8.

4 Electrodynamic Methods 145

(Fig. 8.4). If the strips are separated by the distance d the Huygens' wavelets add up
in the correct phase at angles for which:
. nA
SlDlX=d

(n is an integer, A. wavelength of ultrasound).

By using Huygens' principle we can also calculate the angle of an oblique beam
generated by using constant delay times between adjacent strips or for the case in
which a complete excitation pattern is moved along the surface at a certain
speed.
The temperature of the surface has no noticeable influence.

8.3 Electrostatic Methods

Between the plates of a charged capacitor there are attracting electrostatic forces
[28]. This effect may be used for direct excitation of sound in a specimen or for the
construction of a transmitter probe. In the first case an electrode can be held at a
small distance from the surface of a metallic specimen and subjected to an alternat-
ing voltage. The mechanical force on the surface generates an ultrasonic wave at
the same frequency as the voltage [906]. Because the forces are perpendicular to
the surface, longitudinal waves perpendicular to the surface will be preferentially
produced. The resulting amplitudes are usually very small but rather high frequen-
cies and shock waves can be generated by this method.
To build such a transmitter probe a thin metallic diaphragm is mounted at a
small distance from a solid metallic electrode as in Fig. 8.5. The radiated ultra-
sound can be directed into a liquid or even into solids by using a coupling layer.
The effect can also be used for receiving sound by using it in reverse. The vol-
tage across a capacitor energised by a constant electric potential will change if the
distance between the electrodes is altered [1518].

8.4 Electrodynamic Methods; EMATs

These methods which are also called magneto-inductive methods, are based on the
so-called Lorentz force. This is the force F which acts on a charge e moving in a
magnetic field of induction B at a velocity v [28, 580]. The following law applies:
F- e' v x B.

Transmitting by Means of a Superimposed Magnetic Field

A coil through which an alternating current flows (L) is placed on an electrically
conducting body (Fig. 8.6) in which an eddy current is induced of density g (deter-
mined bye' v) in the small unit volume d V. In this case the force
F-gXB