Karen Chelsea M.

Langca-ag March 22, 2019

BSMLS 1E Anatomy and Physiology

SKULL
Zygomatic bone In the human skull, the zygomatic
bone (cheekbone or malar bone) is a
paired irregular bone which articulates
with the maxilla, the temporal bone, the
sphenoid bone and the frontal bone.

The zygomatic bone is one of

two bones (sometimes called
malar bones) that are responsible for the
prominences of the cheeks below and to
the sides of the eyes. These bones also
help form the lateral walls and floors of
the orbits (eye).

Lacrimal bone The lacrimal bone is perhaps the most

fragile bone of the face and one of the
smallest bones in the body. Spanning
between the middle of each eye socket,
each lacrimal is thin and scale like and
serves as support for the eye. The pair of
lacrimal bones are two of the fourteen
facial bones.

Ethmoid bone The ethmoid bone (/ˈɛθmɔɪd/; from Greek

ethmos, "sieve") is an unpaired bone in
the skull that separates the nasal cavity
from the brain. It is located at the roof of
the nose, between the two orbits. The
ethmoid bone is one of the bones that
make up the orbit of the eye.

Temporal bone The temporal bones are situated at the

sides and base of the skull, and lateral to
the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex.
The temporal bones are overlaid by the
sides of the head known as the temples,
and house the structures of the ears.
Sphenoid bone The sphenoid bone is wedged between
several other bones in the front of the
cranium. It consists of a central part and
two wing-like structures that extend
sideways toward each side of the skull.
This bone helps form the base of the
cranium, the sides of the skull, and the
floors and sides of the orbits (eye
sockets).

Parietal bone The cranial bone forming part of the side

and top of the head. In front each parietal
bone adjoins the frontal bone; in back,
the occipital bone; and below, the
temporal and sphenoid bones. The
parietal bones are marked internally by
meningeal blood vessels and externally
by the temporal muscles. They meet at
the top of the head (sagittal suture) and
form a roof for the cranium.

Frontal bone The frontal bone (latin: os frontale) is an

unpaired bowl-shaped bone located in the
forehead region, which contributes in
forming the cranium. The frontal bone lies
superior to the nasal bones and anterior
to the parietal bones.

Coronal Suture The coronal suture is a dense, fibrous

connective tissue joint that separates the
two parietal bones from the frontal bone
of the skull.

Sagittal Suture The sagittal suture is a dense, fibrous

connective tissue joint between the two
parietal bones of the skull. The term is
derived from the Latin word Sagitta,
meaning "arrow". The derivation of this
term may be demonstrated by observing
how the sagittal suture is notched
posteriorly, like an arrow, by the lambdoid
suture. The sagittal suture is also known
as the "interparietal suture" and the
"sutura interparietalis."
Nasal Bone The nasal bones are two small,
symmetrical midface bones of the skull
which build the bridge of the
nose. Their superior borders and
main bodies form the bridge of the nose
while the inferior borders connect with the
nasal cartilage to form the superior
margin of the nasal aperture. The function
of each nasal bone is to bind together the
cartilage that forms individual nose
contours and shapes.

Middle Nasal Concha The middle nasal

conchae or turbinates are one of the pairs
of conchae in the nose. The middle nasal
concha consists of the medial surface of
the labyrinth of ethmoid which is a thin
lamella that descends from the
undersurface of the cribriform plate and
ends in a free, convoluted margin.

It is rough, and marked above by

numerous grooves, directed nearly
vertically downward from the cribriform
plate; they lodge branches of the olfactory
nerves, which are distributed to the
mucous membrane covering the superior
nasal concha.

Inferior Nasal Concha The inferior nasal

conchae or turbinates are one of the pairs
of conchae in the nose. It extends
horizontally along the lateral wall of
the nasal cavity and consists of a lamina
of spongy bone, curled upon itself like a
scroll. The inferior nasal conchae are
considered a pair of facial bones since
they articulate with their
respective maxillae bones and project
horizontally into the nasal cavity.
Vomer The vomer is a singular bone that runs
vertically within the nasal cavity,
separating the left and right sides. To be
exact, the vomer forms the posterior
inferior aspect of the septum in between
the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid
bone anterosuperiorly and the palatine
bone posteroinferiorly.

Mandible The mandible (or lower jaw

bone, latin: mandibula) is the only
movable cranial bone. The mandible is a
single bone connected to the skull by the
temporomandibular joint.

Maxilla The maxilla, also known as the upper jaw,

is a vital viscerocranium structure of the
skull. It is involved in the formation of the
orbit, nose and palate, holds the upper
teeth and plays an important role for
mastication and communication.

Alveolar process of maxilla The alveolar process (alveolar bone) is

the thickened ridge of bone that contains
the tooth sockets on bones that bear
teeth (maxilla and mandible).

On the maxilla, the alveolar process is a

ridge on the inferior surface. It makes up
the thickest part of the maxilla.

The alveolar process contains a region of

compact bone adjacent to the periodontal
ligament called lamina dura. It is this part
which is attached to the cementum of the
roots by the periodontal ligament.

The buccinator muscle attaches to the

alveolar processes of both the maxilla
and mandible.
FONTANELS - The function of fontanels is to allow a baby's brain to grow during the
first year of life and for the baby's head to pass through the birth canal. Fontanels are
the soft areas between the bones of the skull.
Anterior Fontanel The unpaired anterior fontanel, the
largest fontanel, is located at the midline
among the two parietal bones and the
frontal bone, and is roughly diamond-
shaped. It usually closes 18 to 24 months
after birth.

Posterior Fontanel The unpaired posterior fontanel is located

at the midline among the two parietal
bones and the occipital bone. Because it
is much smaller than the anterior
fontanel, it generally closes about 2
months after birth.

Anterolateral Fontanel The paired anterolateral fontanels,

located laterally among the frontal,
parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones,
are small and irregular in shape.
Normally, they close about 3 months after
birth.

Posterolateral Fontanel The paired posterolateral fontanels,

located laterally among the parietal,
occipital, and temporal bones, are
irregularly shaped. They begin to close 1
to 2 months after birth, but closure is
generally not complete until 12 months.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN - also called the spine, backbone, or spinal column, makes up
about two-fifths of your total height and is composed of a series of bones called
vertebrae (VER-te-brē; singular is vertebra). The vertebral column functions as a strong,
flexible rod with elements that can move forward, backward, and sideways, and rotate.
In addition to enclosing and protecting the spinal cord, it supports the head and serves
as a point of attachment for the ribs, pelvic girdle, and muscles of the back and upper
limbs.

Cervical Vertebrae The bodies of the cervical vertebrae (C1–

C7) are smaller than all other vertebrae
except those that form the coccyx. Their
vertebral arches, however, are larger. All
cervical vertebrae have three foramina:
one vertebral foramen and two transverse
foramina. The vertebral foramina of
cervical vertebrae are the largest in the
spinal column because they house the
cervical enlargement of the spinal cord.

Atlas The atlas (C1), named after the

mythological Atlas who supported the
world on his shoulders, is the first cervical
vertebra inferior to the skull. The atlas is a
ring of bone with anterior and posterior
arches and large lateral masses. It lacks
a body and a spinous process. The
transverse processes and transverse
foramina of the atlas are quite large.

Axis The second cervical vertebra (C2), the

axis, does have a vertebral body. A
peglike process called the dens (= tooth)
or odontoid process projects superiorly
through the anterior portion of the
vertebral foramen of the atlas. The dens
makes a pivot on which the atlas and
head rotate. This arrangement permits
side-to side movement of the head, as
when you move your head to signify “no.”
The articulation formed between the
anterior arch of the atlas and dens of the
axis, and between their articular facets, is
called the atlanto-axial joint.
Thoracic Vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae (T1–T12) are
considerably larger and stronger than
cervical vertebrae. In addition, the
spinous processes on T1 through T10 are
long, laterally flattened, and directed
inferiorly. In contrast, the spinous
processes on T11 and T12 are shorter,
broader, and directed more posteriorly.
Compared to cervical vertebrae, thoracic
vertebrae also have longer and larger
transverse processes. They are easily
identified by their costal facets (cost- =
rib), which are articular surfaces for the
ribs. The feature of the thoracic vertebrae
that distinguishes them from other
vertebrae is that they articulate with the
ribs. Except for T11 and T12.

Intervertebral Disc Are found between the bodies of adjacent

vertebrae from the second cervical
vertebra to the sacrum and account for
about 25% of the height of the vertebral
column. Each disc has an outer fibrous
ring consisting of fibrocartilage called the
annulus fibrosus (annulus = ringlike) and
an inner soft , pulpy, highly elastic
substance called the nucleus pulposus
(pulposus = pulplike). The superior and
inferior surfaces of the disc consist of a
thin plate of hyaline cartilage. The discs
form strong joints, permit various
movements of the vertebral column, and
absorb vertical shock. Under
compression, they flatten and broaden.

Lumbar Vertebrae The lumbar vertebrae (L1–L5) are the

largest and strongest of the unfused
bones in the vertebral column because
the amount of body weight supported by
the vertebrae increases toward the
inferior end of the backbone. Their
various projections are short and thick.
Sacrum The sacrum (SA- -krum) is a triangular
bone formed by the union of five sacral
vertebrae (S1-S5). The sacral vertebrae
begin to fuse in individuals between 16
and 18 years of age, a process usually
completed by age 30. The female sacrum
is shorter, wider, and more curved
between S2 and S3 than the male
sacrum.

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE

Vertebral Foramen The opening formed by a neural arch

through which the spinal cord passes.

Lamina Plates of bone that form the posterior

walls of each vertebra, enclosing the
spinal cord.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Vertebral Body The vertebral body is the main portion of
the vertebra. It bears about 80 percent of
the load while standing and provides an
attachment for the discs between
the vertebrae. The cavity of the vertebral
body consists of cancellous bone tissue
and is encircled by a protective layer of
compact bone.

Pedicle The pedicle is a stub of bone that connects

the lamina to the vertebral body to form the
vertebral arch. Two short, stout processes
extend from the sides of the vertebral body
and joins with broad flat plates of bone
(laminae) to form a hollow archway that
protects the spinal cord. The pedicles also
form the base of the articular processes
which are the points of articulation for the
ribs.

Lamina The lamina is the flattened or arched part of

the vertebral arch, forming the roof of the
spinal canal; the posterior part of the spinal
ring that covers the spinal cord or nerves.

Superior Articular Facet Articular surface of the superior articular

process, directed more or less backward.

Transverse Process Transverse process is a small bony

projection off the right and left side of
each vertebrae. The two transverse
processes of each vertebrae function as
the site of attachment for muscles and
ligaments of the spine. the transverse
processes of thoracic vertebrae have
costal facets that articulate with the
tubercles of the ribs. Additionally, the
vertebral bodies of thoracic vertebrae
have articular surfaces that form
articulations with the heads of the ribs.
Spinous Process Spinous process is a bony projection off
the posterior (back) of each vertebra.
The spinous process protrudes where the
laminae of the vertebral arch join and
provides the point of attachment for
muscles and ligaments of the spine.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
Spinous process Quadrilateral in shape, are thick and
broad, and project nearly straight
posteriorly. The spinous processes are
well adapted for the attachment of the
large back muscles.

Lamina The laminae are broad, short, and

strong. They form the posterior portion of
the vertebral arch. In the upper lumbar
region, the lamina is taller than wide but
in the lower lumbar vertebra the lamina is
wider than tall. The lamina connects the
spinous process to the pedicles.

Vertebral Arch Two short, thick processes, the pedicles

(PEDi-kuls = little feet), project posteriorly
from the vertebral body and then unite
with the flat laminae (LAM-i-nē = thin
layers) to form the vertebral arch. The
vertebral arch extends posteriorly from
the body of the vertebra.

Vertebral Foramen The vertebral foramen contains the spinal

cord, adipose tissue, areolar connective
tissue, and blood vessels. The vertebral
foramen within the arch is triangular,
larger than the thoracic vertebrae, but
smaller than in the cervical vertebrae.
Vertebral Body The vertebral body is the main portion of
the vertebra. It bears about 80 percent of
the load while standing and provides an
attachment for the discs between
the vertebrae. The cavity of the vertebral
body consists of cancellous bone tissue
and is encircled by a protective layer of
compact bone.

Transverse Process The transverse processes are long and

slender. They are horizontal in the upper
three lumbar vertebrae and incline a little
upward in the lower two.

Pedicle The pedicles are very strong, directed

backward from the upper part of the
vertebral body; consequently, the inferior
vertebral notches are of considerable
depth. The pedicles change in
morphology from the upper lumbar to the
lower lumbar.

SACRUM
Superior Articular Process Superior articular process (processus
articularis superior) are oval-
shaped, superior projections located on
both sides of the sacral canal.

Anterior Sacral Foramina Four pairs of rounded foramina open onto

the ventral surface of the sacrum. These
openings communicate with the sacral
canal and intervertebral foramina to
transmit the ventral rami of the first four
sacral spinal nerves and lateral sacral
vessels.

Sacral Promontory The inwardly projecting anterior part of

the body of the first sacral vertebrae.
COCCYX
Transverse Processes First pair transverse processes are the
largest.

Co2 Second coccygeal vertebra.

RIB CAGE
First true rib The first through seventh pairs of ribs
have a direct anterior attachment to the
sternum by a strip of hyaline cartilage
called costal cartilage (cost- = rib).

Manubrium The superior part of sternum is the

manubrium (ma-NOO-brē-um =
handlelike).

Vertebrosternal ribs The ribs that have costal cartilages and

attach directly to the sternum are called
true (vertebrosternal) ribs.
7th Rib True rib

8th Rib False Rib

Vertebrochondral ribs The cartilages of the eighth, ninth, and

tenth pairs of ribs attach to one another
and then to the cartilages of the seventh
pair of ribs. These false ribs are called
vertebrochondral ribs.

12th Rib Floating (vertebral) rib

12th Thoracic vertebrae The twelfth thoracic vertebra (or the T12
vertebra) is the largest and most inferior
of the thoracic vertebrae. T12 bears the
most weight of any thoracic vertebra,
making it the strongest thoracic vertebra,
but also the most susceptible to stress-
related injuries.
First Thoracic vertebrae The T1 vertebra is the smallest and
closely resembles the cervical vertebrae.

Costal Cartilage The costal cartilages contribute to the

elasticity of the thoracic cage and prevent
various blows to the chest from fracturing
the sternum and/or ribs.

Body of Sternum The middle and largest part of sternum is

the body.

Xiphoid process The inferior, smallest part of sternum is

the xiphoid process (ZI--foyd = sword-
shaped).

Vertebral ribs The eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs are

false ribs designated as floating
(vertebral) ribs because the costal
cartilages at their anterior ends do not
attach to the sternum at all. These ribs
attach only posteriorly to the thoracic
vertebrae.

RIB
Shaft/Body The body (shaft) is the main part of the
rib.

Costal groove The inner surface of the rib has a costal

groove that protects the intercostal blood
vessels and a small nerve.

Neck The neck is a constricted portion of a rib

just lateral to the head.

Head The head is a projection at the posterior

end of the rib that contains a pair of
articular facets (superior and inferior).
Tubercle A knoblike structure on the posterior
surface, where the neck joins the body, is
called a tubercle (TOO-ber-kul).

SCAPULA
Superior Border It is concave and extends from
the superior angle of the scapula to
the coracoid process. It is the shortest
and thinnest of the three borders of the
scapula.

Suprascapular notch A deep semi-circular notch called

the suprascapula notch, the lateral side of
which is formed by the base of the
coracoid process.

Coracoid process At the lateral end of the superior border of

the scapula is a projection of the anterior
surface called the coracoid process
(KOR-a-koyd = like a crow’s beak), to
which the tendons of muscles (pectoralis
minor, coracobrachialis, and biceps
brachii) and ligaments (coracoacromial,
conoid, and trapezoid) attach.

Acromion Angle The prominent bony point at the junction

of the lateral border of acromion and the
spine of scapula.
Acromion The lateral end of the spine projects as a
flattened, expanded process called the
acromion (a-KRO- -mē-on; acrom- =
topmost; -omos = shoulder), easily felt as
the high point of the shoulder.
Glenoid Cavity Inferior to the acromion is a shallow
depression, the glenoid cavity, that
accepts the head of the humerus (arm
bone) to form the glenohumeral
(shoulder) joint.
Lateral (Axillary) Border The edge of the scapula bone located
towards the lateral(i.e. right- and left-)
aspects of the body, that is the right-side
of the body in the case of the right-
scapula bone and the left-side of the body
in the case of the left-scapula bone. It is
also known as the axillary border.

Inferior Angle It is located at the lowest point of the

scapula.

It is positioned where the vertebral

border, which is also called the 'medial
border' (of the scapula) meets the axillary
border, which is also called the 'lateral
border' (of the scapula).

Superior Angle It is located at the point on the upper

surface of the scapula where
the vertebral border, which is also called
the "medial border" (of the scapula)
meets the superior border (of the
scapula). It is a thin, smooth, rounded
angle that is slightly inclined laterally i.e.
towards the sides right/left of the body
rather than inwards towards the vertebral
column.

Supraspinous fossa The supraspinous fossa (sū-pra-SPĪ-nus)

is a surface of attachment for the
supraspinatus muscle of the shoulder.

Scapular spine The spine of the scapula or scapular

spine is a prominent plate of bone, which
crosses obliquely the medial four-fifths of
the scapula at its upper part, and
separates the supra- from
the infraspinatous fossa.
The spine is triangular, and flattened from
above downward, its apex being directed
toward the vertebral border.

Infraspinous fossa the infraspinous fossa (in-fra-SPĪ-nus)

serves as a surface of attachment for the
infraspinatus muscle of the shoulder.
Medial (Vertebral) Border The edge of the scapula bone located
towards the middle of the body (as
opposed to the lateral - right or left -
aspects). It is also known as the vertebral
border because it is the closest edge of
the scapula bone to the vertebral column.

CLAVICLE
Sternal End The sternal end contains a large facet –
for articulation with the manubrium of the
sternum at the sternoclavicular joint.

Shaft / Body The shaft of the clavicle acts a point of

origin and attachment for several muscles
– deltoid, trapezius, subclavius, pectoralis
major, sternocleidomastoid and
sternohyoid

Acromial End The acromial end houses a small facet for

articulation with the acromion of the
scapula at the acromioclavicular joint.

BONES OF THE HAND

Phalanges Most Distal. The bones of the fingers.
Each finger has three phalanges, except
for the thumb, which has two.

The thumb has a proximal and distal

phalanx, while the rest of the digits have
proximal, middle and distal phalanges.

Metacarpals There are five metacarpals, each one

related to a digit. Each metacarpal
consists of a base, shaft and a head. The
medial and lateral surfaces of the
metacarpals are concave, allowing
attachment of the interossei muscles.
Carpals Most proximal. A set of eight irregularly
shaped bones. These are located in the
wrist area.

Collectively, the carpal bones form

an arch in the coronal plane.
A membranous band, the flexor
retinaculum, spans between the medial
and lateral edges of the arch, forming
the carpal tunnel.

Hamate The hamate bone is surrounded from

a proximolateral direction by the lunate
bone and a proximomedial direction by
the triquetral bone. Laterally, it
communicates with the capitate bone
and, distally, it articulates with both the
fourth and fifth metacarpal bones.

Triquetrum The triquetrum bone is shaped like a

pyramid and, from a palmar perspective,
its apex points disto-medially towards the
pisiform bone, which is positioned upon
its palmar facet. It sits upon the hamate
bone, which is in the distal row of carpal
bones and its base faces laterally and
communicates with the lunate bone.

Pisiform The pisiform bone is the most

medial proximal carpal bone from a
palmar stance. It is also the smallest of all
the carpal bones and classified as
a sesamoid bone. Its dorsal surface is
faceted, allowing it to articulate with the
ventral surface of the triquetral bone. It is
palpable and lies within the tendon of
the flexor carpi ulnaris.
Lunate The lunate bone is a crescent shaped
structure that has a large proximal
articular surface which relates to
the radial bone and its articular disk. It
sits medially to the scaphoid
bone, superior to the capitate bone
and lateral to the triquetral bone. It may
also sometimes come into contact with
the hamate bone at its inferomedial
angle.

Scaphoid The scaphoid bone is the largest carpal

bones of the proximal row and it lies
beneath the anatomical snuff box.

The blood vessels that supply the carpal

bones enter the wrist along the lateral
roughened surface of the scaphoid bone.

Capitate The capitate bone is the largest of all the

carpal bones, both proximally and distally.
It is surrounded by the lunate
bone proximally, the third metacarpal
bone distally, the trapezoid
bone laterally and the hamate
bone medially.

Trapezium The trapezium is the first and most

lateral of the distal row of carpal bones
when the hand is viewed from its palmar
surface. On the palmar aspect of the
bone, there is a palpable tubercle and on
its medial side runs a groove that holds
the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis. The
trapezium bone is bordered medially by
the trapezoid bone and superiorly by the
scaphoid bone. Inferolaterally, its main
articulation is with the first metacarpal
bone via a saddle shaped
facet. Inferomedially however, it
sometimes also articulates with the
second metacarpal bone.
Trapezoid The trapezoid bone may look very small
in comparison to the other bones from a
palmar aspect, however it is much wider
on its dorsal side. It communicates via
its proximal facet with the scaphoid
bone, laterally with the trapezium
bone, medially with the capitate bone and
its distal facet allows it to articulate with
the second metacarpal bone.

Shaft The shaft is wider at the base and tapers

towards the head in all phalanges.

Base The base articulates with the distal row of

carpal bones to form
the carpometacarpal joints.

Body The phalanges are fourteen in number,

three for each finger, and two for the
thumb. Each consists of a body and two
extremities. The body tapers from above
downward, is convex posteriorly, concave
in front from above downward, flat from
side to side; its sides are marked by
rough which give attachment to the
fibrous sheaths of the Flexor tendons.

Head The heads articulate with the proximal

phalanges to form the
metacarpophalangeal joints. The heads
of the
metacarpals, commonly called “knuckles,”
are readily visible in a
clenched fist.
Distal phalanx These are the farthest phalanges from
the limbs and are commonly called as the
terminal phalanges. These are the most
diverse phalangeal bones as it serves a
number of purposes including supporting
the fingertips with cushion flesh under the
fingers and toes. These cushion flesh of
fingertips have a number of nerve
endings for sensitivity and are said to
have gone under numerous evolutionary
adaptations for a fine motor coordination
with the brain. These phalanges also
have minor extensions which are small
and flat and are called apical tufts and
support nails of the digits for a better
protection and attacks on preys.

Middle phalanx These types of phalanges are

intermediate in location and size as
compared to other bones of phalanges.
Also, these are not present in every digit.
For instance, intermediate phalanges are
always observed to be missing from
thumbs and large toes and hence their
digital formula is said to be 2. Their
location is mainly in between the proximal
and distal phalanges which explains it to
be connected with two interphalangeal
joints.

Proximal phalanx These are the primary phalangeal bones

which connect the digit forming structure
to the limb bones. The shape of proximal
phalanges in humans are observed to be
broad with a concave surface near the
palm. It connects the base of the limb
with the metacarpophalangeal joint to
facilitate movement around the wrists and
ankles.
PELVIC GIRDLE
Ilium The ilium (IL-ē-um = flank), the largest of
the three components of
the hip bone (Figure 8.9b), is composed
of a superior ala (= wing)
and an inferior body.

Anterior superior Iliac spine
Iliac crest
a bony projection of the iliac bone and an
important landmark of surface anatomy. It
refers to the anteriorextremity of
the iliac crest of the pelvis, which
provides attachment for the inguinal
ligament, and the sartorius muscle.
The superior border of
the ilium.

Acetabulum A cup like socket formed by the

connection of the three bones that make
up our hip. This socket meets with the
femoral head of the femur bone to form
the hip joint. Together, these two parts of
anatomy allow us to walk, run and move
freely.

Pubis The pubis forms the anterior portion of

the hip bone. The enlarged medial portion
of the pubis is the pubic body. Located
superiorly on the pubic body is a small
bump called the pubic tubercle.
The superior pubic ramus is the segment
of bone that passes laterally from the
pubic body to join the ilium. The narrow
ridge running along the superior margin of
the superior pubic ramus is the pectineal
line of the pubis.
Obturator Foramen The obturator foramen (Latin foramen
obturatum) is the large opening created
by the ischium and pubis bones of
the pelvis through which nerves and
blood vessels pass.
It is bounded by a thin, uneven margin, to
which a strong membrane is attached,
and presents, superiorly, a deep groove,
the obturator groove, which runs from the
pelvis obliquely medialward and
downward.

Ischial Ramus The branch of the ischial bone, formerly

called inferior branch of the ischium; the
portion of the bone that passes forward
from the ischial tuberosity to join the
inferior ramus of the pubic bone, thus
forming the ischiopubic ramus.

Ischial Tuberosity Ischial tuberosity is a large bony tubercle

which is located at the lower, back side of
the left and right ischium, the lower back
part of the hip bone, and its ramus. It
marks the side boundary of the pelvis.

Ischial spine A thin pointed triangular eminence that

projects from the dorsal border of the
ischium and gives attachment to the
gemellus superior on its external surface
and to the coccygeus, levator ani, and
pelvic fascia on its internal surface

Greater Sciatic notch Above the ischial spine is a large notch,

the greater sciatic notch, converted into a
foramen by the sacrospinous ligament.
It transmits the Piriformis, the superior
and inferior gluteal vessels and nerves,
the sciatic and posterior femoral
cutaneous nerves, the internal pudendal
vessels, and the nerves to the Obturator
internus and Quadratus femoris.
FEMUR
Greater Trochanter The greater trochanter gives attachment
to a number of muscles (including the
gluteus medius and minimus, piriformis,
obturator internus and externus, and
gemelli muscles)

Quadrate Tubercle A small tubercle found upon the

upper part of the femur, that serves as a
point of insertion of the quadratus femoris
along with the intertrochanteric crest and
the linea quadrata

Gluteal Tuberosity The gluteal tuberosity is the lateral ridge

of the linea aspera. It is very rough and
runs almost vertically upward to the base
of the greater trochanter. The gluteal
tuberosity gives attachment to part of
the Gluteus maximus: its upper part is
often elongated into a roughened crest,
on which a more or less well-marked,
rounded tubercle, the third trochanter, is
occasionally developed.

Lateral Epicondyle The lateral epicondyle of the femur,

smaller and less prominent than
the medial epicondyle, gives attachment
to the fibular collateral ligament of
the knee-joint. Directly below it is a small
depression from which a smooth well-
marked groove curves obliquely upward
and backward to the posterior extremity
of the condyle.

Lateral Condyle The lateral condyle is one of the two

projections on the lower extremity of the
femur. The other one is the medial
condyle. The lateral condyle is the more
prominent and is broader both in its front-
to-back and transverse diameters.
Intercondylar Fossa The intercondylar fossa of
femur (intercondyloid fossa of
femur, intercondylar notch of femur) is a
deep notch between the rear surfaces of
the medial and lateral epicondyle of the
femur, two protrusions on the distal end
of the femur (thigh bone) that joins the
knee. On the front of the femur, the
condyles are but much less prominent
and are separated from one another by a
smooth shallow articular depression
called the patellar surface because it
articulates with the posterior surface of
the patella (kneecap).

Medial Condyle The medial condyle is one of the two

projections on the lower extremity of
femur, the other being the lateral condyle.
The medial condyle is larger than the
lateral (outer) condyle due to more weight
bearing caused by the centre of mass
being medial to the knee.

Medial Epicondyle The medial epicondyle of the femur is a

bony protrusion located on the medial
side of the bone's distal end.

Lesser Trochanter The lesser trochanter receives the

insertion of several muscles (including the
psoas major and iliacus muscles)

Neck The femur neck (femoral neck or neck of

the femur) is a flattened pyramidal
process of bone, connecting the femoral
head with the femoral shaft, and forming
with the latter a wide angle opening
medialward.

The neck is flattened from before

backward, contracted in the middle, and
broader laterally than medially.
Head The head of the femur articulates with the
acetabulum in the pelvic bone forming the
hip joint, while the distal part of the femur
articulates with the tibia and kneecap
forming the knee joint. By most measures
the femur is the strongest bone in the
body. The femur is also the longest bone
in the human body.

BONES OF THE FOOT

Distal phalanx of big toe Bone at the end of the big toe.

Distal phalanx of small toe Bone at the end of the small toe.

Middle phalanx of small toe Small central bone of the small toe.

Proximal phalanx of small toe The small bone of the small toe closest to
the foot.

First metatarsal The first metatarsal bone is the bone in

the foot just behind the big toe. The first
metatarsal bone is the shortest of
the metatarsal bones and by far the
thickest and strongest of them.

Fifth metatarsal The fifth metatarsal is the last bone at the

outside of the foot, and most breaks of
the fifth metatarsal occur at the base.
First (medial) cuneiform The largest of the cuneiforms. It is
situated at the medial side of the foot,
anterior to the navicular bone and
posterior to the base of the first
metatarsal. Lateral to it is
the intermediate cuneiform. It articulates
with four bones: the navicular, second
cuneiform, and first and second
metatarsals. The tibialis
anterior and fibularis longus
muscle inserts at the medial cuneiform
bone.

Second (intermediate) cuneiform Shaped like a wedge, the thin end

pointing downwards. The intermediate
cuneiform is situated between the other
two cuneiform bones (the medial and
lateral cuneiforms), and articulates with
the navicular posteriorly, the second
metatarsal anteriorly and with the other
cuneiforms on either side.

Third (lateral) cuneiform Intermediate in size between the other

two cuneiform bones, is also wedge-
shaped, the base being uppermost. It
occupies the center of the front row of
the tarsal bones, between the
intermediate cuneiform medially,
the cuboid laterally,
the navicular posteriorly and
the third metatarsal in front. The tibialis
posterior inserts at the medial cuneiform,
while the flexor hallucis brevis originates
from it.

Navicular The navicular bone in humans is one of

the tarsal bones, found in the foot. Its
name derives from the human bone's
resemblance to a small boat, caused by
the strongly concave proximal articular
surface.
The navicular bone in humans is located
on the medial side of the foot, and
articulates proximally with
the talus, distally with the three cuneiform
bones, and laterally with the cuboid.
Cuboid The cuboid bone is the most lateral of the
bones in the distal row of the tarsus. It is
roughly cubical in shape, and presents a
prominence in its inferior (or plantar)
surface, the tuberosity of the cuboid. The
bone provides a groove where the tendon
of the peroneus longus muscle passes to
reach its insertion in the first
metatarsal and medial cuneiform bones.

Calcaneus Calcaneus (from the Latin calcaneus or

calcaneum, meaning heel) or heel bone is
a bone of the tarsus of the foot which
constitutes the heel. In some other
animals, it is the point of the hock.

In humans, the calcaneus is the largest of

the tarsal bones and the largest bone of
the foot.

Talus The talus (; Latin for ankle), talus

bone, astragalus , or ankle bone is one of
the group of foot bones known as
the tarsus. The tarsus forms the lower
part of the ankle joint through
its articulations with the lateral and medial
malleoli of the two bones of the lower leg,
the tibia and fibula. Within the tarsus, it
articulates with the calcaneus below
and navicular in front within
the talocalcaneonavicular joint. Through
these articulations, it transmits the entire
weight of the body to the foot.
PATADON