The Nervous System

I. Functions of the Nervous System

Sensory input—gathering information
• To monitor changes occurring inside and outside
the body
• Changes = stimuli
Integration
• To process and interpret sensory input and
decide if action is needed
Motor output
• A response to integrated stimuli
• The response activates muscles or glands

A. Structural Classification of the Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS)
Organs
• Brain
• Spinal cord
Function
• Integration; command center Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous
• Interpret incoming sensory information System
• Issues outgoing instructions • Sensory (afferent) division
• • Nerve fibers that carry information TO
Structural Classification of the Nervous System THE central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) • Motor (efferent) division
 Nerves extending from the brain and spinal • Nerve fibers that carry impulses AWAY
FROM the central nervous system
cord
• Two subdivisions
o Spinal nerves—carry impulses to and
• Somatic nervous system =
from the spinal cord
voluntary
o Cranial nerves—carry impulses to and
• Consciously controls
from the brain
Functions skeletal muscles
• Autonomic nervous system =
Serve as communication lines among sensory
involuntary
organs, the brain and spinal cord, and glands or muscles
• Automatically controls
smooth and cardiac
muscles and glands
• Further divided into the
sympathetic and
parasympathetic
nervous systems
II. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
• Support cells in the CNS are grouped together
as “neuroglia”
• General functions
• Support
• Insulate
• Protect neurons

• Astrocytes
• Abundant, star-shaped cells
• Brace neurons
• Form barrier between capillaries and
neurons
• Control the chemical environment of
the brain **Myelin is an insulating layer, or sheath that forms
around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal
cord.

It is made up of protein and fatty substances.

This myelin sheath allows electrical impulses to
transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells.
If myelin is damaged, these impulses slow down.

**Schwann cells are named after German physiologist

Theodor Schwann, who discovered them in the 19th
century
myelinate the axons of the PNS.
III. Nervous Tissue: Neurons
• Neurons = nerve cells
• Cells specialized to transmit messages
• Major regions of neurons
• Cell body—nucleus and
metabolic center of the cell
• Processes—fibers that extend
from the cell body

• Processes outside the cell body

• Dendrites—conduct impulses toward
the cell body
• Neurons may have hundreds of
dendrites
• Axons—conduct impulses away from
the cell body
• Neurons have only one axon
arising from the cell body at the
axon hillock

• Cell body
• Nissl bodies
• Specialized rough endoplasmic
reticulum
• Neurofibrils
• Intermediate cytoskeleton
• Maintains cell shape
• Nucleus with large nucleolus
• Axons
• End in axon terminals
• Axon terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
• Axon terminals are separated from the
next neuron by a gap
• Synaptic cleft—gap between
adjacent neurons
• Synapse—junction between
nerves
 • Myelin sheath—whitish, fatty material covering
axons
• Schwann cells—produce myelin
sheaths in jelly roll-like fashion around
axons (PNS)
• Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in
myelin sheath along the axon
• Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin
sheaths around axons of the CNS

• White matter—collections of myelinated fibers

(tracts)
• Gray matter—collections of mostly
unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies

Neuron Cell Body Location

• Most neuron cell bodies are found in the central
nervous system
• Gray matter—cell bodies and
unmyelinated fibers
• Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies within
the white matter of the central nervous
system
• Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the
central nervous system
• Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
• Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
B. Functional Classification of Neurons
• Sensory (afferent) neurons
• Carry impulses from the sensory
receptors to the CNS
• Cutaneous sense organs
• Proprioceptors—detect stretch
or tension
• Motor (efferent) neurons
• Carry impulses from the central nervous
system to viscera, muscles, or glands
 IV. Structural Classification of Neurons

• Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the

cell body
• All motor and interneurons are
multipolar
• Most common structure

• Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite

• Located in special sense organs such
as nose and eye
• Rare in adults

Functional Classification of Neurons

• Interneurons (association neurons)
• Found in neural pathways in the central
nervous system
• Connect sensory and motor neurons
 • Unipolar neurons—have a short single process • Impulses travel faster when fibers have
leaving the cell body a myelin sheath
• Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia

5. Repolarization
• Potassium ions rush out of the neuron
after sodium ions rush in, which
repolarizes the membrane
• Repolarization involves restoring the
Functional Properties of Neurons inside of the membrane to a negative
• Irritability charge and the outer surface to a
• Ability to respond to stimuli positive charge
• Conductivity
• Ability to transmit an impulse
Nerve Impulses
1. Resting neuron
• The plasma membrane at rest is 6. Repolarization
polarized • Initial ionic conditions are restored using
• Fewer positive ions are inside the cell the sodium-potassium pump.
than outside the cell • This pump, using ATP, restores the
original configuration
• Three sodium ions are ejected from the
cell while two potassium ions are
returned to the cell

2. Depolarization
• A stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s
membrane
• The membrane is now permeable to
sodium as sodium channels open
• A depolarized membrane allows sodium Transmission of a Signal at Synapses
(Na+) to flow inside the membrane
1. When the action potential reaches the axon
terminal, the electrical charge opens calcium
channels

3. Action potential
• The movement of ions initiates an action
potential in the neuron due to a stimulus
• A graded potential (localized
depolarization) exists where the inside
of the membrane is more positive and
the outside is less positive

4. Propagation of the action potential 2. Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles
• If enough sodium enters the cell, the containing the neurotransmitter chemical to fuse
action potential (nerve impulse) starts with the axonal membrane
and is propagated over the entire axon
 3. The entry of calcium into the axon terminal • Autonomic reflexes
causes porelike openings to form, releasing the • Regulate the activity of smooth muscles,
transmitter the heart, and glands
4. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across • Example: Regulation of smooth
the synapse and bind to receptors on the muscles, heart and blood pressure,
membrane of the next neuron glands, digestive system
• Five elements of a reflex:
• Sensory receptor–reacts to a stimulus
• Sensory neuron–carries message to
the integration center
• Integration center (CNS)–processes
information and directs motor output
• Motor neuron–carries message to an
effector
• Effector organ–is the muscle or gland
to be stimulated
Two-Neuron Reflex Arc
• Two-neuron reflex arcs
• Simplest type
• Example: Patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
5. If enough neurotransmitter is released, graded
potential will be generated
6. Eventually an action potential (nerve impulse)
will occur in the neuron beyond the synapse

Three-Neuron Reflex Arc

• Three-neuron reflex arcs
• Consists of five elements: receptor,
sensory neuron, interneuron, motor
neuron, and effector
7. The electrical changes prompted by • Example: Flexor (withdrawal) reflex
neurotransmitter binding are brief
8. The neurotransmitter is quickly removed from
the synapse
The Reflex Arc
• Reflex—rapid, predictable, and involuntary
response to a stimulus
• Occurs over pathways called reflex arcs
• Reflex arc—direct route from a sensory neuron,
to an interneuron, to an effector

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
• The neural tube becomes the brain and
spinal cord
• The opening of the neural tube becomes
• Somatic reflexes
the ventricles
• Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal
• Four chambers within the brain
muscles
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• Example: pull your hand away from a
hot object
 • CORPUS CALLOSUM – bridges the left
with the right hemisphere of the brain.
• Corpus callosum/the corpus
callosum consists of about 200
million axons that interconnect
the two hemispheres.

• The primary function of

the corpus callosum is to
integrate motor, sensory, and
cognitive performances

• Between the cerebral cortex on

one side of the brain to the
same region on the other side.

Regions of the Brain

• Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum)
• Diencephalon
• Brain stem
• Cerebellum
Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum
• Lobes of the cerebrum
• Fissures (deep grooves) divide the
cerebrum into lobes
• Surface lobes of the cerebrum
• Frontal lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Occipital lobe
• Temporal lobe
Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum
• Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
• Paired (left and right) superior parts of
the brain
• Includes more than half of the brain
mass
• The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
grooves (sulci)
Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum ctnd. • Basal nuclei—islands of gray matter buried
• Specialized areas of the cerebrum within the white matter
• Primary somatic sensory area
• Receives impulses from the
body’s sensory receptors
• Located in parietal lobe
• Primary motor area
• Sends impulses to skeletal
muscles
• Located in frontal lobe
• Broca’s area
• Involved in our ability to speak
• B for “BUNGANGA”
• Cerebral areas involved in special senses
• Gustatory area (taste)
• Visual area
• Auditory area
• Olfactory area
• Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
• Speech/language region
• Language comprehension region
• General interpretation area

Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon

• Sits on top of the brain stem
• Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
• Made of three parts
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus

• Layers of the cerebrum

• Gray matter—outer layer in the cerebral
cortex composed mostly of neuron cell
bodies
• White matter—fiber tracts deep to the
gray matter
• Corpus callosum connects
hemispheres
Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon ctnd. • Midbrain: MESENCEPHALON
• Thalamus o Mostly composed of tracts of nerve
• Surrounds the third ventricle fibers
• The relay station for sensory impulses o Has two bulging fiber tracts—
• Transfers impulses to the correct part of cerebral peduncles
the cortex for localization and o Has four rounded protrusions—
interpretation corpora quadrigemina
• Hypothalamus  Reflex centers for vision and
• Under the thalamus hearing
• Important autonomic nervous system • Pons
center o The bulging center part of the brain
• Helps regulate body stem
temperature o Mostly composed of fiber tracts
• Controls water balance o Includes nuclei involved in the control of
• Regulates metabolism breathing
• Houses the limbic center for emotions • Medulla oblongata
• Regulates the nearby pituitary gland o The lowest part of the brain stem
• Produces two hormones of its o Merges into the spinal cord
own o Includes important fiber tracts
• Epithalamus o Contains important control centers
• Forms the roof of the third ventricle  Heart rate control
• Houses the pineal body (an endocrine  Blood pressure regulation
gland)  Breathing
• Includes the choroid plexus—forms  Swallowing
cerebrospinal fluid  Vomiting
• Reticular Formation
Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem o Diffuse mass of gray matter along the
• Attaches to the spinal cord brain stem
• Parts of the brain stem o Involved in motor control of visceral
• Midbrain organs
• Pons o Reticular activating system (RAS)
• Medulla oblongata plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and
consciousness

Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum

• Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
• Provides involuntary coordination of body
movements
Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Scalp and skin
• Skull and vertebral column
• Meninges
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Blood-brain barrier

**The midbrain (MESENCEPHALON) serves important

functions in motor movement, particularly movements
of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing.
Contains important control centers
• Heart rate control
• Blood pressure regulation
• Breathing
• Swallowing
• Vomiting
 apertures. Some CSF flows through the central
canal of the spinal cord.
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space.
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses
via the arachnoid villi.

Meninges
• Dura mater
• Tough outermost layer
• Double-layered external covering
• Periosteum—attached to inner
surface of the skull
• Meningeal layer—outer
covering of the brain
• Folds inward in several areas
• Falx cerebri
• Tentorium cerebelli
• Arachnoid layer
• Middle layer
• Web-like extensions span the
subarachnoid space
• Arachnoid villi reabsorb
cerebrospinal fluid
• Pia mater
• Internal layer
• Clings to the surface of the brain

Hydrocephalus in a Newborn
• Hydrocephalus
• CSF accumulates and exerts pressure
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) on the brain if not allowed to drain
• Similar to blood plasma composition • Possible in an infant because the skull
• Formed by the choroid plexus bones have not yet fused
• Choroid plexuses–capillaries in the • In adults, this situation results in brain
ventricles of the brain damage
• Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
• Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and
central canal of the spinal cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Pathway of Flow
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each
ventricle.
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into the
subarachnoid space via the median and lateral
Blood-Brain Barrier
• Includes the least permeable capillaries of the
body
• Excludes many potentially harmful substances
• Useless as a barrier against some substances
• Fats and fat soluble molecules
• Respiratory gases
• Alcohol
• Nicotine Spinal Cord
• Anesthesia • Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull
Traumatic Brain Injuries to the first or second lumbar vertebra
• Concussion • Provides a two-way conduction pathway from
• Slight brain injury the brain to and from the brain
• No permanent brain damage • 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal
• Contusion cord
• Nervous tissue destruction occurs • Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves
• Nervous tissue does not regenerate at the inferior end
• Cerebral edema
• Swelling from the inflammatory
response
• May compress and kill brain tissue
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) or Stroke
• Result from a ruptured blood vessel supplying a
region of the brain
• Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that
blood source dies
• Loss of some functions or death may result
• Hemiplegia–One-sided paralysis
• Aphasis–Damage to speech center in
left hemisphere
• Transischemia-attack (TIA)–temporary brain
ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
• Warning signs for more serious CVAs

Spinal Cord Anatomy

• Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
• Dorsal (posterior) horns
• Anterior (ventral) horns
• Gray matter surrounds the central canal
• Central canal is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
Alzheimer’s disease • Exterior white mater—conduction tracts
• Progressive degenerative brain disease • Dorsal, lateral, ventral columns
• Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in
middle age
• Structural changes in the brain include
abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers
within neurons
• Victims experience memory loss, irritability,
confusion, and ultimately, hallucinations and
death
Spinal Cord Anatomy: ctnd.
• Meninges cover the spinal cord
• Spinal nerves leave at the level of each
vertebrae
• Dorsal root
• Associated with the dorsal root
ganglia—collections of cell
bodies outside the central
nervous system
• Ventral root
• Contains axons
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous
system
• Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
• Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue
PNS: Structure of a Nerve
• Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
• Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by
perineurium
• Fascicles are bound together by epineurium
PNS: Classification of Nerves
• Mixed nerves
• Both sensory and motor fibers
• Sensory (afferent) nerves
• Carry impulses toward the CNS
• Motor (efferent) nerves
• Carry impulses away from the CNS
PNS: Spinal Nerves
• There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of
each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
• Formed by the combination of the ventral and
dorsal roots of the spinal cord
• Named for the region from which they arise
PNS: Anatomy of Spinal Nerves
• Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the
spinal cord
• Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains both
motor and sensory fibers
• Dorsal rami—serve the skin and
muscles of the posterior trunk
• Ventral rami—form a complex of
networks (plexus) for the anterior
 • Lumbar Plexus
• Originates from ventral rami in L1
through L4
• Important nerves:
• Femoral
• Obturator
• Areas served:
• Lower abdomen
• Anterior and medial thighs

PNS: Spinal Nerve Plexuses

• Plexus–networks of nerves serving motor and
sensory needs of the limbs
• Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the
cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
• Four plexuses:
• Cervical
• Brachial
• Lumbar • Sacral Plexus
• Sacral • Originates from ventral rami in L4 – L5
• Cervical Plexus and S1 – S4
• Originates from ventral rami in C1 – C5 • Important nerves:
• Important nerve is the phrenic nerve • Sciatic
• Areas served: • Superior and inferior gluteal
• Diaphragm • Areas served:
• Shoulder and neck • Lower trunk and posterior
• Brachial Plexus thigh
• Originates from ventral rami in C5 – C8 • Lateral and posterior leg and
and T1 foot
• Important nerves: • Gluteal muscles of hip area
• Axillary
• Radial
• Median
• Musculocutaneous
• Ulnar
• Areas served: shoulder, arm, forearm,
and hand

PNS: Cranial Nerves

• Twelve pairs of nerves that mostly serve the
head and neck
• Only the pair of vagus nerves extend to
thoracic and abdominal cavities
• Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory
only
PNS: Cranial Nerves Device PNS: Autonomic Nervous System
• Oh – Olfactory • Motor subdivision of the PNS
• Oh – Optic • Consists only of motor nerves
• Oh – Oculomotor • Also known as the involuntary nervous
• To – Trochlear system
• Touch – Trigeminal • Regulates activities of cardiac and
• And – Abducens smooth muscles and glands
• Feel – Facial • Two subdivisions
• Very – Vestibulocochlear • Sympathetic division
• Green – Glossopharyngeal • Parasympathetic division
• Vegetables – Vagus PNS: Differences Between Somatic
• A – Accessory and Autonomic Nervous Systems
• H – Hypoglossal
PNS: Cranial Nerves
• I Olfactory nerve—sensory for smell
• II Optic nerve—sensory for vision
• III Oculomotor nerve—motor fibers to eye
muscles
• IV Trochlear—motor fiber to one eye muscle
• V Trigeminal nerve—sensory for the face;
motor fibers to chewing muscles
• VI Abducens nerve—motor fibers to eye
muscles
• VII Facial nerve—sensory for taste; motor
fibers to the face
• VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve—sensory for
balance and hearing
• IX Glossopharyngeal nerve—sensory for
taste; motor fibers to the pharynx
• X Vagus nerves—sensory and motor fibers for
pharynx, larynx, and viscera
• XI Accessory nerve—motor fibers to neck and
upper back
• XII Hypoglossal nerve—motor fibers to tongue

PNS: Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

• Preganglionic neurons originate from the
craniosacral regions:
• The cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
• S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
• Due to site of preganglionic neuron origination,
the parasympathetic division: AKA
craniosacral division
• Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
• Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine =
Parasympathetic
 • Maintains daily necessary body
functions
• Remember as the “D” division
• digestion, defecation, and
diuresis
Development Aspects of the Nervous System
• The nervous system is formed during the first
month of embryonic development
• Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
brain to develop
• No more neurons are formed after birth, but
growth and maturation continues for several
years
• The brain reaches maximum weight as a young
adult

Special Senses
The Senses
PNS: Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
• Special senses
• Preganglionic neurons originate from T1
• Smell
through L2
• Taste
• Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the
• Sight
spinal cord)
• Hearing
• Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long post-
• Equilibrium
ganglionic neuron transmit impulse from CNS to
The Eye and Vision
the effector
• 70% of all sensory receptors are in
• Neurotransmitters: norepinephrine and
the eyes
epinephrine (effector organs) = Sympathetic
• Each eye has over a million nerve fibers
• Protection for the eye
• Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony
orbit
• A cushion of fat surrounds most of the
eye
Accessory Structures of the Eye
• Eyelids and eyelashes
• Conjunctiva
• Lacrimal apparatus
• Extrinsic eye muscles

PNS: Autonomic Functioning

• Sympathetic—“fight or flight”
• Response to unusual stimulus
• Takes over to increase activities
• Remember as the “E” division
• Exercise, excitement,
emergency, and embarrassment
• Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites,
“rest & digest”
• Conserves energy
Accessory Structures of the Eye: ctnd.
• Eyelids
• Meet at the medial and lateral
commissure (canthus)
• Eyelashes
• Tarsal glands produce an oily secretion
that lubricates the eye
• Ciliary glands are located between the
eyelashes
• Conjunctiva
• Membrane that lines the eyelids
• Connects to the outer surface of the eye
• Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye and
keep it moist
• Lacrimal apparatus = lacrimal gland + ducts
• Lacrimal gland—produces lacrimal
fluid; situated on lateral aspect of each
eye
• Lacrimal canaliculi—drain lacrimal
fluid from eyes medially
• Lacrimal sac—provides passage of
lacrimal fluid towards nasal cavity
• Nasolacrimal duct—empties lacrimal
fluid into the nasal cavity
• Function of the lacrimal apparatus
• Protects, moistens, and
lubricates the eye
• Empties into the nasal cavity
• Lacrimal secretions
(tears) contain:
• Dilute salt
solution
• Mucus
• Antibodies
• Lysozyme
(enzyme that
destroys
bacteria)
• Extrinsic eye muscles
• Six muscles attach to the outer surface
of the eye
• Produce eye movements

Structure of the Eye

• Layers forming the wall of the eyeball
• Fibrous layer
• Outside layer
• Vascular layer
• Middle layer
• Sensory layer
• Inside layer
 • Signals leave the retina toward the brain through
the optic nerve
• Optic disc (blind spot) is where the optic nerve
leaves the eyeball
• Cannot see images focused on the optic
disc
• Neurons of the retina and vision
• Rods
• Most are found towards the
edges of the retina
• Allow dim light vision and
peripheral vision
• All perception is in gray tones
• Cones
• Allow for detailed color vision
• Densest in the center of the
retina
• Fovea centralis–lateral to
blind spot
Structure of the Eye: The Fibrous Layer • Area of the retina with
• Sclera only cones
• White connective tissue layer • Visual acuity (sharpest
• Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye” vision) is here
• Cornea • No photoreceptor cells are at the optic
• Transparent, central anterior portion disc, or blind spot
• Allows for light to pass through • Cone sensitivity
• Repairs itself easily • Three types of cones
• The only human tissue that can be • Different cones are sensitive to different
transplanted without fear of rejection wavelengths
Structure of the Eye: Vascular Layer • Color blindness is the result of the
• Choroid is a blood-rich nutritive layer in the lack of one cone type
posterior of the eye
• Pigment prevents light from scattering
• Modified anteriorly into two structures
• Ciliary body—smooth muscle attached
to lens
• Iris—regulates amount of light entering
eye
• Pigmented layer that gives
eye color
• Pupil—rounded opening in the
iris
Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer
• Retina contains two layers
• Outer pigmented layer
• Inner neural layer
• Contains receptor cells
(photoreceptors)
• Rods
• Cones
• Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two-
neuron chain
• Bipolar neurons
• Ganglion cells
Lens
• Biconvex crystal-like structure
• Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached
to the ciliary body
• Cataracts result when the lens becomes hard
and opaque with age
• Vision becomes hazy and distorted
• Eventually causes blindness in affected
eye
• Risk factors include:
• Diabetes mellitus
• Frequent exposure to intense
sunlight
• Heavy smoking Pathway of Light through the Eye
Two Segments, or Chambers, of the Eye • Light must be focused to a point on the retina for
• Anterior (aqueous) segment optimal vision
• Anterior to the lens • The eye is set for distance vision
• Contains aqueous humor (over 20 feet away)
• Aqueous humor • Accommodation—the lens must change shape
• Watery fluid found between lens to focus on closer objects (less than 20 feet
and cornea away): similar to adjusting the lens of a
• Similar to blood plasma camera to see/focus on an object.
• Helps maintain intraocular • Image formed on the retina is a real image
pressure • Real images are:
• Provides nutrients for the lens • Reversed from left to right
and cornea • Upside down
• Reabsorbed into venous blood • Smaller than the object
through the scleral venous
sinus, or canal of Schlemm
• Posterior (vitreous) segment
• Posterior to the lens
• Contains vitreous humor
• Vitreous humor
• Gel-like substance posterior to
the lens
• Prevents the eye from
collapsing
• Helps maintain intraocular
pressure
Ophthalmoscope
• Instrument used to illuminate the interior of the
eyeball
• Can detect diabetes, arteriosclerosis,
degeneration of the optic nerve and retina
Visual Fields and Visual Pathways • Results from an eyeball that is too
• Optic chiasma short or from a “lazy lens”
• Location where the optic nerves cross
• Fibers from the medial side of each eye
cross over to the opposite side of the
brain
• Optic tracts
• Contain fibers from the lateral side of
the eye on the same side and the
medial side of the opposite eye

• Astigmatism
• Images are blurry
• Results from light focusing as lines, not
points, on the retina due to unequal
curvatures of the cornea or lens
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Eyes
• Night blindness—inhibited rod function that
hinders the ability to see at night
• Color blindness—genetic conditions that result
in the inability to see certain colors
• Due to the lack of one type of cone
(partial color blindness)
• Cataracts—when lens becomes hard and
opaque, our vision becomes hazy and distorted
Eye Reflexes • Glaucoma—can cause blindness due to
• Internal muscles are controlled by the increasing pressure within the eye
autonomic nervous system • Hemianopia—loss of the same side of the
• Bright light causes pupils to constrict visual field of both eyes; results from damage to
through action of radial, circular, and the visual cortex on one side only
ciliary muscles
• Viewing close objects causes
The Ear
accommodation
• Houses two senses
• External muscles control eye movement to
• Hearing
follow objects
• Equilibrium (balance)
• Viewing close objects causes convergence
• Receptors are mechanoreceptors
(eyes moving medially)
• Different organs house receptors for each sense
A Closer Look
Anatomy of the Ear
• Emmetropia—eye focuses images correctly on
• The ear is divided into three areas
the retina
• External (outer) ear
• Myopia (nearsighted)
• Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
• Distant objects appear blurry
• Inner ear (bony labyrinth)
• Light from those objects fails to reach
the retina and are focused in front of it
• Results from an eyeball that is too long
• Hyperopia (farsighted)
• Near objects are blurry while distant
objects are clear
• Distant objects are focused behind the
retina
 Organs of Equilibrium
• Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are called
the vestibular apparatus
• Vestibular apparatus has two functional parts
• Static equilibrium
• Dynamic equilibrium

The External Ear Static Equilibrium

• Involved in hearing only • Maculae—receptors in the vestibule
• Structures of the external ear • Report on the position of the head
• Auricle (pinna) • Send information via the vestibular
• External acoustic meatus (auditory nerve
canal) • Anatomy of the maculae
• Narrow chamber in the • Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic
temporal bone membrane
• Lined with skin and • Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel
ceruminous (wax) glands around the hair cells
• Ends at the tympanic • Movements cause otoliths to bend the
membrane hair cells
The Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
• Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
• Only involved in the sense of hearing
• Two tubes are associated with the inner ear
• The opening from the auditory canal is
covered by the tympanic membrane
• The auditory tube connecting the middle
ear with the throat
• Allows for equalizing pressure
during yawning or swallowing
• This tube is otherwise collapsed
Bones of the Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
• Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity
• Malleus (hammer)
• Incus (anvil)
• Stapes (stirrup)
• Function
• Vibrations from eardrum move the
hammer  anvil  stirrup  inner ear
Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
• Includes sense organs for hearing and balance
• Filled with perilymph
• Contains a maze of bony chambers within the
temporal bone
• Cochlea
• Vestibule
• Semicircular canals
Dynamic Equilibrium
• These receptors respond to angular or rotary
movements
• Crista ampullaris (in the ampulla of each
semicircular canal)—dynamic equilibrium
receptors are located in the semicircular canals
• Tuft of hair cells covered with cupula
(gelatinous cap)
• If the head moves, the cupula drags
against the endolymph
• Action of angular head movements
• The movement of the cupula stimulates
the hair cells
• An impulse is sent via the vestibular
nerve to the cerebellum
Mechanism of Hearing
• Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial
membrane
• Hair cells are bent by the membrane
• An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
• Impulse travels to the temporal lobe
• Continued stimulation can lead to adaptation
• High-pitched sounds disturb the short, stiff
fibers of the basilar membrane
• Receptor cells close to the oval window
are stimulated
• Low-pitched sounds disturb the long, floppy
fibers of the basilar membrane
Organs of Hearing • Specific hair cells further along the
• Organ of Corti cochlea are affected
• Located within the cochlea
• Receptors = hair cells on the basilar
membrane
• Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable
of bending hair cells
• Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells
transmits nerve impulses to auditory
cortex on temporal lobe
Olfaction—the Sense of Smell • Circumvallate papillae—large papillae
• Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal with taste buds
cavity • Taste buds are found on the sides of papillae
• Neurons with long cilia Structure of Taste Buds
• Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus • Gustatory cells are the receptors
for detection • Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
• Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve • Hairs are stimulated by chemicals
• Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex dissolved in saliva
• Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex by
several cranial nerves because taste buds are
found in different areas
• Facial nerve
• Glossopharyngeal nerve
• Vagus nerve
Taste Sensations
• Sweet receptors (sugars)
• Saccharine
• Some amino acids
The Sense of Taste • Sour receptors
• Taste buds house the receptor organs • Acids
• Location of taste buds • Bitter receptors
• Most are on the tongue • Alkaloids
• Soft palate • Salty receptors
• Cheeks • Metal ions
Developmental Aspects of the Special Senses
• Formed early in embryonic development
• Eyes are outgrowths of the brain
• All special senses are functional at birth
• Eye problems
• Strabismus—“crossed eyes” results
from unequal pulls by the external eye
muscles in babies
• Ophthalmia neonatorum—
conjunctivitis resulting from mother
having gonorrhea. Baby’s eyelids are
swollen and pus is produced
• Presbyopia—“old vision” results from
decreasing lens elasticity that
accompanies aging
• Ear problems
• Presbycusis—type of sensorineural
deafness
• Otosclerosis—ear ossicles
fuse
Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell
• Both senses use chemoreceptors
The Tongue and Taste • Stimulated by chemicals in solution
• The tongue is covered with projections called • Taste has four types of receptors
papillae • Smell can differentiate a large range of
• Filiform papillae—sharp with no taste chemicals
buds • Both senses complement each other and
• Fungiform papillae—rounded with respond to many of the same stimuli
taste buds
The Skeletal System
• Parts of the skeletal system
• Bones (skeleton)
• Joints
• Cartilages
• Ligaments
• Two subdivisions of the skeleton
• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton
Functions of Bones
• Support the body
• Protect soft organs
• Skull and vertebrae for brain and spinal
cord
• Rib cage for thoracic cavity organs
• Allow movement due to attached skeletal Classification of Bones
muscles • Long bones
• Store minerals and fats • Typically longer than they are wide
• Calcium and phosphorus • Shaft with heads situated at both ends
• Fat in the internal marrow cavity • Contain mostly compact bone
• Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) • All of the bones of the limbs (except
Bones of the Human Body wrist, ankle, and kneecap bones)
• The adult skeleton has 206 bones • Example:
• Two basic types of bone tissue • Femur
• Compact bone • Humerus
• Homogeneous • Short bones
• Spongy bone • Generally cube-shaped
• Small needle-like pieces of bone • Contain mostly spongy bone
• Many open spaces • Includes bones of the wrist and ankle
• Sesamoid bones are a type of short
bone which form within tendons (patella)
• Example:
• Carpals
• Tarsals
• Flat bones
• Thin, flattened, and usually curved
• Two thin layers of compact bone
surround a layer of spongy bone
• Example:
• Skull
• Ribs
• Sternum
Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape
• Irregular bones
• Bones are classified as:
• Irregular shape
• Long
• Do not fit into other bone classification
• Short
categories
• Flat
• Example:
• Irregular
• Vertebrae
• Hip bones
Anatomy of a Long Bone
• Diaphysis
• Shaft
• Composed of compact bone
• Epiphysis
• Ends of the bone
• Composed mostly of spongy bone
• Periosteum
• Outside covering of the diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue membrane
• Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
• Secure periosteum to underlying bone
• Arteries
• Supply bone cells with nutrients
• Articular cartilage
• Covers the external surface of the
epiphyses
• Made of hyaline cartilage
• Decreases friction at joint surfaces
• Epiphyseal plate
• Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in
young, growing bone
• Epiphyseal line
• Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
• Seen in adult bones
• Marrow (medullary) cavity
• Cavity inside of the shaft
• Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in
adults Bone Markings
• Contains red marrow for blood cell • Surface features of bones
formation in infants • Sites of attachments for muscles,
• In adults, red marrow is situated in cavities of tendons, and ligaments
spongy bone and epiphyses of some long bones • Passages for nerves and blood vessels
• Categories of bone markings
• Projections or processes—grow out
from the bone surface
• Terms often begin with “T”
• Depressions or cavities—indentations
• Terms often begin with “F”
Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone
• Osteon (Haversian system)
• A unit of bone containing central canal
and matrix rings
• Central (Haversian) canal
• Opening in the center of an osteon
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
• Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
• Canal perpendicular to the central canal
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Formation of the Human Skeleton
• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline
cartilage
• During development, much of this cartilage is
replaced by bone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas
• Bridge of the nose
• Parts of ribs
• Joints
Bone Growth (Ossification)
• Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise growth of
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone long bones during childhood
• Lacunae • New cartilage is continuously formed
• Cavities containing bone cells • Older cartilage becomes ossified
(osteocytes) • Cartilage is broken down
• Arranged in concentric rings called • Enclosed cartilage is digested
lamellae away, opening up a medullary
• Lamellae cavity
• Rings around the central canal • Bone replaces cartilage through
• Sites of lacunae the action of osteoblasts
• Canaliculi • Bones are remodeled and lengthened until
• Tiny canals growth stops
• Radiate from the central canal to • Bones are remodeled in response to two
lacunae factors
• Form a transport system connecting all • Blood calcium levels
bone cells to a nutrient supply • Pull of gravity and muscles on
the skeleton
• Bones grow in width (called appositional
growth)
Types of Bone Cells
• Osteocytes—mature bone cells
• Osteoblasts—bone-forming cells
• Osteoclasts—giant bone-destroying cells
• Break down bone matrix for remodeling
and release of calcium in response to
parathyroid hormone
• Bone remodeling is performed by both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bone Fractures
• Fracture—break in a bone
• Types of bone fractures
• Closed (simple) fracture—break that
does not penetrate the skin
• Open (compound) fracture—broken
bone penetrates through the skin
• Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization
Common Types of Fractures
• Comminuted—bone breaks into many
fragments
• Compression—bone is crushed
• Depressed—broken bone portion is pressed
inward
• Impacted—broken bone ends are forced into
each other
• Spiral—ragged break occurs when excessive
twisting forces are applied to a bone
• Greenstick—bone breaks incompletely
Repair of Bone Fractures
• Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
• Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a
callus
• Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
• Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent
patch

The Skull
The Axial Skeleton • Two sets of bones
• Forms the longitudinal axis of the body • Cranium
• Divided into three parts • Facial bones
• Skull • Bones are joined by sutures
• Vertebral column • Only the mandible is attached by a freely
• Bony thorax movable joint
Paranasal Sinuses
• Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal
cavity
• Functions of paranasal sinuses
• Lighten the skull
• Give resonance and amplification to
voice

The Hyoid Bone

• The only bone that does not articulate with
another bone
• Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
• Aids in swallowing and speech

The Fetal Skull

• The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s
total body length
• Fetal skull is 1/4 body length
compared to adult skull which is 1/8
body length
• Fontanels—fibrous membranes connecting the
cranial bones
• Allow skull compression during birth
• Allow the brain to grow during later
pregnancy and infancy
• Convert to bone within 24 months after
birth
The Vertebral Column
• Each vertebrae is given a name according to its
location
• There are 24 single vertebral bones
separated by intervertebral discs
• Seven cervical vertebrae are in
the neck
• Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in
the chest region
• Five lumbar vertebrae are
associated with the lower back A Typical Vertebrae
• Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite • Body
bones • Vertebral arch
• Sacrum • Pedicle
• Coccyx • Lamina
• Primary curvatures are the spinal curvatures • Vertebral foramen
of the thoracic and sacral regions • Transverse processes
• Present from birth • Spinous process
• Form a C-shaped curvature as in • Superior and inferior articular processes
newborns
• Secondary curvatures are the spinal
curvatures of the cervical and lumbar
regions
• Develop after birth
• Form an S-shaped curvature as in
adults
Sacrum and Coccyx
• Sacrum
• Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae
• Coccyx
• Formed from the fusion of three to five
vertebrae
• “Tailbone,” or remnant of a tail that
other vertebrates have

The Bony Thorax
• Forms a cage to protect major organs
• Consists of three parts
• Sternum
• Ribs
• True ribs (pairs 1–7)
• False ribs (pairs 8–12)
• Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
• Thoracic vertebrae
The Appendicular Skeleton
• Composed of 126 bones
• Limbs (appendages)
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle
The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
• Composed of two bones
• Clavicle—collarbone
• Articulates with the sternum
medially and with the scapula
laterally
• Scapula—shoulder blade
• Articulates with the clavicle at
the acromioclavicular joint
• Articulates with the arm bone at
the glenoid cavity
• These bones allow the upper limb to have
exceptionally free movement
 Bones of the Upper Limbs: ctnd.
• The forearm has two bones
• Ulna—medial bone in anatomical
position
• Proximal end articulation
• Coronoid process and
olecranon articulate with
the humerus
• Radius—lateral bone in anatomical
position
• Proximal end articulation
• Head articulates with
the capitulum of the
humerus

Bones of the Upper Limbs

• Humerus
• Forms the arm
• Single bone
• Proximal end articulation
• Head articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula
• Distal end articulation
• Trochlea and capitulum
articulate with the bones of the
forearm
 • Hand
• Carpals—wrist
• Eight bones arranged in two
rows of four bones in each hand
• Metacarpals—palm
• Five per hand
• Phalanges—fingers and thumb
• Fourteen phalanges in each
hand
• In each finger, there are three
bones
• In the thumb, there are only two
bones

Gender Differences of the Pelvis

• The female inlet is larger and more circular
• The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and
the bones are lighter and thinner
• The female ilia flare more laterally
• The female sacrum is shorter and less curved
• The female ischial spines are shorter and farther
apart; thus the outlet is larger
• The female pubic arch is more rounded because
the angle of the pubic arch is greater

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

• Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones
• Composed of three pairs of fused bones
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubis
• Pelvic girdle = 2 coxal bones, sacrum
• Bony pelvis = 2 coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx
• The total weight of the upper body rests on the
pelvis
• It protects several organs
• Reproductive organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine
Bones of the Lower Limbs
• Femur—thigh bone
• The heaviest, strongest bone in the
body
• Proximal end articulation
• Head articulates with the
acetabulum of the coxal (hip)
bone
 • Distal end articulation • The foot
• Lateral and medial condyles • Tarsals—7 bones
articulate with the tibia in the • Two largest tarsals
lower leg • Calcaneus (heel bone)
• Talus
• Metatarsals—5 bones form the sole of
the foot
• Phalanges—14 bones form the toes

• The lower leg has two bones

• Tibia—Shinbone; larger and medially
oriented
Arches of the Foot
• Proximal end articulation
• Bones of the foot are arranged to form three
• Medial and lateral
strong arches
condyles articulate with
• Two longitudinal
the femur to form the
• One transverse
knee joint
• Fibula—Thin and sticklike; lateral to the
tibia
• Has no role in forming the knee
joint

Joints
• Articulations of bones
• Functions of joints
• Hold bones together
• Allow for mobility
• Two ways joints are classified
• Functionally
• Structurally
Functional Classification of Joints
• Synarthroses
• Immovable joints
• Amphiarthroses
• Slightly moveable joints
• Diarthroses
• Freely moveable joints
Structural Classification of Joints
• Fibrous joints
• Generally immovable
• Cartilaginous joints
• Immovable or slightly moveable
• Synovial joints
• Freely moveable
Fibrous Joints
• Bones united by collagenic fibers
• Types
• Sutures
• Immobile
• Syndesmoses
• Allows more movement than
sutures but still immobile
• Example: Distal end of tibia and
fibula
• Gomphosis
• Immobile

Synovial Joints
• Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
• Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity

Cartilaginous Joints
• Bones connected by cartilage
• Types
• Synchrondrosis
• Immobile
• Symphysis
• Slightly movable
• Example: Pubic symphysis,
intervertebral joints
Features of Synovial Joints
• Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the
ends of bones
• Articular capsule encloses joint surfaces and
lined with synovial membrane
• Joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid
• Reinforcing ligaments
Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint
• Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs
• Lined with synovial membranes
• Filled with synovial fluid
• Not actually part of the joint
• Tendon sheath
• Elongated bursa that wraps around a
tendon
Inflammatory Conditions Associated Skeletal Changes throughout Life
with Joints • Fetus
• Bursitis—inflammation of a bursa usually • Long bones are formed of hyaline
caused by a blow or friction cartilage
• Tendonitis—inflammation of tendon sheaths • Flat bones begin as fibrous membranes
• Arthritis—inflammatory or degenerative • Flat and long bone models are
diseases of joints converted to bone
• Over 100 different types • Birth
• The most widespread crippling disease • Fontanels remain until around age 2
in the United States • Adolescence
• Initial symptoms: pain, stiffness, • Epiphyseal plates become ossified and
swelling of the joint long bone growth ends
Clinical Forms of Arthritis • Size of cranium in relationship to body
• Osteoarthritis • 2 years old—skull is larger in
• Most common chronic arthritis proportion to the body compared to
• Probably related to normal aging that of an adult
processes • 8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult
• Rheumatoid arthritis size and proportion
• An autoimmune disease—the immune • Between ages 6 and 11, the face
system attacks the joints grows out from the skull
• Symptoms begin with bilateral • Curvatures of the spine
inflammation of certain joints • Primary curvatures are present at
• Often leads to deformities birth and are convex posteriorly
• Gouty arthritis • Secondary curvatures are associated
• Inflammation of joints is caused by a with a child’s later development and
deposition of uric acid crystals from the are convex anteriorly
blood • Abnormal spinal curvatures (scoliosis
• Can usually be controlled with diet and lordosis) are often congenital
• More common in men • Osteoporosis
Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System • Bone-thinning disease afflicting
• At birth, the skull bones are incomplete • 50% of women over age 65
• Bones are joined by fibrous membranes called • 20% of men over age 70
fontanels • Disease makes bones fragile and bones
• Fontanels are completely replaced with bone can easily fracture
within two years after birth • Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis
(also known as dowager’s hump)
• Estrogen aids in health and normal
density of a female skeleton
•