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Ê

 
Vegetables are important to our daily diet, as they are our major source of vitamins, minerals and
dietary fiber. The production of vegetables also contributes significantly to regional and national
economies through national and international trade. However, the cultivation of these crops for
optimum yield and quality is highly technical and needs improved technological support.
Management of vegetables requires further close monitoring especially for the management of
diseases which affect production and subsequent post-harvest losses significantly.
During the 20th century, plant pathology has witnessed a dramatic advance in management of
vegetable diseases through in-depth investigations of host-pathogen interactions, development of
molecular diagnostic tools, integration of new concepts, principles and approaches. The new
millennium promises excitement and hope for the future by new advances in eco-friendly
technologies in integrated disease management of vegetables.

Disease is the outcome of an interaction between the host, the disease agent, and their
environment. If the cause of infectious disease, the pathogen, is next to the host, nothing will
happen unless environmental factors are favorable for its infection and development within the
plant. With foliar pathogens, there is usually a minimal period of leaf wetness required to
stimulate spore germination and infection. For some soilborne pathogens, infection occurs in co
mbination with high soil moisture and certain critical soil temperatures. Knowledge of conducive
environmental factors for the more important vegetable diseases presents an opportunity for
more effective management: the disease can prevented by altering some of the environmental
factors, or, when such factors cannot be altered, steps can be taken to minimize the impact (e.g.
fungicides could be applied in advance of a period of sustained rain which would favor foliar
diseases).Not all diseases are caused by pathogenic organisms. Determining whether a disease is
caused by a pathogen, or has nonliving (abiotic) causes requires not only the examination of
individual plants, but also, noting the pattern of symptom occurrence in a field. Examination of
individual plants for unusual symptoms, such as leaf spots, wilts, stunting, fruit rots, misshapen
leaves, cankers and stem blight is very important. Roots should be examined for galls, root rot
and necrosis (dead areas). Fields should be observed to determine if the problem is widespread
and whether different plants species in and around the field are affected, which could indicate an
abiotic cause. Symptoms with a nutritional or physiological cause have a more widespread
occurrence within a field than infectious diseases. Initially, most disease causing pathogens will
be isolated in areas and spread outward from those areas. Also, weeds or nonrelated crops are not
typically affected. Soilborne pathogens are even more restricted within a field than foliar
pathogens. For a vegetable to become truly diseased, several conditions must be present: a
susceptible host plant, a pathogenic organism, a good method of distributing the organism, and
the proper environment for it to exist, enter the plant, and thrive. When these conditions are met,
infection occurs, and a disease agent becomes established. The choice of a proper management
tactic must be based on accurate knowledge of the pathogen causing the disease; its life cycle;
time of infection; the part of the plant involved; the method of agent distribution; past, present,
and future environmental conditions; and certain economic considerations. Effective
management techniques include: use of resistant varieties; use of noninfested soil or long
rotations; sterilization of soil with steam or chemicals; use of clean seed, either certified or
grown in disease-free areas; treatment of seed with heat or chemicals; control of insects and
weed hosts; monitoring of weather conditions; use of biological control agents; and proper
timing and application of fungicides or nematicides.
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î

 
 
Managing diseases is a very important component of production for melons, cucumbers,
squashes, pumpkins, and other cucurbit crops. The already extensive list of more than 200
cucurbit diseases has expanded recently to include cucurbit yellow vine disease, Acremonium
collapse, Rhizopycnis root rot, bacterial blight, cucumber root mat, Ñ
 
   

 Ñ
 
   , and Cucurbit leaf curl virus. Additionally, diseases
that have recently increased in importance include the vine declines, bacterial wilt, powdery
mildew on watermelon, Phytophthora blight, diseases caused by    species, and several
diseases caused by viruses, including 
 


 


  and several members of
the crinivirus genus. Management practices effective for various diseases include rotation, deep
plowing, fumigation, solarization, pathogen-free seed, treated seed, host plant resistance,
fungicides, sanitation, manipulating the greenhouse environment, improving soil drainage,
adjusting soil pH, drip irrigation, plastic mulch or other soil barrier, planting when soil is not too
cold, controlling weeds and insects, avoiding moving pathogens on equipment or hands, roguing
infected plants, minimizing injury during harvest, chlorine spray or hot water treatment after
harvest, culling symptomatic fruit before storage, and providing proper storage conditions
including refrigeration. Forecasting systems have been developed for diseases and insect vectors.
Managing some diseases with fungicides has been challenged by development of resistance,
which continues to be difficult to predict. Biocompatible materials such as bicarbonates, milk,
oil, silicon, phosphate salts, plant extracts, and biological control agents are being developed as
alternatives to conventional fungicides predominantly for powdery mildew. Some of these
induce systemic resistance..Effective management of vegetable diseases requires preventing
disease or, if this is not feasible, slowing the spread of disease once it occurs. Nine procedures
and the current estimated percentage of importance of each toward vegetable disease control,
have been recommended for many years: rotating crops (30%), spraying when necessary (20%),
treating the seed (15%), using clean seed (10%), planting resistant varieties (5%), controlling
weeds (5%), aerating the soil properly (5%), draining and fertilizing the soil (5%), and practicing
good sanitation (5%). It is unlikely that all diseases of a particular crop can be controlled by
simply following these procedures. Nevertheless, the extent of disease and the concomitant costs
of controlling them can be significantly reduced by following as many of these procedures as
possible. Growers should note that this estimate indicates that spraying is only responsible for 20
percent of disease control. Using the other disease control techniques, which contribute 80
percent of disease control cannot only greatly improve disease control, but also lessen the costs
of spray materials and result in better quality crops.

The first step in disease management should be accurate diagnosis. It is important to differentiate
between infectious diseases (e.g. those caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes that can
spread from plant to plant) and noninfectious diseases or disorders (e.g., damage caused by mites
and insects, physiological disorders, air pollutants, nutrient imbalances, and herbicide injury).
Growers who have a reasonably good understanding of plant diseases, their symptoms, and the
infectious and noninfectious disorders that can affect a particular crop, are more likely to make
the correct disease control decisions. Numerous fact sheets and bulletins with full-color
illustrations have been developed by Cornell faculty to assist growers in making accurate disease
diagnoses.

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’   


 
  




 

  
  
  



Soil Problem
Symptoms observed over a wide Low Fertility
area on several crops Insect Injury
Physiological Problem

Soil Problem
Low Fertility
Symptoms observed over a wide Insect Injury
area on a single crop Virus
Distribution in
Foliage Pathogen (advanced stage of
the Field
epidemic)

Soilborne Root Rot Fungi

Soilborne Wilt Organisms
Nematodes
Symptoms observed scattered over
Virus
a field on a single crop
Foliar Pathogens
Soil Problem
Insect Injury

Wet Soil
Low Fertility
General yellowing
Root Rot Pathogens
Nematodes

Foliage Spots Generally Round (Fungal

symptoms leafspot)
Necrotic spots on leaves
Spots Generally Angular (Bacterial
leafspot)

White powdery substance on leaf

Powdery Mildew
surface

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Light yellow spot on upper leaf

surface downy growth on lower Downy Mildew
surface

White in center of ruptured area (White

Ruptured areas on lower leaf Rust)
surface Reddish brown to orange in center of
ruptured area (Rust)

Appears in a random pattern in the

Light and dark green areas on a
field (Virus)
leaf
Appears in rows (Nutrient Deficiency)

Virus
Leaves distorted
Herbicide

Leaves with holes or chewed areas Insect Injury

Root decayed (Root Rot)

Brown ring in vascular portion of root
(Fusarium Wilt)
Leaves yellow, wilt and die Roots cut or damaged by feeding
(Insects; Gophers or Moles)
Damage in low areas of field (Root
Rot; Poor Drainage)

Root Rot
Roots decayed
Poor Drainage

Roots with discoloration beneath

Fusarium Wilt
outer layer
Root Symptoms
Large swelling (Crown Gall
Bacterium)
Swellings on roots and stem Small swellings which appear in a
random patter on roots (Root Knot
Nematode)
Small swelling at root tips (Dagger

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Nematode)

Isolated areas (Nematodes; Fertilizer

Burn)
Root tips dead
Affected area is in a pattern or over the
general field (Fertilizer Burn)

Roots dead with white fungal

strands around the stem at the soil Southern Blight
line

Watery soft decay, foul odor (Bacterial

Fruit decay scattered over fruit
Soft Rot)
surface
Firm to watery soft rot (Fungal Decay)

Blossom end rot (Nutrient and Water

Hard black decay at blossom end
Problem)

Fruit Symptoms Virus

Fruit distorted
Insects

Faint rings visible on fruit Virus

Light colored blotchy appearance Insects

Dark raised areas on fruit Bacterial Leafspot

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’ 


 

 
  

 

   


 


Select disease-
Resistance to wilts caused by species of    and

 resistant/tolerant

   is common among vegetables.
vegetable varieties.
Never double-crop a field with crops of the same plant
G 
 Rotate crops.
family, i.e., tomato and pepper.
Rogue diseased Scout early and often to quickly identify and eliminate
plants. disease problems in the greenhouse and the field.
Do not leave or spread culled fruit in production fields.
Eliminate plant
Incorporate all remaining crop residues into soil to ensure
debris.
rapid decomposition.
Ñ

     is a parasite of 

 



  and will colonize and destroy the pathogen.
Employ biological
Many products contain species of 

 another
control agents.
mycoparasite that can eliminate or weaken other fungal
pathogens.
Many members of the Brassicaceae (mustard) family release
Plant cover crops. during decomposition isothiocyanates that are lethal to
many soilborne pathogens.
Success depends on elevating subsurface soil temperatures
Solarize soil.
over an extended period; often requires weeks.
Many products are based on strains of ÿ
 
 

 or 

 These microorganisms
Apply biological often produce antibiotics that thwart root pathogens, and



control agents. they compete for sugars and amino acids, which are
produced by roots and would otherwise benefit the
pathogen.
Use seed or transplants that have been tested for seedborne
Use disease-free plant
G  pathogens. Do not introduce unhealthy/diseased transplants
material.
into the field.
Select an appropriate Avoid planting in areas with drainage problems or with a
 
site. history of disease.
Select an appropriate Coordinate planting dates to avoid troublesome growing
planting date. periods.
Use composted Amending soils with composts or manures can improve soil
residues and manures. structure and fertility and promote crop health.
Manipulate crop The severity of many root/crown diseases can be lessened
’  
inputs. by reducing water and nutrient inputs.

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Cultural control is aimed at reducing the primary inoculum (sanitation) or reducing the rate of
disease increase by modifying the crop environment. A good example of the latter is the use of
drip irrigation rather than overhead to reduce free water on foliage. The total time that a crop is
exposed to a pathogen may be minimized by optimizing plant growth, thus reducing the time to
harvest. Biological control usually affects the rate of pathogen buildup. Finally, chemical control
can affect the amount of inoculum available at the beginning of the season (i.e. soil fumigation)
and/or reduce the rate of disease development by killing a portion of the pathogen involved in
later stages of the epidemics.

Figure .1 Disease triangle

 

  ’


Rotating fields to different crops each year cannot be overemphasized as one of the most
important and easily implemented disease control strategies. This practice avoids the buildup of
certain plant pathogens in the soil. The longer the rotation, the less likely that an early-season
disease outbreak will occur. Because pathogens usually attack members of the same plant family,
it is best to avoid planting successive crops belonging to the same family. Choices of unrelated
crops to be rotated include beans to sweet corn, leafy vegetables to cucurbits, cucurbits to
crucifers, and crucifers to sweet corn. Rotating beans with a grain crop such as barley, oats, rye,
wheat, or field corn or with a forage crop is very beneficial for root-rot control. One or two years
in a grain crop is often long enough to prevent severe root rot when the field is not heavily
infested.

Some soilborne diseases are not readily controlled by rotation. Such diseases are caused by
pathogens that produce structures that can withstand the effects of time and nonhost crops.
Examples include clubroot of crucifers, Phytophthora blight, and Fusarium wilt of several crops.
Other pathogens have such a wide host range that they can survive indefinitely because so many
crops and weed species serve as hosts. These pathogens include Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia,
Verticillium and rrot-knot nematodes. Other pathogens are not affected by rotation because they

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overwinter in southern states, and new inoculum is blown into the area every year. This group
includes sweet corn rust and downy mildew of cucurbits.

Many pathogens can overwinter successfully in association with plant debris and are unable to
survive once the crop residue decomposes. Destruction of current-season crops can eliminate
reservoirs for overlapping plantings. Fall tillage is important because it reduces the amount of
inoculum that survives the winter.

’ 

  




  




   


Asparagus Fusarium rot 8

Beans Root rots 3±4

Cabbage Clubroot 7

Cabbage Blackleg 3±4

Cabbage Black rot 2±3

Muskmelon Fusarium wilt 5

Parsnip Root canker 2

Peas Root rots 3±4

Peas Fusarium wilt 5

Pumpkin Black rot 2

Radish Clubroot 7

   


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Provide the crop with favorable drying conditions and soil drainage so that the plants are not
exposed to prolonged wet conditions, which favor both root and foliar diseases. Select sites that
are not lined by trees and have good internal soil drainage. Using raised beds, reducing plant
densities and foregoing sprinkler irrigation are considerations for minimizing diseases. Weeds
can increase diseases by interfering with drying conditions and byproviding an alternate host for
certain pathogens.
  
Plants that have good, but not excessive, vigor are the most resistant to disease. Plants weakened
by improper soil pH, inadequate fertilization, crowding, weed competition or planting when the
soil is too cool are more subject to pathogen invasion and disease development. Lush growth
caused by excessive fertilization can decrease drying conditions. Follow closely all production
recommendations for each crop.


 Ê

 
Often the most effective and successful control of a disease is to prevent it from occurring in the
first place.Many diseases are difficult to deal with after they appear, as they lack adequate
controls.Disease-free seed and transplants are a must. Do not save seed, as they have a greater
risk of harboring pathogens. External appearance of seed or transplants cannot be relied upon as
an indicator of the presence of the pathogen, as there are usually no symptoms. Buy certified
transplants, understanding that certification is no guarantee of freedom from disease. Buy seed
that is certified and, if possible, has been tested for bacterial 5 pathogens. Hot water and chlorine
bleach treatments of seed decrease the chance of pathogen infestation, but do not substitute for
the certification process. The western U.S. is a preferred source of seed because the arid climate
decreases the chance of disease transmission. However, western-grown seed is not always
available.Some disease-causing organisms can be introduced to a field on contaminated
equipment or containers.Cultivate non-infested vegetable fields before moving to fields infested
with particularly troublesome pathogens.Equipment or containers that have been used in infested
fields should be washed with a strong stream of water and disinfested with a bleach solution
before being used in other fields.Avoid using tobacco while working in tobacco mosaic-
susceptible crops, such as tomato and pepper. Tobacco mosaic virus is carried in tobacco
products and is easily transmitted on workers' hands. Workers should wash their hands
thoroughly in soap and water after handling tobacco and before they work with tobacco
mosaicsusceptible plants.



 
Destroy the overwintering habitat of the pathogen, such as crop debris left in the field. The most
practical way to do this is to disk it into the soil. Most pathogens are unable to survive once the
crop residue decomposes, and disking it in enhances the decomposition process. Eliminate cull
piles by burying before the next crop is planted.Removing diseased plant parts from the field is
not a common practice in vegetable production but may have a role in certain systems, such as
asparagus production. As a perennial crop, disking crop debris at the end of the growing season
is not an option. However, removing the debris and burning it reduces overwintering inoculum of
foliar diseases.Roguing, or removing entire plants from the field, may be used in certain
situations for reducing inoculum. It generally is only effective when done immediately upon the
first detection of a disease, with the goal of arresting an epidemic in its initial stage. Furthermore,
roguing can actually result in increased disease by scattering the pathogen during the removal
process (e.g., southern blight) or by causing insect vectors to scatter (e.g., tomato spotted wilt
virus)

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The use of disease-resistant varieties is among the most economical and reliable methods of
disease control. Although resistant varieties are not available for all diseases of vegtable crops,
this option should be used whenever possible. Resistant varieties exist for asparagus, bean,
cabbage, cucumber, muskmelon, pea, potato, spinach, sweet corn, and tomato diseases that are
important in the northeastern states. The list of disease-resistant varieties will surely increase in
the coming years. An advantage of using varieties that are resistant to soilborne disease can be
the long-term decline in the pathogen population in the soil when used in combination with
adequate crop rotations. Use of varieties resistant to foliar diseases can prevent expenditures and
potential environmental consequences of fungicide applications.

Table 4.Disease resistance in modern commercial varieties.

ÿ Some resistance to head rot and downy mildew

Cole  
 Some resistance to Fusarium yellows and black rot

ÿ 
 Some resistance to Fusarium yellows

 Most have resistance or tolerance to angular leaf spot, anthracnose,
downy and powdery mildew, virus, and scab


  Some tolerance to downy and powdery mildew; fruit is resistant to rots

Cucurbits

      Limited tolerance to several diseases

   Limited resistance including virus resistance


  Some resistance to anthracnose race 1, Fusarium wilt

Some resistance to tomato mosaic virus, cucumber mosaic virus, and Verticillium
Eggplant
wilt
Legumes Many bean varieties are tolerant to some virus
Leafy 

 Some resistance to downy mildew, virus, and corky root
Greens

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G Some resistance to basal rot

G  Limited disease resistance

ÿ
: Limited resistance to virus and downy mildew

 
: Many varieties with resistance to one or more of the following diseases:
Alternaria leaf blight, Alternaria, anthracnose, Cercospora, cavity spot, powdery

Minor mildew, and Pythium

Crops
: Some resistance to virus, late blight, bacteria, and Fusarium

 Most varieties express broad disease resistance

  Limited virus, bacteria, and clubroot resistance

Okra Limited resistance to yellow vein mosaic virus
  Many varieties tolerant to pink root, limited resistance to pink root and
Onion Fusarium wilt
Family
 Some resistance to rust, virus, and leaf spot
Many varieties tolerant to bacterial spot, potato virus Y, tobacco etch virus,
Pepper cucumber mosaic virus, pepper mottle virus, stip, tobacco mosaic virus, tobamovirus
Po
Many varieties tolerant or resistant to scab, Veticillium wilt, pinkeye, golden
nematode, virus X, early blight, late blight, wart, southern bacterial wilt, mild
Potato
mosaic, blackspot, silver scurf, and tuber net necrosis. Few varieties resistant to
tobacco rattle virus.
Spinach Some varieties tolerant or resistant to downy mildew and white rust
Sweet Many varieties resistant to smut, rust, northern corn leaf blight, common rust,
Corn Stewarts wilt, and maize dwarf mosaic virus
Sweet
Some resistance to southern root-knot nematode
Potato
Tomato Many varieties tolerant or resistant to Fusarium and Verticillium wilt, gray leaf spot,

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bacterial soft rot, tomato spotted wilt virus, root-knot nematode, Alternaria stem
canker, tomato yellow leaf curl virus, bacterial speck, and early blight

 
’  
 

A basic rule for controlling plant diseases is to begin each growing season with healthy seed and
transplants. A crop established with infected or infested plant material may contaminate an entire
field and remove it from production for many years. Introduction of diseased material as primary
inoculum into a field will greatly increase the chance of early-season epidemics, resulting in
reduced yields, poorer quality products, and added costs for chemical control. Although diseases
may occasionally be introduced via seed from commercial companies, seed companies are the
most reliable source of plant material. Saving vegetable seed from the previous year's crop is a
certain way of perpetuating a disease from season to season. So too is growing transplants for a
friend with seed from his or her "private stock." In recent years, many vegetable operations have
diversified, combining growth of bedding plants, maintenance of stock propagating material, and
production of local vegetable transplants, often within close proximity. The potential for spread
of vegetable and ornamental plant diseases has been documented with tomato spotted wilt virus
and its vector, the western flower thrips. Another example is powdery mildew (two different
species) spread to tomato and cucurbits from ornamental plant sources. Although local transplant
production allows a more flexible production schedule, proper hardening of plants, and a reduced
risk of introducing southern soilborne and foliar diseases, there may be offsetting disadvantages
such as the risk of spreading seedborne diseases and other diseases endemic to northern states or
harbored within the plastic houses.

Seed treatment is generally important to obtain and hold good stands, especially when soil
moisture and temperature conditions are unfavorable during the germination period. Many seed
suppliers treat seed before it is sold. If the seed has not been treated by the supplier, the grower
can treat it. Seed treatment is especially necessary for beans, beets, onion, carrot, sweet corn, and
peas; available materials are discussed under these crops. The use of healthy transplants and
seeds can help growers avoid many costly and environmentally damaging fungicide applications
later in the season. Often, once a disease gets started in a field as a result of poor quality
transplants or seeds, crop damage or yield loss will result no matter how many rescue treatments
are applied.


  


Other practices can be followed to make conditions less favorable for development and spread of
disease. These include planting after soils have warmed, selecting well-drained areas, using
raised beds, reducing plant densities, scheduling overhead irrigation when foliage will dry soon
afterwards, controlling weeds, and avoiding root pruning and stem injury by cultivating too deep
or too close to plant stems. For example, steps to minimize the severity of white mold for beans
would include planting rows in an east-west direction; using wide row spacing to promote drying
of soil and reduce moisture in the plant canopy; not planting in shaded areas and small plots.

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Scouting, or systematically monitoring fields for the presence of pests, is an important aspect of
any disease management program for vegetables. Recommended scouting procedures are
available for many disease pests and are specifically designed to detect diseases when they reach
economically damaging levels. See the references in each disease section to obtain manuals
describing disease scouting techniques. Most often, when scouting for diseases, one should make
sure to look for symptoms of the disease on a few plants in many areas of the field. Proper
diagnosis and recognition of symptoms is important for successful disease scouting.


î 

 
! 


During the last 15 to 20 years considerable research in plant pathology has been dedicated
toward developing mathematical models of plant disease development which can be used to
forecast disease outbreaks. Most often these forecasting systems are driven by environmental
factors such as temperature, leaf wetness, rainfall, and relative humidity. To most effectively use
the forecasting models, the weather conditions near the fields need to be monitored regularly,
and then the data need to be run through the computer models. In the past, data collection has
been a time consuming and expensive process. Recent innovations in weather data collection, the
use of personal computers, and the development of the Internet have allowed weather data
collection for disease forecasting models to become affordable. There are two types of data
available to farmers - data that is collected on electronic instruments placed in fields and
retrieved by phone lines and data which is extrapolated to local conditions using mathematical
equations from central collection sites. In order to make use of the first type of data, growers
must obtain software for their own computer or subscribe to a service which connects to their
weather instrument and interprets the data into disease predictions for them. In order to make use
of the second type of data, growers must subscribe to a service which owns the mathematical
models for extrapolation. In many cases, the use of the models will result in fungicide
application savings which pay for the data acquisition costs.

Among the forecasting programs available are potato and tomato early and late blight, onion
programs for Botrytis leaf blight, Alternaria and downy mildew; and white mold of snap beans.
In addition, weather monitoring information can be useful for analysis of crop growth and yields.

’  

Both disease scouting information and weather information require the use of disease thresholds
to be useful. Thresholds are levels of disease or disease conducive weather beyond which it is
recommended that growers take some action to avoid economic loss from crop disease. Many
common crop diseases occurring in New York have threshold information available for them.
This information is listed in the disease management tables under each crop.

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Chemicals can be classified based on the targeted pathogens: fungicides act against fungi,
bactericides against bacteria, and nematicides against nematodes. These categories are not
mutually exclusive, e.g. copper-based bactericides also have activity against fungi, and soil
fumigants such as metam sodium, which control nematodes, also control some soilborne fungi.
Disease control chemicals can be applied at different stages of the cropping cycle: preplant (e.g.
a broad spectrum soil fumigant); at planting, as a seed treatment or as an in-furrow application to
control damping off fungi or nematode; during the growing season to control fungal and bacterial
pathogens of foliage; or as a postharvest treatment to fruits. Most chemicals on the market act
directly on the pathogen, but there are newer materials that act indirectly, by inducing an
increased level of disease resistance in the plant. These resistance activators must be applied
before the onset of disease to be effective.

There are a limited number of nematicides available and their use on vegetables is more
restricted than fungicides or bactericides. Nemacur (fenamiphos), Vydate (oxamyl) and Mocap
(ethoprop) are applied at the time of planting, or shortly thereafter. Soil fumigants are applied
prior to planting, with a time interval to allow dissipation of the chemical prior to planting. These
fumigants include: Telone C-17 or Telone C-35 (1,3-dichloropropene + chloropicrin), Telone II
(1,3-diclhloropropene), Vapam (metam sodium), methyl bromide, and chloropicrin. Methyl
bromide will soon lose its registration, but another fumigant with similar properties, methyl
iodide, may eventually replace it.

Copper based chemicals (e.g. Kocide) are used as bactericides. These chemicals work to prevent
new infections; they do not cure established infections. Some isolates of the bacterium that
causes leaf spot of pepper and tomato are resistant to copper based chemicals and such resistance
could also develop for other bacterial pathogens. Although these chemicals also have activity
against fungi, there is no likelihood of a resistance problem with fungal pathogens.

!


Fungicides act as a chemical barrier to infection by plant pathogenic fungi. They must come into
direct contact with a germinating spore or growing mycelium to be effective in preventing
subsequent spore germination and infection. They may be used as seed or soil treatments or as
foliar sprays. Because these fungicides are not site specific and can control a diverse group of
pathogenic fungi, they are used widely for disease control. Additional terms used to describe
protectant fungicides are  ,


, and 

 . Because protectant fungicides
are not absorbed by the plant per se, they do not destroy or burn out existing infections. Once an
infection has occurred, a lesion will develop and may produce more spores despite the presence
of the protectant fungicide. To be effective, a protectant fungicide must be applied repeatedly

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during the season and in such a manner as to allow for maximum spray deposition and coverage.
Eradicant fungicides have been developed for the control of a limited number of fungi. They are
also called systemic fungicides because they are absorbed into the plant and are able to eradicate
existing infections. Their main advantage is that they can be applied after infection has occurred
and still be effective; because they move systemically within the plant, coverage is less critical;
and eradicant fungicides do not need to be applied as often as other fungicides. A major limiting
factor of eradicants is that their more specific mode of action may lead to the development of
new strains of some pathogens that are resistant to the fungicide. Improper use of these materials
can enhance the development of fungicide resistance, such as initiating sprays when disease is
well-established. Tank mixing with a protectant fungicide helps maintain the effectiveness of the
eradicant.

Fungicides can be applied to the seed to protect from organisms on the surface of the seed and
from damping off pathogens. Fungicides used for seed treatment include captan (Captan),
fludioxonil (Maxim), thiram (Thiram), mefenoxam (Apron), and metalaxyl (Allegiance).
Biological seed treatments are also commercially available, e.g. Kodiak and T-22 (These are
living organisms applied in the same manner as chemicals.) Seed treatment fungicides are
usually applied by the seed company and the fungicides used are indicated on the label.
Fungicides have been arranged by Group Names or Chemical Groups and assigned a Group
Code Number by the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC), especially to indicate
their ability to develop resistance to populations of fungi.

’ "’ 

 


 #
# 
 

 

Group 1 benzimidazoles (ex. thiabendazole, Mertect, and the previous product

benomyl, Benlate) and thiophanates (ex. thiophanate-methyl, Topsin M);

Group 2 dicarboximides (ex. iprodione, Rovral and the previously registered product
vinclozolin, Ronilan);

DeMethylation Inhibitors (DMIs) 

 (ex. triflumizole, Procure and
Group 3 
 (ex. myclobutanil, Rally; propiconazole, Quilt and Tilt; and the
previously registered product triadimefon, Bayleton);

Group 4 phenylamides, 
     (metalaxyl, Ridomil and mefenoxam, Ridomil

Gold or Ultra Flourish);

Group 7 carboxamides (ex. flutolanil, MonCoat and ‚ Moncut; boscalid, Endura)

Group 9 anilinopyrimidines (ex. cyprodinil, Vanguard and pyrimethanil, Scala);

Group 11 Quinone outside Inhibitors (QoI) (ex. azoxystrobin, Quadris; pyraclostrobin,

Headline and Cabrio; trifloxystrobin, Flint and Gem [not yet registered in

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NYS]);

Group 12 phenylpyrroles (ex. fludioxonil, Maxim);

Group 13 quinolines, (ex. Quintec, quinoxyfen);

Group 14 aromatic hydrocarbons (ex. dicloran, Botran; quintozene (PCNB), Blocker or

Terraclor);

Group 15 cinnamic acids (ex. dimethomorph, Acrobat or Forum);

Group 21 Quinone inside Inhibitors (Qil), cyanoimidazole (ex. cyazofamid, Ranman);

Group 22 benzamides (zoxamide, * Gavel);

Group 25 glucopyranosyl antibiotic (ex. Streptomycin) (ex. streptomycin sulfate, Agri-

mycin 17,and Agricultural streptomycin,and Firewall

Group 27 cyanoacetamideoximes (cymoxanil, Curzate);

Group 28 carbamates (ex. propamocarb, * Previcur Flex).

Do not apply fungicides in these groups exclusively in a disease control program. Fungicides in
these groups should be rotated with broad spectrum (multi-site Groups M1, M3, M5 given
below), or used in combination with another group of fungicides to delay the development of
resistant strains of fungi.


 
   

$ 
 
 

Group 29 2,6-dinitroanilines (ex. fluazinam, Omega)

organo tin compounds, tri phenyl tin compounds (ex. fentin

Group 30
hydroxide, Super Tin)

phosphonates, ethyl phosphonates (ex. fosetyl-Al, Aliette), and

Group 33
phosphorous (ex. phosphorous acid, ProPhyt and Phostrol);

Group M (multi-site activity):

Group M1 inorganics (ex. coppers, Kocide, Champion, etc.; and sulfur,

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Microthiol Disperss);

Group M2 
 
 (ex. sulfur, Microthiol Disperss or OLF);



 (ex. mancozeb, Dithane, Manzate, Penncozeb;
maneb, Maneb 75DF, Manex; metiram, Polyram; thiram, Thiram
Group M3
50WP; ziram, Ziram 76DF; Group 4   captan (seed
treatment only);

Group 4  captan (seed treatment only);

Group M5


 (ex. chlorothalonil, Bravo, Echo, Equus);

(host plant defense induction)  


 (ex. acibenzolar-S-
Group 21
methyl, Actigard)

Group P2 harpin protein (ex. Messenger)

Biologicals (ex. fungal and bacterial species, Contans, Serenade,

Group B
Sonata, and T-22).

Not
(ex. mineral oils, organic oils, and potassium bicarbonate)
Classified

The need for a fungicide spray depends on several factors, including plant stress (caused by fruit
maturity or lack of good fertility); weather conditions conducive to fungal spore germination and
infection (moisture and temperature); stage of crop development; levels of host resistance; and
levels of pathogen inoculum.


  !

These chemicals reduce populations of nematodes and soilborne
fungi. Fumigants are usually applied before the crop is planted, whereas most of the non-
fumigant nematicides are applied shortly before or during planting. They are most effective when
used in ation with cultural control strategies such as crop rotations and resistant varieties.
However, the cost-benefit of using such fumigant nematicides varies greatly from crop to crop
and their application may be restricted to only custom-applicators.

A number of factors have a pronounced effect on the success or failure of soil fumigation. Six
are given below.

  
  
 

 : Soil should be plowed deeply (ten inches or more) in
order to incorporate previous crop debris as thoroughly as possible and to prevent the turn ng up
of nonfumigated soil during fitting in the spring. This should be followed by disking or any other

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means of fitting which will leave the soil in seedbed condition. Clods and poorly incorporated
debris will provide "chimneys" through which fumigant can escape prematurely from the soil.

 
 The soil should be neither too wet nor too dry. A good rule of thumb is that
moisture content is most favorable when soil will just "ball" in one's hand when pressure is
applied. If soil is excessively dry and irrigation is available, moisture supplementation before
fumigation is recommended.


 
: The optimal temperature for most fumigants is 50° to 70°F. At warmer
temperatures, fumigants dissipate thoroughly and rapidly, nematode larvae (which are easier to
kill than eggs) have emerged, and all nematode stages can be more effectively controlled.

   Undecomposed residues from previous crops prevent distribution of fumigant

through the soil, irreversibly absorb fumigant, interfere with application equipment, prevent
proper sealing of the soil surface, and protect nematodes and nematode eggs from fumigant
action. Rake, burn, or deeply incorporate debris prior to fumigation.

 
      It is essential that fumigated soil be thoroughly sealed as soon after
application as possible. This can be achieved by means of equipment such as a cultipacker, chain
harrow or float, or by means of spray irrigation or plastic sheets.

Ê
  
  

   

:Under average conditions, with a soil temperature
of 50°F, a minimum of three weeks is regarded as necessary between fumigation and planting
to prevent phytotoxicity to potatoes. See fumigant labels for specific recommendations.

î

 
!


Most systemic fungicides have a narrow mode of action. Mutants of fungal pathogens resistant to
these fungicides can occur naturally. Because foliar fungal pathogens can have many
reproductive cycles in one-growing season, mutants resistant to a systemic fungicide can quickly
become the dominant component of the pathogen population. The outcome is a failure of the
fungicide. The fungus causing late blight on potatoes and tomatoes has developed resistance to
metalaxyl (Ridomil), which used to be the most effective fungicide for this disease. There is
widespread resistance of benomyl (Benlate) in populations of the gummy stem blight fungus and
powdery mildew fungi. In addition to these pathogens, the fungi that cause anthracnose and
downy mildew are candidates for the development of resistance to systemic fungicides that are
currently on the market.

With some systemic fungicides, resistance development is prevented because formulations are
always sold mixed with a protectant fungicide. The presence of a protectant fungicide prevents
any mutant resistant to the systemic fungicide from developing further. For example,
formulations of Ridomil Gold labeled for foliar diseases of vegetables are mixed with either
chlorothalonil or mancozeb.

However, other formulations of systemic fungicides are not sold mixed with protectant
fungicides. Thus, it is imperative that the grower is aware of potential resistance problems and

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take steps to prevent this. First, systemic fungicides should not be used to treat a disease after
symptoms are seen, but should be used prior to onset of symptoms. From past history in an area,
the grower will know which foliar diseases are a constant problem and the approximate time that
they appear. Fungicide applications should be made prior to this time. For some diseases, there
are predictive formulas that can be used as a tool to decide when to initiate fungicide
applications. For late blight of potatoes, there are predictive models such as Blitecast and
Wisdom, which use weather information to forecast when conditions are favorable for pathogen
development. Additionally, fungicides should be used at recommended rates and intervals, as
indicated on the label. The whole field should be treated.The systemic fungicide should be used
in alternation with protectant fungicides, or other systemic fungicides belonging to different
chemical groups. Thus, the systemic fungicide is applied and, at the next application, a protectant
fungicide is applied, or, a different systemic fungicide. One systemic chemical should not
constitute more than 30 to 50% of the total applications to a crop in one season. Pathogens that
are resistant to one systemic fungicide tend to be resistant to related fungicides. This is known as
cross-resistance. Isolates of the gummy stem blight fungus that were resistant to benomyl were
also resistant to thiabendazole and thiophanate-methyl; these fungicides are all in the
benzimidazole group and have a similar mode of action. Cross-resistance could be a problem
with strobilurin (Quadris, Flint) and triazole (Tilt, Nova) fungicide groups. Thus, in a powdery
mildew control program, both Quadris and Flint can be used, but they should be alternated with
Nova, which belongs to a different fungicide group, and the combined number of applications of
Quadris and Flint should constitute more than 30 to 50% of the total number of applications.

’



Seed treatment accomplishes plant disease control by reducing seedling disease as well as
mature-plant diseases caused by seed-borne pathogens. Most seedling diseases are caused by
pathogens found in the soil,whereas those pathogens found on or in the seeds tend to cause
mature-plant diseases. Seed disinfestation andseed protection are types of seed treatments used to
reduce diseases.


 

 
Seeds can be disinfested, i.e., cleaned of most pathogens carried on the seeds, by treatment with
hot water,chlorine bleach or trisodium phosphate. Hot water also kills some of the bacteria
carried inside the seed. None of these treatments provides residual protection against organisms
encountered in the soil after planting. Treatment of seeds with fungicides is required for such
protection.Most seed companies offer seed treatment options, and it is recommended that you
utilize such services, rather than attempt to treat the seeds yourself. Unless the procedures are
adhered to closely, much damage can be done during the seed treatment process. For example, an
entire lot of seeds can be contaminated with bacterial pathogens that spread in water that is not
hot enough; seed germination can be reduced by water that is just slightly too hot. Furthermore,
many fungicide seed treatments can only be applied by a commercial seed treater and are not
available for purchase by the grower. Pelletized seed must be treated prior to the coating process.






Pre-warm seed in a cheesecloth bag for 10 minutes in 100 degree F water. Place prewarmed
seed in a water bath that will constantly hold the water at the recommended temperature.

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Length of treatment and temperature of water must be exact. Agitation of the water during the
treatment cycle will help maintain a uniform temperature in the water bath. After treatment, dip
the bag in cool water to stop the heating action. Spread seed out on paper towel to dry. A seed
treatment fungicide can then be applied to protect against pathogens in the soil.
Ñ 
Hot water treatment can reduce germination to some degree. The viability of older seed
(more than 1year old) may be drastically reduced. A small sample of seed should be treated and
tested for germination before the entire lot is treated. Vegetable seeds other than those listed in
Table 1 should 
 be hot-water treated.These seeds may be severely harmed by hot water
treatment and other methods should be used. Included are beans, sweet corn, onions and,
especially, cucurbits other than cucumber.
ÿ  



Pathogens can be removed from the surface of seeds with bleach treatments. This method is
particularly useful for control of bacterial diseases such as bacterial spot of tomato or pepper.
Mix 1 quart of bleach (sodium hypochlorite) with 4 quarts of water and a few drops of dish
detergent to decrease surface tension. Soak seed for 1 minute, remove and rinse seed thoroughly
in running tap water for 5 minutes; spread seeds on paper towels to dry. North Carolina State
University reports that tomato seeds can be soaked in this bleach solution for 40 minutes without
serious harm to the seeds. Treat a small sample size and test for seed germination before the
entire lot is treated. After drying, a seed treatment fungicide may be applied.Tobacco mosaic
virus on pepper and tomato seeds can be reduced with a
 



.Soak
seeds for 15 minutes in a 10 percent solution, rinse and dry before treating with household
bleach.


 
The purpose of seed protection is to reduce the plant stand loss effect of seed rots and damping-
off, caused by soil-borne fungi. Most vegetable seed is pretreated by the seed company, using
treatments aimed at the common fungi. Captan and thiram are the most common treatments used.
If you have unusual seedling disease problems, refer to Table 2 for appropriate treatments and
request them when you place your seed order with the company. Certain products can be applied
on the farm; follow label directions in treating your own seeds.
’ % 


  



Ê

 

 
  

Allegiance-FL,Allegiance Pythium, suppression of Most vegetables
Dry metalaxyl Phytophthora 
Apron Maxx mefenoxam and Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Legume vegetables
fludioxonil Fusarium, suppression of 
 Phytophthora

Apron XL LS mefenoxam Pythium, suppression of Most vegetables
Phytophthora 
Captan 400-C, Rhizoctonia, suppression of
others Pythium, Fusarium and Most vegetables
captan miscellaneous other fungi
Catapult XL chloroneb and Rhizoctonia, Pythium Legume vegetables
Mefenoxam 
Dividend Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Brassica, bulb, cucurbit and

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Extreme difenaconazole, Pythium legume

mefenoxam vegetables

Folicur/Tebuzol/Orius Fusarium Sweet corn

tebuconazole
Coronet pyraclostrobin, Rhizoctonia, Penicillium, Most vegetables
boscalid Fusarium
FarMore D300 azoxystrobin, Rhizoctonia, suppression of
mefenoxam, and Pythium, Fusarium and
fludioxonil miscellaneous fungi
 




 
 


Soil pH, calcium level, nitrogen form, and the availability of nutrients can all play major roles in
disease management. Adequate crop nutrition makes plants more tolerant of or resistant to
disease. Also, the nutrient status of the soil and the use of particular fertilizers and amendments
can have significant impacts on the pathogen's environment.

One of the most widely recognized associations between fertility management and a crop disease
is the effect of soil pH on potato scab. Potato scab is more severe in soils with pH levels above
5.2. Below 5.2 the disease is generally suppressed. Sulfur and ammonium sources of nitrogen
acidify the soil, also reducing the incidence and severity of potato scab. Liming, on the other
hand, increases disease severity. While lowering the pH is an effective strategy for potato scab,
increasing soil pH or calcium levels may be beneficial for disease management in many other
crops.

Adequate levels of calcium can reduce clubroot in crucifer crops (broccoli, cabbage, turnips,
etc.). The disease is inhibited in neutral to slightly alkaline soils (pH 6.7 to 7.2) . A direct
correlation between adequate calcium levels, and/or higher pH, and decreasing levels of
Fusarium occurrence has been established for a number of crops, including tomatoes, cotton,
melons, and several ornamentals. Calcium has also been used to control soil-borne diseases
caused by Pythium, such as damping off. Crops where this has proved effective include wheat,
peanuts, peas, soybeans, peppers, sugarbeets, beans, tomatoes, onions, and snapdragons .
Researchers in Hawaii reported reduction of damping off in cucumber after amending the soil
with calcium and adding alfalfa meal to increase the microbial populations.Nitrate forms of
nitrogen fertilizer may suppress Fusarium wilt of tomato, while the ammonia form increases
disease severity. The nitrate form tends to make the root zone less acidic. Basically, the
beneficial effects of high pH are lost by using acidifying ammonium nitrogen. Tomato studies
have shown that use of nitrate nitrogen in soil with an already high pH results in even better wilt
control. Celery studies showed reduced Fusarium disease levels from using calcium nitrate as
compared to ammonium nitrate. The nitrate nitrogen form also produced the lowest levels of
Fusarium on chrysanthemums, king aster, and carnation.

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It has long been known that the form of nitrogen fertilizer can influence plant disease incidence.
Research is beginning to reveal why. Dr. Joe Heckman of Rutgers University showed that when
grass roots absorbed nitrate nitrogen, an alkaline root zone condition was created. When the
grass absorbed ammonium nitrogen, an acid root zone was created. The pathogen responsible for
summer patch disease in turf thrives in alkaline soils. This finding supported the use of
ammonium sulfate for grass. Research trials using ammonium sulfate reduced summer patch
severity up to 75%, compared to using an equal rate of calcium nitrate. A more acid soil also
fosters better uptake of manganese. Adequate manganese stimulated disease resistance in some
plants. Research at Purdue University showed that uptake of ammonium nitrogen improved plant
uptake of manganese and decreased take-all disease ([ 

   var. 
).
Similar results were seen with Verticillium wilt in potatoes and stalk rot in corn.

Potassium fertility is also associated with disease management. Inadequate potash levels can lead
to susceptibility to Verticillium wilt in cotton. Mississippi researchers found that cotton soils
with 200 to 300 pounds of potassium per acre grew plants with 22 to 62% leaf infections. Soil
test levels above 300 pounds per acre had from zero to 30% infection rate. High potassium levels
also retard Fusarium in tomatoes. Severity of wilt in cotton was decreased by boosting potassium
rates as well.

Phosphate can also be critical. Increasing phosphorus rates above the level needed to grow the
crop can increase the severity of Fusarium wilt in cotton and muskmelon. In general, the
combination of lime, nitrate nitrogen, and low phosphorus is effective in reducing the severity of
Fusarium.

 
 
   

Compost has been used effectively in the nursery industry, in high-value crops, and in potting
soil mixtures for control of root rot diseases.

Adding compost to soil may be viewed as one of a spectrum of techniques²including cover

cropping, crop rotations, mulching, and manuring²that add organic matter to the soil. The major
difference between compost-amended soil and the other techniques is that organic matter in
compost is already "digested." Other techniques require the digestion to take place in the soil,
which allows for both anaerobic and aerobic decomposition of organic matter. Properly
composted organic matter is digested chiefly through aerobic processes. These differences have
important implications for soil and nutrient management, as well as plant health and pest
management. Chemicals left after anaerobic decomposition largely reduce compost quality.
Residual sulfides are a classic example.

Successful disease suppression by compost has been less frequent in soils than in potting mixes.
This is probably why there has been much more research (and commercialization) concerning
compost-amended potting mixes and growing media for greenhouse plant production than
research on compost-amended soils for field crop production. Below is a table that outlines some
of the (mostly) field research done on compost-amended soils and the effects on plant disease.

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’ & 
’

 

 î




 

 

  ’



Alfalfa "Clover tiredness" Four years of treating Stand thickness and yield
fields with high- doubled, weeds crowded out.
quality compost (no
rate given).
Barley/Wheat  Compost added to Disease incidence suppressed
 !Powdery soil. 95% when 1:1 soil:compost
mildew mixes used .
Beans (CA Rhizoctonia sp. Compost added to soil Disease reduced 80% in areas
blackeye No. 5) at varying rates (36- with highest compost rates,
72 tons/acre). 40% where intermediate rates
applied. Control plots yielded
75 bushels/acre, compost plots
yielded 200 bu/acre.
Cucumber Sphaerotheca sp. / Young cucumber 1:1 soil:compost mix decreased
Powdery mildew plants grown in PM by 20% over control; 1:3
soil/compost mix of mix decreased infection by
variable rates. 40%.
Pea (  Pythium sp. / Seed treatment; seeds Peas seed-treated with compost
 ) Damping off soaked in dilute extract germinated significantly
compost extract, dried better than untreated seed in soil
before sowing. artificially inoculated with
   .
Peppers Phytophthora sp. 40 tons of compost Compost in combination of
per acre. chilling plant rows is best
practice to reduce Phytophthora
Soybeans Phytophthora sp. 40 tons of compost Control achieved
per acre.

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ÿ
 


There are a number of commercial products containing beneficial, disease-suppressive
organisms. These products are applied in various ways²including seed treatments, compost
inoculants, soil inoculants, and soil drenches. Among the beneficial organisms available are


,  

 , 

, [ 

  , ÿ
  ,  


, and others

 [ 

  are effective at parasitizing other fungi, but they
stay alive only as long as they have other fungi to parasitize. So, these fungi do a good job on the
pathogenic fungi that are present when you inoculate them, but then they run out of food and go
to sleep. In soils with low fungal biomass (soils with low organic matter and plenty of tillage)
these two beneficials have nothing to feed on. Compost is a great source of both the organisms
and the food they need to do their jobs. A great diversity of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and
beneficial nematodes exists in good compost. The use of biological controls for disease
management is on the rise for organic growers.
Biological materials can be safer than some synthetic chemicals for workers and the
environment. Because biologicals are more stable in the soil environment than on foliage, they
are primarily used to manage soilborne organisms. Biologicals are less active on foliar pathogens
because the disease-management benefits biologicals offer are less effective in the micro-
environment of leaf and stem surfaces.Biological agents have been successful in controlling
disease by inducing plant resistance, producing antibiotics, and out-competing pathogens.
ÿ



The following is a partial list of soil inoculum and biocontrol products available for control of
soil-borne diseases on a variety of plants.

Èc   '
Growth Products
PO Box 1259
Westmoreland Avenue
White Plains, NY 10602
800-648-7626
Liquid drench containing ÿ
   [ÿ
for horticultural crops at seeding or
transplanting or as a spray for turf (EPA experimental use permit, see label). Target
pathogen/disease is Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Fusarium and Phytophthora.

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Èc ¦  ¦ ÿ¦ !

Gustafson, Inc.
1400 Preston Road
Plano

Dry powder formulation of ÿ
    for control of "



 ,   ,
#  , and #  attacking roots of cotton and legumes. Can be added to
a slurry or mixed with a chemical fungicide for commercial seed treatment.

Èc  
New BioProducts, Inc.
4272 N.W. Pintail Place
Corvallis

#

 

 $%& for control of crow gall disease caused by
#

  
  in fruit, nut, and ornamental nursery stock. Used as a dip or spray for
root, stems, or cuttings.

Èc î
 'î
 î

Ag-Bio Development, Inc.
9915 Raleigh St.
Westminster.

Streptomycetes soil drench for suppression of Fusarium, Alternaria, and Phomopsis. Mycostop
mix used for seed treatment.

Èc 
 '
Bioworks, Inc.
122 North Genesse Street
Geneva



   for suppression of  , "



 , and   
Applied as granules or wettable powder mixed with soil or potting medium or as a soil
drench. Crops include trees, shrubs, transplants, all ornamentals, cabbage, tomatoes, and
cucumbers.

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Èc  '
Certis-USA, LLC
9145 Guilford Road, Suite 175
Columbia

[ 

  ['(for damping-off and root rot pathogens especially "




  and  . of ornamental and food crop plants grown in greenhouses, nurseries,
homes, and interior-scapes. Sold as granules. 

Èc 
'
Helena Chemical Company
225 Schilling Blvd.
Collierville

ÿ
   [ÿ
plus chemical pesticides. Used as a dust seed treatment for   ,
"



 , and   in the planter box for seedling pathogens of barley, beans,
cotton, peanuts, peas, rice, and soybeans.

Èc ’


Bioworks, Inc.
122 North Genesee Street
Geneva



  " $"#[' for control of  , "



 ,
  , and 

 


 in bean, cabbage, corn, cotton, cucumber, peanut,
potato, sorghum, soybean, sugarbeet, tomato, turf, and greenhouse ornamentals. Applied as in-
furrow granules, broadcast to turf, mixed with greenhouse soil, or mixing powder with seeds in
the planter box or in commercial seed treatment.

’ ( 
    

 



 
  


Apply preplant soil fungicide

Southern Blight
Deep burial of crop residue
Beans, Snap
Planting at soil temperature > 60°F
Damping Off Plant on raised beds
Plant treated seed

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Apply preplant soil fungicide

Virus-free seed
Bean Mosaic (virus)
Resistant cultivars

Pathogen-free seed
Bacterial Blight Apply copper fungicides
Two year crop rotation

Cercospora and other Apply fungicides as needed

Fungal Leafspots Two year crop rotation

Apply fungicides as needed

White Mold Wide row spacing and orientation to favor
drying of the canopy

Apply fungicides as needed

Rust Crop rotation
Resistant cultivars

Plant hot water treated seed

Plant resistant varieties
Black Rot
Plant on raised bed to avoid flooding
Two year crop rotation
Cabbage, Cauliflower,
Broccoli, Kale
Plant resistant varieties
Downy Mildew
Apply fungicides as needed

Alternaria Leafspot Apply fungicides as needed

Crop rotation (5+ years)

Fusarium Wilt
Resistant cultivars

Resistant cultivars
Cucurbits: Watermelon, Powdery Mildew Apply fungicides as needed
Pumpkin, Cantaloupe,
Squash, Cucumber,
Resistant cultivars
Cushaw Downy Mildew
Apply fungicides on a preventative basis

Anthracnose
Resistant cultivars
(watermelon,
Crop rotation
cucumber,

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cantaloupe) Apply fungicides on a preventative basis

Alternaria Leafspot, Apply fungicides as needed

Cercospora Leafspot Two year crop rotation

Pathogen-free seed
Angular Leafspot Apply copper fungicides
Avoid overhead irrigation

Bacterial Wilt Control beetle vector

(cucumber) Resistant cultivars

Pathogen-free seed
Fruit Blotch Copper fungicides
(watermelon) Two year crop rotation
Avoid overhead irrigation

Two year crop rotation

Gummy Stem Blight
Apply fungicides on a preventative basis

Frequent sprays of blossoms with copper

Choanephora Wet
fungicides
Rot
Keep fruit cool and dry after harvest

Virus Diseases Resistant cultivars

Minimize injury during harvesting,

grading and packing.
If carrots are washed after harvesting,
Bacterial Soft Rot
they can be dipped in a 1:500 solution of
sodium hypochlorite (5.25%)
Store at a temperature just above 32°F.

Carrot Crown Rot Crop rotation (4 to 5 years)

Cercospora or
Alternaria Leaf Apply fungicides as needed
Blight

Control leafhoppers
Aster Yellows
Control weeds in and around fields

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Northern Corn Leaf Burial of crop residue

Blight Apply fungicides as needed

Resistant cultivars
Rusts (Common,
Crop rotation
Southern)
Burial of crop residue

Metalaxyl/mefenoxam seed treatment

Do not plant on land subject to flooding
Corn, Sweet & Pop
Downy Mildew Do not plant sweet corn following
sorghum
Two year crop rotation

Common Smut Resistant cultivars

Resistant or tolerant cultivars

Maize Dwarf Mosaic
Eradication of johnsongrass in and around
Virus
the field

Deep burial of crop residue

Southern Blight Crop rotation (do not follow beans,
tomatoes, southern peas, okra or peanuts)

Verticillium Wilt Soak seed for 20 minutes in 120°F water

Eggplant

Resistant cultivars
Pathogen-free seed
Phomopsis Blight
Three year crop rotation
Apply fungicides as needed

Plant in well-drained soil

Bacterial Soft Rots
Use furrow or drip irrigation

Resistant cultivars
Downy Mildew Three year crop rotation
Apply fungicides as needed
Lettuce

Do not plant lettuce following tomatoes,

Irish potatoes, or beans
Bottom Rot Plant on wide, raised beds
Deep burial of crop residue
Apply fungicides as needed

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Follow long rotations

Plant on well-drained soil
Sclerotinia Drop Use furrow or drip irrigation; Resistant
cultivars
Apply fungicides as needed

Control weeds in and around the field

Lettuce Mosaic Plant only Mosaic Indexed seed (MTO)
Resistant cultivars

Apply fungicides as needed

White Rust &
Crop rotation
Downy Mildew
Burial of crop residue
Mustard, Turnip, Radish
Anthracnose & Two year crop rotation
Cercospora Leafspot Apply fungicides as needed

Pink Root Resistant cultivars

Crop rotation
Onion, Garlic, Shallot Purple Blotch
Apply fungicides as needed

Botrytis Leaf Blight Apply fungicides as needed

Fusarium and
Crop rotation
Pythium Root Rot
Pea (English, Sugar Snap,
Edible Pod)
Apply fungicides as needed
Powdery Mildew
Resistant cultivars

Plant on well-drained soil

Phytophthora Blight Plant on raised beds
Apply fungicides as needed

One year crop rotation

Cercospora Leafspot
Pepper (Bell and Hot) Apply fungicides as needed

Powdery Mildew Apply fungicides as needed

Control weeds in and around field

Viruses (several)
Resistant cultivars

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Resistant cultivars
Bacterial Spot
Apply copper bactericides

Avoid excessive irrigation

Black Leg
Avoid washing seed potatoes

Maintain high soil moisture before and

Common Scab
after tuber set
Potato
Early Blight Apply fungicides as needed

Late Blight Preventative applications of fungicides

Viruses Plant virus-free seed

Fusarium Wilt Long crop rotation

Three year crop rotation

Apply fungicides as needed
White Rust
Burial of crop residue
Resistant cultivars

Crop rotation
Soil treatment with metalaxyl or
Spinach, Swiss Chard Downy Mildew
mefenoxam Resistant cultivars
Burial of crop residue

Apply fungicides as needed

Fungal Leafspots Crop rotation
Burial of crop residue

Resistant cultivars
Viruses (several)
Control weeds in and around the field

Do not use manure where sweet potatoes

are to be planted
Scurf
Plant slips from disease free roots
Sweetpotato Crop rotation

Deep burial of crop residue

Southern Blight
Crop rotation

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Plant clean slips clipped 1 inch above the

Black Rot soil line
Crop rotation

Fusarium Wilt Resistant cultivars

Crop rotation
Southern Blight Deep burial of crop residue
Apply soil fungicide as preplant treatment

Early Blight Apply fungicides as needed

Septoria Leaf Spot Crop rotation

Resistant cultivars
Do not plant tomatoes following cabbage,
Anthracnose
lettuce, mustard and solanaceous weeds
Apply fungicides as needed

Stemphylium Leaf
Apply fungicides as needed
Spot
Tomato
Apply fungicides as needed
Use plastic mulch to prevent fruit from
Late Blight coming in contact with the soil
Avoid heavy irrigations just prior to and
during harvest

Three year crop rotation

Plant on raised beds
Buckeye Rot
Avoid heavy applications of water just
prior to and during harvest

Control thrips
Tomato Spotted Wilt Rogue diseased plants
Do not plant tomatoes near Irish potatoes

Resistant cultivars
Other Viruses
Control weeds in and around field


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Pepper,
Variable depending on tobacco, Sanitation,
strain. Leaves light green petunia, disease-free
Tobacco Dried
or yellow mottling, horsenettle, plants, milk,
mosaic* tobacco
rough edges turn down. Contact, jimsonweed, bleach, detergent,
(TMV, products,
Plant Dwarfed. Fruit hands, tools, Jerusalem steam, head, soil
tobacco and tools, seed,
small, poor set, brown etc. cherry, fumigation.
tomato perennial
streaks. Shoestring of nightshade, Avoid tobacco
strains) weeds
leaves may occur on ground cerry, products and
young plants. plantain, plants.
others

Weeds,
flowers,
vegetables,
Similar to TMV, upper milkweed,
leaf may be very narrow ground
and twisted giving them cherry,
Do no plant
a shoestring appearance horsenettle,
Cucumber closer than 100 ft.
that may be confused pokeweed, Weeds,
mosaic* Aphids from weeds or
with 2, 4-D type injury. jimsonweed, flowers
(CMV) flowers. Control
Later excessive number marigold,
aphids.
of lateral leaflets are petunia,
produced. Plants may be zinnia,
dwarfed or stunted. cucumber,
melons,
celery,
pepper, others

Double Usually affects large Same as for Same as for Same as for
Same as for
streak plants, dwarfed, spindly TMV and TMV and TMV. Avoid
TMV and
TMV + appearance, rolling and aphids if CMV Irish potato or potato

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PVX withering of leaves. Long CMV CMV potato plantings near the
(Potato brown streaks on petioles involved. planting. Control
virus X or and stems. Irregular aphids.
CMV) ripening of fruit, light Temperatures
brown sunken spots on above 100 F for a
green fruit. few days will
attenuate PVX
and CMV.

Dark brown dead areas

between veins in leaflets
near maturity, yellowing Do not plant
Potato and
along veins, faint close to potato,
pepper.
mottling on leaves; Solanaceous tobacco or pepper
Usually does
Potato virus petioles curved and fields. Do not
Aphids not
Y* (PVY) downward; stems with leguminous obtain plants
overwinter in
purple streaking; plants from south
North
symptoms usually Florida. Control
Carolina.
become mild, but severe aphids.
symptoms develop if
TMV is present.

Terminal leaflets cupped,

Weeds,
Tobacco petioles bent downward.
Many similar horsenettle,
etch* Stunting, similar to PVY Aphids Same as for PVY.
to PVY ground
(TEV) except not as severe and
cherry
no stem or fruit mottling.

Very
extensive;
Ringspot or zigzag lines Dagger Do not plant
Tobacco annuals,
on foliage, occasionally nematode, closer than 100 ft.
and tomato weeds, Weeds,
on stems, petioles, and thrips, mites, from weeds or
ringspot vegetables, petunia seed.
fruit. On fruit, rings are grasshopper, flowers. control
(TRSV) ornamentals,
often concentric. flea beetles all insects.
tobacco,
soybeans

Orange or bronze colored Very Do not plant

flecks on middle or lower extensive on closer than 100 ft.
Spotted
leaves and calyx or stems Thrips annuals, bulb Thrips, bulbs from weeds or
wilt (SWV)
and petioles. Stunting, crops, and flowers. Control
black depressed spots. weeds. thrips.

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Worldwide postharvest fruit and vegetables losses are as high as 30 to 40% and even much
higher in some developing countries. Reducing postharvest losses is very important; ensuring
that sufficient food, both in quantity and in quality is available to every inhabitant in our planet.
The prospects are also that the world population will grown from 5.7 billion inhabitants in 1995
to 8.3 billion in 2025. World production of vegetables amounted to 486 million ton, while that of
fruits reached 392 million ton. Reduction of post-harvest losses reduces cost of production, trade
and distribution, lowers the price for the consumer and increases the farmers income.

Proper postharvest processing and handling is an important part of modern agricultural

production. Postharvest processes include the integrated functions of harvesting, cleaning,
grading, cooling, storing, packaging, transporting and marketing. The technology of postharvest
handling bridges the gap between the producer and the consumer - a gap often of time and
distance. Postharvest handling involves the practical application of engineering principles and
knowledge of fruit and vegetable physiology to solve problems.

Utilizing improved postharvest practices often results in reduced food losses, improved overall
quality and food safety, and higher profits for growers and marketers. It is estimated that 9 to 16
percent of the product is lost due to postharvest problems during shipment and handling.
Mechanical injury is a major cause of losses. Many of these injuries cannot be seen at the time
that the product is packed and shipped, such as internal bruising in tomatoes. Other sources of
loss include over-ripening, senescence, the growth of pathogens and the development of latent
mechanical injuries.

Many factors contribute to postharvest losses in fresh fruits and vegetables. These include
environmental conditions such as heat or drouth, mechanical damage during harvesting and
handling, improper postharvest sanitation, and poor cooling and environmental control. Efforts to
control these factors are often very successful in reducing the incidence of disease. For example,
reducing mechanical damage during grading and packing greatly decreases the likelihood of
postharvest disease because many disease-causing organisms (pathogens) must enter through
wounds.Chemicals have been widely used to reduce the incidence of postharvest disease.
Although effective, many of these materials have been removed from the market in recent years
because of economic, environmental, or health concerns.
Increased interest in the proper postharvest handling of fresh fruits and vegetables has prompted
the widespread use of flumes, water dump tanks, spray washers, and hydrocoolers. To conserve
water and energy, most postharvest processes that wet the produce recirculate the water after it
has passed over the produce. This recirculated water picks up dirt, trash, and disease-causing
organisms. If steps are not taken to prevent their spread, these organisms can infect all the
produce that is subsequently processed. In the past, various fungicides and bactericides have
been used (alone or in combination with chlorination) to prevent the transmission of diseases.
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These materials have often been favored over chlorination because they provide some residual
protection after treatment.There are generally three main causes of postharvest losses.Disease
caused by fungi and/or bacteria

1.c Physical injuries due to insects, mechanical force, chemicals, heat or freezing
2.c Non-disease disorders resulting from storage conditions that upset normal metabolism

when the product is rejected further down the marketing chain. Other factors such as cultivar,
weather and crop management also influence the development of disease. Some cultivars are
more susceptible to diseases than others and wet weather can promote the development of
disease and hamper efforts to control outbreaks.

 



 

Potatoes

Fusarium tuber rot    spp. (f)

Wet rot   sp. (f)
Bacterial soft rot )  spp. (b)
Slimy soft rot Ñ
  spp. (b)
Sweet Potatoes
Bacterial soft rot ) 
  (b)
Black rot Ñ

 (f)
Ring rot   spp. (f)
Java black rot 

  (f)
Fusarium surface rot   
*
  (f)
Fusarium root and stem rot   
  (f)
Rhizopus soft rot "
  
  (f)
Charcoal rot 


  sp. (f)
Tomatoes and peppers
Alternaria rot #     (f)
Buckeye rot 

 sp. (f)
Gray mold ÿ

  (f)
Soft rot "
 

 (f)
Sour rot [

 
   (f)
Bacterial soft rot )  spp. (b) or
 

 spp. (b)
Ripe rot Ñ


  sp. (b)
Vegetables in general
Watery soft rot 

  sp. (f)
Cottony leak     (f)
Fusarium rot    sp. (f)
Bacterial soft rot )  sp. (b) or
 

 spp. (b)
f = fungus

c b = bacterium
c

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Biological control of diseases has emerged as an effective alternative. Because wound-invading
necrotrophic pathogens are vulnerable to biocontrol, antagonists can be applied directly to the
targeted area (fruit wounds), and a single application using existing delivery systems (drenches,
line sprayers, on-line dips) can significantly reduce fruit decays. The pioneering biocontrol
products BioSave and Aspire were registered by EPA in 1995 for control of postharvest rots of
pome and citrus fruit, respectively, and are commercially available. The limitations of these
biocontrol products can be addressed by enhancing biocontrol through manipulation of the
environment, using mixtures of beneficial organisms, physiological and genetic enhancement of
the biocontrol mechanisms, manipulation of formulations, and integration of biocontrol with
other alternative methods that alone do not provide adequate protection but in combination with
biocontrol provide additive or synergistic effects.

Another critical factor for reducing food losses is quality standards and incentives for delivery of
better quality produce through the introduction of a fair and practical grading system. The
operation of such a system often calls for training and extension to improve handling, storage,
packing, sorting and grading practices.

!

 



The fumigant methyl bromide is generally preferred for the disinfection of both durable and
perishable agricultural commodities. This is because of its low phytotoxicity and its wide-
ranging action against a large number of pests. Furthermore, large, bulky shipments can be
rapidly and easily treated. However, methyl bromide has now been identified as one of the
chemicals that are damaging the world's ozone layer. Efforts are being made to develop
alternatives, and treatment systems which recycle methyl bromide.

’+  



,

Fruitfly is a major problem in the import and export of tropical fruits and vegetables. VHT is an
effective, non-chemical method of treatment, widely used to treat mangoes and other tropical
fruits grown for export. VHT treatment maintains produce at a certain temperature for a fixed
period of time, using a hot water/steam vapor system. This destroys any larvae of the fruitfly
which might be present inside the fruit, as well as the eggs and pupae.

 



The packaging of fruits and vegetables should protect them from injury and water loss, and be
convenient for handling and marketing. Packages should also provide information about the
product, including the grade, handling instructions, and appropriate storage temperatures when
the product is on display. The cost of the packaging is important, including whether the container
can be recycled or reused.

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Fresh horticultural products should be cooled after harvest and during transport. It is very
important that the cold chain is continuous. Once fruit and vegetables have been cooled, they
must stay cool. Trucks for road transport may be refrigerated, or may sometimes just be
insulated. It is difficult to control the temperature of air shipments, but produce shipped by air
should be covered and precooled.

The transportation and storage of fresh vegetables is an international operation for which the
available technology must be used to ensure that produce reaches the consumer in the best
possible condition. The use of controlled atmospheric conditions, as a way of reducing the use of
chemical preservatives and pesticides, has great potential for the reduction of postharvest losses
and the maintenance of nutritive value and organoleptic characteristics. The proper application of
controlled atmosphere storage is likely to have as great an impact as the introduction of
refrigeration technology a century earlier, yet its potential is only just becoming appreciated,
despite its use for apples for many years.

â 
 
 

Several factors are important in determining the quality of fruits and vegetables: the appearance,
the flavor, the texture, the nutritional value and the safety. Only the first three can be easily
identified by consumers.

Successful postharvest handling depends partly on the initial quality of the crop at harvest,
including the degree of maturity. It also depends on careful handling to minimize mechanical
damage, proper management of the environmental conditions, and good sanitation.

Most often, postharvest losses are a symptom rather than the problem. Knowledge of their cause
is, therefore, essential for deciding measures to prevent them. Such measures may have to be
taken by the small farmer, the private trader, a cooperative, the marketing board or other
operator, handlers and transporters, wholesale and retail markets, etc.

!
 


   


Rc Genetic manipulation for long life, diseases and environmental-stress resistant cultivars.
Rc Modeling cultivating conditions for high quality and long life (avoiding root stress by
heat or drought).
Rc Environmental friendly pest control.
Rc Objective determination of suitable harvesting date.
Rc Post harvest treatments (heat, UV, irradiation CO2, chemicals) for storage ability.
Rc Monitoring refrigerating systems
Rc Optimum storage conditions as storage for tropical fruits, ornamentals, planting material,
fresh pack and lightly processed produce.
Rc Possibilities of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), absorption layers, inserts sensors,
PP films with micropores

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Rc Prevention of possible pathogenic organisms in MAP products.

Rc Adaptive control of storage conditions with biological sensors.
Rc Storage during transport and as quarantine measures.
Rc Humid forced air precooling.
Rc Minimum impact and vibration norms for bruising during sorting and packaging.
Rc Objective non destructive measuring of quality and maturity
Rc Environmental friendly packaging.
Rc Consumer and traders quality preferences in each country.
Rc Cost and return of the investment of post harvest techny.
Rc Cost and return of the investment of post harvest technologies.
Rc Fundamental research on senescence, ripening, respiration, ethylene effect, chilling,
fermentation, superficial browning.

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Diseases can occur at any stage during the course of plant growth. The rapid, accurate diagnosis
of the cause of a disease, along with the implementation of a rapid treatment, is essential to
ensure the protection of the crop. Certain infectious diseases caused by living, microscopic
organisms have the potential to rapidly ruin a crop. However, for any particular vegetable, these
diseases are not that numerous and, so, it would not be difficult for a grower to become familiar
with them and take proper preventative action. Diseases caused by nonliving things (i.e. not
infectious) can be much more difficult to diagnose. Usually, it is easier to rule out an infectious
agent as the cause of a disease before investigating possible nonliving (abiotic) causes

No single disease-control measure is adequate in limiting plant and yield losses in vegetable
production. With a careful combination of disease-management approaches, including planting
time, land selection and preparation, crop and variety selection, water management, and, when
necessary, biological and chemical control, diseases in organic vegetable crops can be limited,
and economic and environmental benefits can be achieved.

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Steven T. Koike, Peter Gladders, Albert O. Paulus, "Vegetable Diseases: A Colour Handbook"
Manson Publishing Ltd .2006.

Cooke, B.M.; Jones, D. Gareth; Kaye, B. ³The Epidemiology of Plant Diseases´ 2nd
edition.Springer.2006.

Laurence V. Madden, Gareth Hughes, and Frank van den Bosch. ³The Study of Plant Disease
Epidemics.APS Press´.2007.

Ciancio A.and K. Mukerji ³ Integrated Management and Biocontrol of Vegetable and Grain
Crops Nematodes´.Springer.2008.

Ciancio, Aurelio, Mukerji, K.Gintegrated ³ Management of Diseases Caused by Fungi,

Phytoplasma and Bacteria´.Springer.2008.

William R. Jarvis. ³Managing Diseases in Vegetables´.APS Press.1992.

Richard N. Strange. ³Introduction to Plant Pathology´.Wiley.October 2003.

Dragoljub D Sutic, Richard E Ford and Malisa T Tosic. ³ Handbook of Plant Virus Diseases´.
CRC Press. 1999.

Ciancio.A and K G Mukerji. ³General Concepts in Integrated Pest and Disease

Management´.Springer.2007.

Gail S and Cleo D'Arcy. ³Essential Plant Pathology´ .APS Press.2010.

S Naqvi ³Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables - Diagnosis and Management´.2004{c

Inderjit& Mukerji, K.G. ³ Allelochemicals: Biological Control of Plant Pathogens and

Diseases´.2006.

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