
l = Length of span
w = Weight per unit length of conductor
T = Tension in the conductor.

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Sag in Overhead Lines…

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 Sag in Overhead Lines…
• When supports are at unequal levels: In hilly areas, we generally come across conductors
suspended between supports at unequal levels.
Let
l = Span length
h = Difference in levels between two supports
x1 = Distance of support at lower level (i.e., A) from O
x2 = Distance of support at higher level (i.e. B) from O
T = Tension in the conductor
If w is the weight per unit length of the conductor, then,

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 Sag in Overhead Lines…

Example: A 132 kV transmission line has the following data :

Wt. of conductor = 680 kg/km ; Length of span = 260 m
Ultimate strength = 3100 kg ; Safety factor = 2
Calculate the height above ground at which the conductor should be supported. Ground
clearance required is 10 meters.
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 Sag in Overhead Lines…

Example: The towers of height 30 m and 90 m respectively support a transmission line

conductor at water crossing. The horizontal distance between the towers is 500 m. If the
tension in the conductor is 1600 kg, find the minimum clearance of the conductor and water
and clearance mid-way between the supports. Weight of conductor is 1·5 kg/m. Bases of the
towers can be considered to be at water level.
• Solution. In the figure shown below, the conductor suspended between two supports A and
B at different levels with O as the lowest point on the conductor.
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Sag in Overhead Lines…

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 Sag in Overhead Lines…
Example: An overhead transmission line conductor having a parabolic configuration weighs
1·925 kg per meter of length. The area of X-section of the conductor is 2·2 cm2 and the
ultimate strength is 8000 kg/cm2. The supports are 600 m apart having 15 m difference of
levels. Calculate the sag from the taller of the two supports which must be allowed so that the
factor of safety shall be 5. Assume that ice load is 1 kg per meter run and there is no wind
pressure.
Solution: As the figure shown below, the conductor suspended between two supports at A and
B at different levels with O as the lowest point on the conductor.

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Sag in Overhead Lines…

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 Sag in Overhead Lines…
Factors affecting the sag
• Conductor weight – Sag of the conductor is directly proportional to its weight. The
weight of the conductors is increased due to ice loading.
• Span – Sag is directly proportional to the square of the span length. Longer span gives
more sag.
• Tension -The sag is inversely proportional to the tension in the conductor. Higher tension
increases the stress in the insulators and supporting structures.
• Wind – It increases sag in the inclined direction.
• Temperature – The sag is reduced at low temperatures and is increases at higher
temperatures.

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