 Introduction

 Definition of Surveying
 Objective of Surveying
 Primary Divisions of Surveying
 Principles of Surveying
 Linear Measurements
 Chaining
 Chain Surveying
 Principle of Chain Surveying
 Types of Chains
 Ranging a line
 Some Important Definitions
 Obstacles in Chaining
 Errors in Chaining
 Tape Corrections
 Compass Surveying
 Traverse
 Types of Traverse
 Types of Compass
 Comparison of compasses
 Meridian
 Bearing
 Magnetic Declination
 Isogonic & Agonic Lines
 Designation of Bearings
 Calculation of included angles
 Fore and back bearing
 Local Attraction
 Closing Error

SURVEYING
3.1 Introduction

WE all have seen the maps – Map of India, Map of our state etc. What is
this map? How do we prepare these maps? What information does it
provide to us?

 Map is nothing but the graphical representation of a given area

drawn to some scale. We may say that the map is a top view of the
area.
 For drawing a map we need the information of relative positions
(distance and /or height) of the objects which are represented on the
map.
  Thus a map provides us information about the relative positions of
various objects i.e. by looking to the map of India we can say that
New Delhi is towards north part of India and so on.
3.2 Objective of Surveying

The object of surveying is to prepare map or plan so that it may represent

the area on a horizontal plane. The vertical distances are usually represented
by means of vertical sections drawn separately or by contours.

3.3 Definition of Surveying

The art and science of determining the relative positions of distinctive

features on the surface of earth or beneath the surface of the earth, by means
of measurements of distances, directions and elevations, is called surveying.

3.4 Primary Divisions of Surveying

Surveying may primarily be divided into following two divisions:

1. Plane Surveying. The surveys in which earth surface is assumed as

plane and the curvature of the earth is ignored, are known as Plane
surveys.

2. Geodetic Surveying. The surveys in which curvature of the earth is

taken into account and higher degree of accuracy in linear and
angular observations is achieved, are known as Geodetic surveys.

 As per ASI the minimum area for Geodetic Surveying is 260 sqkm.

 The object of Geodetic Survey is to determine the precise position on

the surface of the earth, of a system of widely distant points which
form control stations to which surveys of less precision may be
referred.

3.5 Principles of Surveying (or general principles of surveying)

There are two principles of surveying

 Always work from whole to the part ;

 Location of a point by measurements from two points of reference.

 The main principle of surveying, whether plane or geodetic, is to work from
the whole to part. To achieve this in actual practice, sufficient number of
primary control points are established with higher precision in and around
the area to be detailed surveyed. Minor control points in between primary
control stations, are then established with less precision method. The
details are surveyed with the help of these minor control points, adopting
any one of the methods of surveying. The main idea of surveying from the
whole to the part, is (1) to prevent accumulation of errors and (2) to
localize the minor errors in the frame work of the control points so that
these can be detected easily and corrected accordingly.

The second principle of surveying is to fix the location of any new point or
new station with reference to atleast two well defined fixed points by at
least two independent processes. This is done in order to check the errors in
any one of the processes, independently by the other process. For example,
in chain surveying we run check lines to check the accuracy of the frame
work.

3.6 Linear Measurement

The process of finding horizontal distance between two points is called

linear measurement. There are several methods of linear measurements
which can be direct or indirect. These are –

 Pacing
 Measurement with Passometer
 Measurement with Parembulator
 Measurement with Pedometer
 Measurement with Odometer or Speedometer
 Measurement with Chain or Tape
 Time measurement
 Judging distance
 Measurements by optical means
 Measurements by EDM
3.7 Chaining

It is the process of measuring horizontal distance between two points with

the help of chain or tape.

3.8 Chain Surveying

It is that branch of surveying in which only linear measurements are made

and no angular measurements are taken. Chain survey is the most common
survey usually done in all the engineering projects for the preparation of the
plans. It is suitable for survey of small extent on open ground to secure data
for exact description of the boundaries or to take simple details.

PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING

The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. It means to provide a

framework consisting of number of connected triangles because triangle is
the only simple figure that can be plotted from lengths of the sides alone,
measured in the field.

Various Instruments used for Chain Surveying are -

1- Chain and / or Tape 5- Pegs

2- Arrows 6- Offset Rods
3- Ranging Rods 7- Optical square
4- Ranging Poles 8- Plaster’s Laths or Whites

3.9 Chains

It is an instrument made up of gelvanised links (6mm) joined with three

circular rings and provided with brass handles at its two ends with swivel
joints which is used for linear measurement.
There are various types of chains – these are –
 Metric Chain – now a days generally used;
 Surveyors or Engineers Chain
 Gunter’s Chain
 Revenue Chain
Metric Chain -
 Surveying metric chains are available in lengths of 5m, 10m, 20 m and 30
m. The 20 m chain contains 100 links whereas 30 m chain contains 150
links. One link of both types of chain, measures 20 cm. The length of
handles is included in end links. The length of link is the c/c distance
between the two consecutive central circular rings.

The table gives description and comparison of various chains

Description Metric Chain Gunter’s Chain Engineer’s Chain Revenue Chain

Total Length 20m, 30m etc. 66 feet 100 feet 33 feet
Number of Links 100 in 20 m 100 100 16
Size of one link 200 mm 0.66 feet 1 foot 2.0625 feet
Use Now a days Used for Earlier used Used by revenue
generally used measurement of department for
area in acre measurement of
area in acres

3.10 Ranging a line

The process of marking a number of intermediate points between the two

end stations such that all these points are in one line with end stations is
called ranging. Ranging may be done by one of the following methods.

 Direct Ranging: When intermediate ranging rods are placed along

the chain line, by direct observations from either end station, the
process is known direct ranging.

 Indirect Ranging: When end stations are not intervisible and

intermediate ranging rods are placed in line by interpolation or
reciprocal ranging or by running a random line, the process is known
as indirect ranging. There may be two cases for this

o When the end stations are not intervisible

3.11 Some important definitions

 Survey Station – It is the point of importance at the beginning or end of the
chain line. The survey stations are of two types – Main survey station and
Subsidiary or tie station. Main survey stations are the survey stations at the
beginning or end of the main survey line or at the vertex of the main frame
work. The tie stations are the survey stations chosen at any intermediate
point on the main or tie survey lines to run tie lines.

 Main Survey Line – Main survey lines are the lines joining the two main
survey stations. These lines for the main frame work of the survey.

 Tie Lines – these lines are the lines joining two tie stations. The basic
purpose of tie line is to facilitate locating objects which are too far from the
main survey lines or to locate interior details of the area. Because, otherwise
the length of offsets may become too long to have accurate measurements.
The tie lines serve dual purpose as it not only help in locating the interior
details of the area but also it helps in checking the accuracy of the frame
work.

 Check Lines – these are the line joining vertex of a main frame work to any
point on the side opposite to it or any two points on any two main survey
lines. The purpose of these lines is to check the accuracy of the frame work
as the length of the check line in the field should well correspond to its
length on the plan or map.

 Chainage – Chainage of any point on a chain line is its distance from the
beginning stations measured along the chain line in the direction of progress
of survey.

 Offset – it is the linear lateral distance, measured from the chain line, to the
object which is to be surveyed (or located). Offsets are of the following
types –

o Perpendicular Offset – are those offsets which make an angle of 90°

with the chain line.
 o Oblique Offset – are those offsets which make an angle other than
90° with the chain line.

o Swing Offset – are the perpendicular offsets located with the help of
tape by swinging the tape across the chain line and reading the
shortest distance on it.

o Long Offsets – are those offsets the length of which is more than
15m. Such offsets must be located very carefully else otherwise this
will result in distortion of map or plan.

o Short Offsets – are those offsets the lengths of which is less than
15m. As far as possible the length of offset should be small. To
locate interior details of the area and to make the length of offsets
small we can run tie lines at suitable locations.

 Well conditioned Triangle – in chain surveying or in triangulation, the

frame work consists of triangles. It is required that the shape of these
triangles should be such that none of its internal angles are less than 30° nor
more than 120° else otherwise the errors in plotting due to minor errors in
measurements will increase and result in distortion of map or plan. An
equilateral triangle is very close to ideal well conditioned triangle (isosceles
triangle having base angles as 57°30’.

 Ranging – It is the process of locating intermediate points between the end

stations such that all these points are in one line with the end stations.
Ranging is necessary when the distance between the end stations is more
than the chain length. Ranging should always be done prior to chaining
because for chaining we need to lay chain along a straight line which is
obtained by ranging only.

3.12 Obstacles in Chaining

Any object due to which the chain can not be laid between the two points for
chaining the distance, is called ‘Obstacle to chaining’.
 The distance between two points intervened by an obstacles may be
determined by any one of the following indirect methods.

 Case I. Chaining is obstructed but not ranging.

 Case II. Ranging is obstructed but not Chaining.

 Case III. Both Chaining and Ranging are obstructed.

Case I. Chaining is obstructed but not ranging.

(i) By constructing a rectangle ABCD.

Here a perpendicular AD is set out with an optical square, Distance

AD is measured accurately. Let it be x metres.

Perpendicular DC is set out and distance DC is measured accurately.

Let it be y metres.

Perpendicular CB is set out and distance CB is measured equal to 'x'

metres.

Finally a perpendicular to BC is the set out.

Here AB = DC = y metres.

(ii) By constructing a right angle triangle ABC, having 90º angle either
at A or at B.
 Hence AB =

(iii) By constructing a right angle triangle ABC, having 90º angle at C

Hence AB =

(iv) By constructing a triangle BCD, enclosing the obstacle.

Let AB be the direction of the chain line, A and B being on the either side of
the obstacle. At A set out a line CAD such that point B is visible from both
C and D and the sides CB and DB are clear of the obstacle.

Here

(v) By constructing similar triangles.

Set out a line clear of obstacle such that AC = DC.

Measure BC and prolong it to E such that BC = CE.

 Joint D and E.

Here AB = DE

Case II. Ranging is obstructed but not chaining.

As discussed above, in such cases we will have to do indirect ranging. In

such cases either reciprocal ranging or random line method is used to find
the distances.

Case III. Both chaining and ranging obstructed

The distance may be obtained by any one of the methods explained in

below figures.

3.13 Calculation of true length/Area/Volume Obtained from Wrong Chain

Length
 If L is true length of the chain.

L' is faulty length of the chain.

Then,

3.14 Chaining on Sloping Ground

We always have to find the horizontal distances between points as on the

map we represent the horizontal distances.

The process of obtaining the horizontal distance between two points which
are at different elevations is called Chaining on Sloping Ground. The true
horizontal distance between two points lying on sloping ground, may be
obtained by the following methods:

(i) Direct Methods

a. Stepping method.

(ii) Indirect Methods

a. Measuring the slope angle θ (using clinometer) and slope

distance 1.

Horizontal distance = 1 cos θ.

If

b. Hypotenusal allowance method

 In this method the correction is applied in the field at every chain
length at every point where the slope changes. This facilitates
measurement of chainages of intermediate points directly in the field.

Hypotensual allowance is the distance by which the forward end of

the chain shall be shifted forward, during chaining, so as to make the
inclined (or sloping) distance equals to the corresponding horizontal
distance.

For 20 m chain hypotensual allowance is equals to 100(sec θ -1)

links, where θ is the slope angle of the ground. It may be noted that it
is expressed in terms of links to facilitates calculations in the field.

c. Measuring the difference in level – Sometimes we measure the

difference in level between two points with the help of levelling
instrument, then the horizontal distance between these points can
be calculated by D = √(l2 - h2 ) where l is the sloping distance and
h is the difference in level

3.15 Errors in Chaining

The errors in chaining are classified under two categories:

(i) Cumulative errors; (ii) Compensative errors.

(i) Cumulative errors: The errors which occur in the same direction and
tend to accumulate or to add up, are called cumulative errors;

(ii) Compensative errors: The errors which are liable to occur in either
direction and hence tend to compensate, are called compensative errors.

Summary of errors in chaining

SN Error Due to Type of Error

1 Incorrect length of chain Cumulative + or -
2 Bad ranging Cumulative + or -
3 Tape not stretched horizontally Cumulative +
4 Tape not stretched tight & straight Cumulative +
5 Variation in temperature Cumulative + or -
 6 Variation in pull Compensative ± or
cumulative + or -
7 Sag Cumulative +
8 Marking in tape length Compensating ±
9 Personal errors – disturbing arrows Blunder
10 Personal Errors – misreading distances Mistake
11 Personal Errors – miscounting Blunder

3.16 Corrections for Linear Measurements – Tape Correction

Tapes are standardized under certain conditions of temperature, pull and

support etc.. If in the field the conditions are different than these standard
conditions, the measured length of the line will not be correct and under
such conditions we will have to apply certain corrections, call tape
corrections, to obtain the true horizontal distance. These tape corrections are

a) Correction for absolute length

b) Correction for temperature
c) Correction for pull or tension
d) Correction for sag
e) Correction for slope
f) Correction for alignment
g) Correction to sea level
h) Correction to measurement in vertical plane

For precise measurements, the following corrections are made:

(i) Correction for absolute length – if the absolute length of tape is not
equals to its nominal or designated length the following correction
have to be applied -

Ca = L . C / l

Where L = measured length of the line'

 l = designated length of the line.

C = correction to be applied for the tape per tape length;

Ca= correction for absolute length.

This correction has the same sign as that of C

(ii) Correction for temperature

Correction = α(Tm-To) L

Tm = mean temperature during measurement

To = normal temperature at standardisation.

α = co-efficient of thermal expansion of the tape.

(iii) Sag Correction

Where W = total weight of the tape

P = pull applied

L = Total length of tape

n = Number of equal spans

(iv) Correction for Pull

Correction = (P - Po) L / (A.E)

P = Pull applied during measurement

Po = Standard Pull.

A = Cross sectional area of tape,

E = Young’s Modulus of Elasticity,

L = Measured length

Normal Tension – The correction for sag is always negative and that
for pull may be positive or negative. If the pull applied is such that
 the positive pull correction is same in magnitude as that of negative
sag correction, than the pull applied is called Normal tension.

(v) Reduction to M.S.L.

Correction = L . h / R

where L = distance at h metres above M.S.L;

R = radius of the earth.

3.11 Compass Surveying

3.11.1 The branch of surveying in which direction of survey lines are determined
by a compass and their lengths by chaining or taping directly on the surface
of the earth, is known as Compass surveying.

3.11.2 Traverse - In compass surveying, unlike chain surveying, we use traverse

as a frame work for the surveying. Traverse is defined as a plane figure
consisting of series of connected lines the length and directions of which are
measured with the help of chain or tape and with some angle measuring
device such as compass or theodolite.

The traverse are of two types –

 Closed Traverse – it is a traverse in which the beginning station and

the end stations are the same ( or the position of which is known on
the plan) and in which the survey lines run in such direction that it
forms a close circuits. It is suitable for survey of areas such as lake or
pond or for survey of large areas.

 Open Traverse – it is a traverse in which the beginning station and

the end stations are not the same and in which the survey lines run in
general one direction not forming a close circuits. It is suitable for
survey of long narrow strip of areas such as survey of area along a
river or survey of area along road or railway line.
 Surveying compasses are of two types -

1. Prismatic Compass

2. Surveyor's Compass
1. Prismatic Compass

The various components of Prismatic compass are -

1. Compass box 7. Prism 13. Objective vane

2. Lifting lever 8. Eye vane 14. Adjustable mirror

3. Noodle 9. Focussing stud 15. Prism cap

4. Agate cap 10. Brake pin 16. Graduated ring

5. Glass cover 11. Spring brake 17, Pivot.

6. Sunglass 12. Lifting pin

2. Surveyor's compass

1. Box 5. Glass top 9. Magnetic needle

2. Lifting lever 6. Sight Vanes 10. Rider

3. Pivot 7. Jewel bearing 11. Metal pin.

4. Circular graduated arc 8. Lifting pin

3.12 Comparison between a Surveyor's compass and Prismatic compass

S. Item Surveyor's Compass Prismatic Compass
No.
1 Magnetic needle i) The needle is of edge The needle is broad needle
bar type and it also acts type but it does not act as
an an index. an index.
2 Graduated ring i) The graduated ring is i) The graduated ring is
attached to the box and attached with the needle.
not to be needle. This This does not rotate along
rotates along with the with the line of sight.
line of sight.

ii) The graduations are in ii) The graduations are in

Q.B. system having 0º at W.C.B. system, having 0º
North and South and 90º at South 90º at West, 180º
at East and West are at North and 270º at East
interchangeable. end.
iii) The graduations are iii) The graduations are
engraved erect. engraved inverted.
3 Sighting vanes i) The object vane i) The object vane consists
consists of a metal vane of a metal vane with a
with a vertical hair. vertical hair.
ii) The eye vane consists ii) The eye vane consists of
of a small vane with fine a metal vane with a slit.
slit.
4 Reading system i) The reading are taken i) The readings are taken
directly by seeing with the help of a prism
through the top of the provided at the eye slit.
glass
 ii) Sighting and reading
cannot be done
simultaneously from one
position of the observer.
5 Tripod i) The instrument cannot
be used without a tripod.
ii) Sighting and reading
can be done
simultaneously from one
position of the observer.
Tripod may or may not be
provided. The instrument
may be used even by
holding it in hand.

3.13 Meridian

Meridian at any point is the fixed direction on the surface of the earth, with
reference to which bearings of survey lines are expressed.

Meridians adopted in surveying are as under:-

i) True Meridian: The true or geographical meridian passing through a

place is the line of inter section of the earth surface by a plane
containing north and south poles and also the given place.

ii) Magnetic Meridian: The geometrical longitudinal axis of a freely

suspended and properly balanced magnetic needle, unaffected by local
attractive forces, defines the Magnetic Meridian.

3.14 Bearing
Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which this line makes with the
reference meridian.
As the meridians , the bearings are also of three type .

True bearing – True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which this line
makes with the true meridian at that place.

Magnetic bearing – Magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which

this line makes with the magnetic meridian at that place, and

Assumed Bearing – Assumed bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which

this line makes with the assumed meridian at that place.

3.15 Magnetic Declination

 The magnetic declination at any place is the horizontal angle between the
true meridian and the magnetic meridian at that place at the time of
observation. Depending upon the position of the magnetic meridian,
magnetic declination may be east or west of the true meridian.

If the north end of the magnetic meridian is towards east of the north end of
the true meridian, the declination is called eastwards, similarly if the north
end of the magnetic meridian is towards west of the north end of the true
meridian, the declination is called westwards.

Declination is generally represented by “δ”

The true bearing of any line can be obtained from the magnetic bearing of
that line by –

True bearing = Magnetic Bearing ± Declination (δ) – Use +ve sign if the
declination is east wards and use –ve sign if the declination is westwards.

Variation in Declination – The value of declination at a place never remains

constant but changes from time to time. (that is why it is necessary to state
date and time of observation on the map so that the corresponding
declination can be obtained and true bearing or magnetic bearing (vice-
versa) can be obtained.

There are four types of variations in declination –

 Diurnal variation
 Annual Variation
 Secular Variation
 Irregular Variation

3.16 Isogonic Lines

The imaginary lines on the surface of the earth passing through the points of
same declination are called isogonic lines.

3.17 Agonic Lines

 The imaginary line on the surface of the earth passing through the points of
zero declination are called agonic line.

3.18 Designation of Bearings

Bearings are designated in two systems i.e.

 whole circle bearing system and

 reduced or quadrantal bearing system.

1. Whole circle bearing system : In this system, the bearing of a line is

measured from the given meridian in clockwise direction, utilising the
whole circle of graduations. The whole circle bearing may vary from 0º
to 360º and is represented as θº

2. The Quadrantal Bearing (QB) system : In this system, the bearing of a

line is measured either from east or west end of the meridian, either in
clockwise or anticlockwise direction, whichever is nearer, according as
the quadrant in which the line lies. The quadrantal bearing bearing of
line may vary from 0º to 90º and is represented as θº along with quadrant
in which it lies, such as N θº E, or so on. It is also called reduced
bearing.

3.19 Calculation of Included Angles between Lines of given bearings:

The included angle between two lines OA and OB whose W.C. bearings is
‘a’ and ‘b’ are given, is equal to bearing of OB - Bearing of OA. In case
numerical value of ‘b’ is less than that of a, add 360º to it before applying
this rule.

3.20 Fore and Back Bearing :

The fore bearing of any line AB is it’s bearing as observed at it’s beginning
station “A”.

The Back bearing of any line AB is it’s bearing as observed at it’s far end
station “B”.
 The difference between fore bearing and back bearing of any line should
always be 180°.

In the WCB system the back bearing of any line can be obtained from it’s
fore bearing by adding (or subtracting) 180° from it, or vice-versa. As for
example, if the FB of any line AB is 120° then its BB will be 120° + 180° =
300° and if the FB of any line AB is 220° then its BB will be 220° - 180° =
40°, and so on.

In the QB system the back bearing of any line can be obtained from it’s fore
bearing by just interchanging the quadrants of the bearing. As for example,
if the FB of any line AB is N50°E then its BB will be S50°W and so on.

3.21 Local Attraction

If the freely suspended magnetic needle deviates from its free position due
to the presence of magnetic influencing field near its close vicinity, then this
deviation of the needle from its free position is called local attraction and
the objects causing such deviations are also called local attraction.

Detection of Local Attraction

If the fore bearing and back bearing of a line do not differ by 180º, then
there may be three reasons for this

 There may be instrumental error, or

 There may be observational errors, or

 There may be local attraction at either one or both the ends of the
line

If we eliminate the first two causes by careful repeated observations with

already tested correct instrument and still if the difference between fore and
back bearing of a line differs by angle other than 180o, then we conclude
that either or both the end stations are affected by local attraction.
 It may be noted that due to local attraction the calculations of included
angles does not get affected. This is due to the fact that included angles are
calculated by finding the difference between the bearings observed at the
same station and as such it gets affected by the same amount and therefore
its difference will give us the true angle.

3.22 Closing Error

When a closed traverse which is closed in the field, fails to close on the
plan, due to errors in measurements and plotting, then the amount by which
it fails to close is called closing error. The adjustment of closing error is also
called balancing of traverse.

It can be adjusted by any of the following methods –

i) Bowditch’s Method
ii) Transit Method
iii) Graphical Method
iv) Axis Method

Plane Table Surveying

Plane tabling is the method of surveying the plan position of individual

features on the surface of the earth. In this method field observations and
plotting proceed simultaneously.

3.23 Working Operations of a Plane Table:

Following three operations are needed at each plane table station.

1. Levelling 2. Centering 3. Orientation.

3.24 Method of Plane Table Surveying:

Following methods are employed for surveying with a plane table.

1. Radiation method: In this method, a plane table is set up at any
commanding station. Detail points are plotted on their radiating lines drawn
from the location of the plane table station, after reducing their respective
ground distances on desired scale of the map.

2. Intersection method: In this method a base line of

convenient length is plotted on the scale of survey and
location of other detail point, is determined by drawing rays
from each end station after proper orientation of the table.

3. Traversing method: In this method, a series of connected straight

lines each joining two stations on the ground, is established by setting up
the plane table at each successive station, drawing a force sight to next
station and plotting its position by measuring the distance directly between
the two stations.

4. Resection: In this method, the location of the station occupied by the

plane table, is obtained by means of drawing rays from the stations whose
locations have already been plotted on the paper. Resection may be done
with the help of two points or three points.

(a) Two-point problem: Finding the location of the station occupied by

the table on the paper by means of sighting to two well defined points
whose locations have previously been plotted on the paper, is known as two
point problem.

(b) Three point problem: Fixing the location of the station occupied
by a plane table on the paper by means of sighting to three well defined
points whose positions have previously been plotted on the sheet, is known
as three point problem. Three point problem may be solved by one of the
following methods.

1. Mechanical (or Tracing Paper) Method.

2. Bessel's Graphical Method.

3. Method of Perpendiculars.
 4. Trial and Error Method (or Lehmann's method).

3.25 The Level

The instrument used for levelling is provided with either external type
telescope or internal type telescope. In modern surveying instruments,
internal focussing telescopes, are generally provided and external focussing
telescopes are becoming obsolate. According to the construction, the levels
may be classified as:

1. The dumpy level: It consists of a telescope rigidly fixed to

its support which can neither be rotated about its longitudinal
axis, nor it can be removed from its supports. A long bubble
tube is attached to the top of the telescope.

2. The Wye level: It consists of a telescope held in two vertical

wye supports which may be raised to enable the telescope to
be rotated about its longitudial axis, and also to be removed
and turned end to end.

3. The reversible level: It consists of a telescope which is

supported by rigid sockets into which it is introduced from
either end and fastened by screw. Once the telescope is
fastened with the screws, it acts as a dumpy level.

4. The tilting level: It consists of a telscope attached with a level

tube which can be tilted within few degrees in a vertical plane
by a tilting screw.

3.26 Reduction of the Levels:

Reduction of levels may be done by the following two methods:

1. Rise and fall method: In this method, the difference of level

between two consecutive points for each setting of the instrument, is
obtained by comparing their staff readings. The difference between
their staff readings indicates a rise if the back staff reading is more
than the fore sight and a fall if it is less than the fore sight. The
 algebraic sum of rises and falls, gives the difference in level between
the starting and closing points.

2. Height of collimation method: In this method height of the

instrument is calculated for the first setting of instrument by adding
the back sight to the reduced level of the given Bench Mark. The
reduced level of the first station is obtained by subtracting its fore
sight from the instrument height (H.I.)

The specimen field level books for the reduction of levels by two
methods, are shown in Table 1 and 2.

Table 1 Rise and fall method of reduction of levels.

Stm. B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remark

1 0.585 100.000 B.M.
2 1.855 2.955 2.370 97.630 C.P.
3 1.265 0.590 98.220
4 2.925 1.660 96.560
5 2.350 0.350 2.575 99.135 C.P.
6 2.855 0.595 98.630
7 2.685 1.655 1.200 99.830 C.P.
8 2.435 0.250 100.080 B.M.
Totals 7.475 7.395 4.615 4.535
Arithmetical Checks:
S.F.Srise - Fall = Last R.L. - First R.L.
7.475 - 7.395 = 4.615 = 4.535 = 100.080 - 100.00 = 0.080 O.K.

Table 2. Height

Stm. B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remark

1 0.585 100.585 100.00 B.M.
2 1.855 2.955 99.485 97.630 C.P.
3 1.265 98.220
4 2.925 96.560
 5 2.350 0.350
6 2.855
7. 2.685 1.655
8 2.435
Totals 7.475 7.395
Checks S.F.S Last R.L. - First R.L.
7.475- 7.395 = 100.080 - 100.00= 0.080 O.K.
3.27 Comparison of Line of Collimination Method with Rise and Fall Method:
Height of collimation method
1. It is more rapid and saves a
considerable time and labour.
2. It is well adopted for reduction
of levels for construction work
such as longitudinal or cross
section levelling operations.
3. There is no check on reduction
of R.L.S. of intermediate
stations.
4. There are only two arithmetical
checks i.e., the difference
between the sum of the back
sights and the sum of the fore
sights must be equal to the
difference in R.L. of the last
station and first station.
5. Errors if any in intermediate
sights are not detected.
101.485 99.135 C.P.
98.630
102.515 99.830 C.P.
100.080 B.M.
Rise and fall method
1. It is laborious as the staff reading
of each station is compared, to
get a rise or fall.
2. It is well adopted for determining
the difference in levels of two
points where precision is
required.
3. There is a complete check on the
reduction of R.L.s of intermediate
station.
4. There are three arithmetical
checks i.e. the difference between
the sum of the back sights and the
sum of the fore sights must be equal
to the difference between the sum of
the rises and the sum of the falls as
well as it must be equal to the
difference in R.L.s of the last station
and first station.
5. Errors in intermediate sights are
noticed as these are used for
finding out the rises or falls.
3.28 Reciprocal Levelling.

When it is not possible to set up the level midway between two

points as in the case of levelling across large water bodies, the reciprocal
levelling is employed to carry forward the levels on the other side of the
obstruction.

Let A and B be two staff position on either side of the water

body. By setting up the instrument near A let the readings on B and B be b1
and a1 respectively. By setting up the instrument near B, let the readings on
B and B be b2 and a2 respectively.

Then, the true difference of level between A and B

and combined error due to curvature and refraction.

3.29 Curvature and Refraction Correction:

If d is the distance in kilometres between two points, then the

curvature correction is 0.00785 d2 in metres.

Combined correction due to curvature and refraction

= 0.0673 d2 metres where d is in kilometres.

3.30 Distance of Visible Horizon

The distance of visible horizon from a point of h elevation

Where h is difference in elevation in metres.

3.31 Error due to non-verticality of Staff

Where AB = staff reading; θ = angle of inclination

3.32 Permanent Adjustments of Dumpy Level:

There are two permanent adjustments of a dumpy level.

 1. To make the axis of the bubble tube perpendicular to
vertical axis of the level.

2. To make the line of collimation parallel to the axis of the

bubble tube.

First Adjustment: To make the axis of the bubble tube perpendicular to

vertical axis of the level.

1. Set up the level on firm ground and level it carefully as in

the case of temporary adjustment.

In this position the bubble remains central only in two

position i.e. (i) parallel to a pair of foot screws and (ii) over the
third foot screw.

2. Turn the telescope through 180º in animuth so that the

ends of the telescope are reversed. If the bubble still
remains central, the instrument is in perfect adjustment.

Adjustment:

1. If the bubble does not remain central, note down the deviation of the
centre of the bubble.

2. Bring the bubble half way back by means of the capstan nut and the
other half with the help of the foot screw beneath the telescope.

3. Turn the telescope through 90º so that it becomes parallel to the pair
of foot screw. Bring the bubble central by means of this pair of foot
screws.

4. Rotate the telescope and observe if the bubble remains central. If

not, repeat the whole process until the adjustment is correct.
 Second Adjustment: To make the line of collimation parallel to the
axis of the bubble tube.

Procedure: Proceed as under:

i) Fix two pegs A and B at a distance D on a fairly level ground.

ii) Set up the level exactly at mid point C of AB and take staff readings
on A and B, keeping the bubble central of its run. Let the staff
readings be X and Y respectively.

iii) Shift the level to point C1 at a distance d from A in the line BA

produced. Read the staff readings on A and B and let them be X1 and
Y1 respectively.

iv) Calculate the true difference by subtracting the reading X from the
reading Y when the level was at C.

v) Calculate the apparent difference by subtracting the reading X1 from

the reading Y1. If the two differences are equal, the instrument is in
adjustment.

vi) If not, find whether there is a rise or a fall from peg A to peg B. If X
is greater than Y, B is higher than A and vice versa.

vii) Calculate the reading Y2 on the peg B at the same level as of X1 i.e.
 Reading on the peg B= reading on A +- true difference.

i.e. Y2 = Y1 +- True difference.

viii) If Y1 is greater than Y2 the line of collimation is inclined upwards. If

Y1 is smaller than Y2, the line of collimation is inclined downwards.

ix) Calculate the net collimation error in the distance D i.e. collimation
error in distance D=Y1-Y2.

Collimation error per unit distance

= (Y1 - Y2 )/ D

x) Calculate the required correction for the readings on pegs A and B

i.e.

Collimation correction to the reading on the peg A

Collimation correction to the reading on the peg B

x) Add the collimation corrections to the staff readings if the line of

sight is inclined downward and subtract these in case it is inclined
upwards.

xi) Loosen the capstan headed screw and shift the horizontal cross hair
to read the corrected reading of B.

xii) Check the reading on A whether it agrees with the calculated

reading.

xiii) Repeat the adjustment, if found necessary.

3.33 Contour, Contour Interval and Horizontal Equivalent:

(1) Contour: It may be defined as an imaginary line on the

ground joining the points of equal elevation.

(2) Contour Interval: The vertical distance between any two

consecutive contours, is called contour interval.

(3) Horizontal equivalent: The shortest horizontal distance between

two consecutive contours, is called horizontal equivalent.

3.34 Factors for Deciding Contour Interval:

The following factors decide the contour interval.

1. Scale of the map.

2. Purpose of the map.

3. Nature of the ground.

4. Availability of time and fund.

3.32.1 Contours of natural features: Keeping in view, the characteristics

of contours enumerated above, different natural features may be shown by
contours as under:
3.33. Characteristics of Contours:

The following characteristics of contours may be kept in view while

preparing or reading a contour map.

1. Two contours of different elevations do not cross each other

except in the case of an overhanging cliff.

2. Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one

contour except in the case of a vertical cliff.

3. Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if, drawn far
apart, represent a gentle slope.

4. Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. When

contours are parallel, equidistant and straight, these represent
an inclined plain surface.

5. A contour at any point is perpendicular to the line of the

steepest slope at the point.

6. A contour must close itself but need not necessarily within

the limits of the map itself.

7. A set of ring contours with higher values inside, depict a hill

whereas a set of ring contours with lower values inside,
depict a pond or a depression without an outlet.
 8. When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley these form
sharp V shaped across them. Contours represent a ridge line,
if the concavity of higher value contour lies towards the next
lower value contour and on the other hand these represent a
valley if the concavity of the lower value contour, lies
towards the higher value contour.

9. The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or

a valley.

10. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

3.34 Methods of Contouring:

There are two methods of contouring.

i) Direct Method of Contouring: In this method contours to be

plotted are actually traced out in the field by locating and
marking a number of points on each. These points are surveyed
appropriate contour drawn through them.

ii) Indirect Method: In this method, sufficient number of points

forming the corners of either triangles, rectangles or squares are given
spot levels. Their locations are plotted on a shed and the desired
contours are interpolated by one of the following methods:

1. Estimation
5. Arithmetical calculation
6. Graphical method.

3.35 Contour Gradient

The imaginary line lying throughout on the surface of the earth and
preserving a constant inclination to the horizontal, is known as contour
gradient. It is used to locate the road or rail alignments in mountainous
region.
3.36 Uses of Contour Maps:

Contour maps are used for the following:

1. To study the general character of the tract of the country without

visiting the ground. With the knowledge of the characteristics of
contours, it is easy to visualize whether country is flat,
undulating or mountainous.

2. To decide the most economical and suitable sites for

engineering works such as canal, sewer, reservoir, road, railway,
etc.

3. To determine the catchment area of the drainage basin and

hence the capacity of the proposed reservoir.

4. To complete the earth work required for filling or cutting along

the linear alignment of projects such as canals, roads etc.

5. To ascertain the inter-visibility of the points.

6. To trace a contour gradient for road alignments.

7. To draw longitudinal sections and cross sections to ascertain the

nature of the ground.

8. To calculate water capacities of reservoirs.

9. To decide the best positions of the guns, the line of march and
the camping grounds by the army commanders during war.

3.37 Capacities of Reservoirs from Contours:

The capacity of a reservoir may be obtained by finding the areas

enclosed by each contour and using either trapezoidal or prismoidal formula.
Trapezoidal Formula:

Prismoidal Formula:

Where A1,A2,A3,….An etc. are the areas enclosed by contours and h is,
vertical contour interval.

3.38 Area of Geometrical Figures:

i) Triangle A=

Where

Where b is base and h is altitude =

Where C is included angle between the sides a and b.

ii) Square = a2 where a is the side of square.

iii) Rectangle = a x b where a and b are the sides of rectangle.

v) Trapezium = where d is the

perpendicular distance between parallel sides.

3.39 Area between a Straight Line and Irregular Boundary

i) Mid ordinate rule

= sum of the mid ordinates multiplied by the common distance

between ordinates.
 ii) The average ordinate rule

Area = Average ordinate x length of the base.

iii) The trapezoidal rule

Where h1, h2..., hn are the lengths of the ordinates.

d= distance between adjacent ordinates.

iv) The Simpson's Rule

where number of ordinates necessarily must be odd.

3.40 Area of a Closed Traverse from Co-ordinates

3.41 Area of a Closed Figure with a Planimeter

M= a constant of the planimeter.

N= number of times the zero mark of the dial passes the

fixed mark.

C= a constant added only if anchor point is inside the figure.

3.42 Formula for calculation of Areas of Cross-sections

 Let b = formation width

h = height of centre cut or fill.

S to 1 = side slope i.e. S horizontals 1 vertical

n to 1 = transverse slope i.e. n horizontals to 1 vertical

d1 and d2 = side widths of half breadths i.e. horizontal

distance from centre line to the intersections of the side slopes with the
natural ground surface.

h1 and h2 = heights of the banks or depths or cuttings at the edge

points.

A= area of the cross-sections.

i) Level Section

area = (b + sh) h

ii) Two Level Section

iii) Three level section

Where D = d1 + d2
3.43 Side Hill two Level Section

In general two cases may arise

i) Centre line of the formation in excavation.

Area in excavation =

Area in excavation =

Area in embankment =

ii) Centre line of the formation in embankment.

Area of the excavation =

Area of the embankment =

3.44 Calculation of Volumes

i) Trapezoidal or end area formula

ii) Prismoidal formula

3.45 Volumes from Spot Levels

j) Volume = area of triangular prism x H

where

ii) Volume area of rectangular prism x H

Where -

h1= total sum of heights used once, in metres

h2 = total sum of heights used twice, in metres

h3 = total sum of heights used thrice, in metres

h4 = total sum of heights used four times, in metres

h5 = total sum of heights used five times, in metres

h6 = total sum of heights used six times, in metres

h7 = total sum of heights used seven times, in metres

h8 = total sum of heights used eight time, in metres

3.46 Theodolite

An instrument ued for measuring horizontal and vertical angles

accurately, is known as a theodolite a transit.

Theodolites may be either transit or non-transit type.

3.47 Permanent Adjustments of Theodolite

The permanent adjustments of theodilite are :-

1. Adjustment of the horizontal plate bubble.

 2. Adjustment of the horizontal (or turnnion) axis.

3. Adjustment of the telescope.

4. Adjustment of the telescope level.

5. Adjustment of the vertical circle index.

3.48 Uses of a Theodolite

Theodolites are commonly used for the following operations:

1. Measurement of horizontal angles.

2. Measurement of vertical angles.

3.49 Latitude and Departure:

i) The latitude of a survey line is defined as its co-

ordinate measured parallel to the assumed meridian. It
is equal to l cosθ where l is length and θ is reduced
bearing of the line.

ii) The departure of a survey line is defined as its co-

ordinate measured at right to the assumed meridian. It
is equal to lsin θ where l is length and θ is reduced
bearing of the line.

3.50 Consecutive co-ordinates

The latitude and departure of a station with respect to its proceding

station are equal to the latitude and departure of the line joining them. Such
co-ordinates are known as consecutive co-ordinates.

3.51 Independent Co-ordinates

Total latitude and total departure of a station with repect to the origin
of co-ordinates, are called the independent co-ordinates.

3.52 Balancing of Co-ordinates

 Balancing of coordinates may be done by one of the following
methods:

i) Bowditch's Rule (ii) Transit Rule (iii) Graphical Rule.

1. Bodwitch's method

It states "as the sum of all the distances, is to each particular distance
so is the total error for latitude (or departure) to the required correction
for latitude (or departure)" i.e.,

Correction to latitude (or departure) of a line =

Mathematically,

2. Transit rule

It states, "correction to latitude (or departure) of a line should be

proportional to the latitude (or departure) instead of the length of
the traverse leg itself" i.e.
 =

Mathematically,

where L and D are total latitude and total

departures, respectively.

3.53 Tacheometry

The branch of surveying in which both horizontal and vertical

distances between the station of observation and staff position are
determined from instrumental observations, is known as Tacheometry.

3.54 Systems of Tacheometry

Tacheometric survey may be carried out either by stadia hair system

or tenagnetial system.

3.55 Stadia Hair System

This system may further be divided into two different methods:

i)Fixed Hair Method: In this method, stadia hair are kept at fixed
interval and the intercept on the levelling staff varies, depending upon the
horizontal distance between the instrument station and the staff position.

ii) Movable Hair Method: In this method, the intercept on the

levelling staff is kept constant and the distance between the stadia hairs in
variable.

1. Staff held vertical:

 if = multiplying constant

(f+d) = additive constant

S = staff intercept

D = Horizontal distance between staff station

observer's position

D =

then

2. Inclined sights staff held vertical:

If 0 is the angle or elevation or depression.

3. Inclined sights upwards, staff held normal:

R.L. of staff station

where h is the central hair reading.

4. Inclined sights downward, staff held normal:

R.L. of staff station

Where h is the central hair reading.

3.56 Anallatic lens

 A concave lens specially provided in a telescope between its
objective and eye piece, to eliminate the additive constant (f+d) from the
tacheometric distance formulae, is known as an anallatic lens.

3.57 Trangential Method of Teacheometry

1. Both angles being elevations:

If a2 and a1 be the angles of elevation to upper and lower targets S

distance apart.