Oxy-Acetylene Welding

Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Oxy-Acetylene welding relies on the heat of a flame to melt the material being welded.
Fusion can either be autogenous or with the addition of a filler material.
Safety
The high flame temperature required for oxy-fuel welding and cutting processes is
obtained by combining oxygen with a fuel gas to produce flame temperatures of
approximately 2500°C to 3000°C. There are certain precautions to be taken when using
gases and these are described below:-
Fig.1 OXYGEN (black, right hand thread) should be handled carefully and must not be
stored in warm areas. The pressure of oxygen in cylinders when full is 2500lbs.per square
inch (200 bar) at normal temperature and any rise in surrounding temperature will cause
an increase in cylinder pressure above 2500lbs.Oil or grease should never be allowed to
come into contact with oxygen cylinders as an inflammable mixture will be formed, which
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may ignite spontaneously.
Fig. 2 ACETYLENE (maroon, left hand thread) should be stored in a separate fuel
compound as acetylene and air form an explosive mixture, these cylinders should also be
chained when either in use or in storage. No alloy containing more than 70% copper
should be used on any part of the equipment as a highly explosive compound is formed.
Cylinders must always be stored upright and away from high temperatures.
Fig 3. PROPANE (red, left hand thread). Storage as for acetylene, a fuel gas. Highly
inflammable and can form explosive mixtures with air or oxygen (2% to 10%). With
propane being heavier than air it can flow easily in still air some considerable distances
therefore care must be exercised when using this gas.
Equipment
Pressure Regulators
Regulators should always be treated as delicate, precision instruments and must not be
subject to sudden pressures or knocks. Not only are regulators identified by colour, they
also have right hand or left hand threads depending on the type of gas being used. The
type of thread can be identified by a notch cut on the equipment connections, showing the
gas to be a fuel gas.
Single or multi stage regulators are available depending on working conditions. Single
stage are suitable for welding with maximum outlet pressure of 2.1 bar, or scrap and heavy
duty cutting with pressures of 8.3 to 14 bar.
Multi stage reduces pressure twice, giving a more stable output pressure, suitable for
quality welding and cutting applications.
Blowpipes
Various types available, low pressure and high pressure, high pressure where gas is mixed
in either the head or the shank, while a low pressure blowpipe with an injector mixing can
be used with low pressure. Cutting torches must be kept clean and free from oil, grease etc.
and periodically inspected for wear and damage.
Gas Hose
Should be maintained in good condition at all times and fitted with the proper connections.
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Most hoses are fitted with hose check valves to prevent damage to the regulators.
Flashback Arrestors
These are safety devices on the outlet of the oxygen and fuel gas regulators. A highly
sensitive cut off mechanism operates at the slightest back pressure, whether the pressure
wave is slow or sudden. An effective non-return valve, which also prevents flashback.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding Techniques
There are two techniques used to weld flat joints:
Leftward Welding
This method is used on low carbon steel sheet and plate in thicknesses up to 5 mm and also
on cast iron and certain non-ferrous metals. As the name implies, the weld is started at the
right hand side and progresses towards the left. The filler rod precedes the blowpipe and is
held at an angle of 30° - 40° to the work surface. The blowpipe is held at an angle of 60° -
70° to the work surface and is given a slight side to side movement to ensure side fusion as
the filler rod is fed into the molten pool.
Fig. 4
Rightward Welding
This method is used on steel plate over 5 mm thick. The weld is started at the left hand side
of the joint and progresses towards the right. The blowpipe is held at an angle of 40° - 50°
to the work surface and travels in a straight line. The filler rod, which is held at an angle of
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30° - 40° to the work surface, follows the blowpipe and is fed into the molten pool with a
circular action. A considerable amount of practice is required to perfect this technique.
The advantages of rightward welding over the leftward technique are higher speed, less
distortion and more economical use of gas and filler rod. This is due to the fact that
thicknesses up to and including 8 mm need not be bevelled and for butt joints in plate over
8 mm the included angle of the vee preparation is only 60°.
Fig. 5
The Oxy-Acetylene Flame
The heat source for this process is a chemical reaction resulting from the combustion of
acetylene with oxygen. This is an exothermic reaction in which equal volumes of acetylene
and oxygen supplied by the blowpipe react to produce carbon monoxide, and hydrogen as
products of the first stage of combustion. The reaction is as follows:-
Fig. 6 The Oxy-Acetylene flame
Theoretically, equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are supplied to the blowpipe.
Chemical reactions are as follows:-
Stage 1
Acetylene + Oxygen = Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen

C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2
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Stage 2
Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water

CO + H2 + O2 = CO2 + H2O
In Stage 2, the carbon monoxide burns and forms carbon dioxide, while the hydrogen
which is formed from the action in Stage 1, combines with oxygen to form water. The
combustion is therefore complete and carbon dioxide and water (turned to steam) are the
chief products of combustion.
This produces a flame temperature of approximately 32000°C.
Oxy-Acetylene Flame Types
Neutral Flame
As the supply of oxygen to the blowpipe is further increased, the flame contracts and the
white cone becomes clearly defined, assuming a definite rounded shape. At this stage
approximately equal quantities of acetylene and oxygen are being used and combustion is
complete, all the carbon supplied by the acetylene is being consumed and the maximum
heat given out. The flame is now neutral, and this type of flame is the one most extensively
used by the welder, who should make himself thoroughly familiar with its appearance and
characteristics.
Carburising Flame
This is a flame in which an excess of acetylene is burning, i.e. combustion is incomplete and
unconsumed carbon is present. When lighting the blowpipe the acetylene is turned on first
and ignited, giving a very smoky yellow flame of abnormal size, showing two cones of
flame in addition to an outer envelope; this is an exaggerated form of the carburising
flame, but gives out comparatively little heat and is of little use for welding. When the
oxygen is turned on and the supply is gradually increased, the flame, though still of
abnormal size contracts towards the blowpipe tip where an inner white cone of great
luminosity commences to make its appearance. If the increase in the supply of oxygen is
stopped before the cone becomes clearly defined and while it is still an inch or so long, the
result is a carburising flame which is mainly used for hard surfacing and should not be
employed for welding steel as unconsumed carbon may be introduced into the weld and
produce a hard, brittle, deposit.
Oxidising Flame
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A further increase in the oxygen supply will produce an oxidising flame in which there is
more oxygen than is required for complete combustion. The inner cone will become shorter
and sharper, the flame will turn a deeper purple colour and emit a characteristic slight
"hiss", while the molten metal will be less fluid and tranquil during welding and excessive
sparking will occur. An oxidising flame is only used for special applications, and should
never be used for welding.
Gas Shielded Tungsten Arc Welding
Terminology
TIG Tungsten Inert Gas

ARGONARC Tungsten Inert Gas (BOC Tradename)
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
HELIARC CO2 + Oxygen (US Tradename)
Description of the Process
Consists of an AC/DC arc burning between a non-consumable electrode and the workpiece
to melt the joint area. The area of the arc is enveloped in a protective gas shield
which protects the weld pool and electrode from contamination while allowing a
stable arc to be maintained. The filler wire is added either by hand, or in the
mechanised process, by feed rollers attached to the torch.
Application
Common applications consists of high quality welding on stainless steels; aluminium and
its alloys; copper; nickel alloys and rare materials such as titanium and zirconium.
Mild steels are welded when full penetration welds are required within certain
tolerances, both in size and x-ray quality.
Used widely in the aerospace, chemical and nuclear industries.
Electrical Conditions
DC (direct current) - most normally used for TIG welding of stainless steels and heat
resisting steels, mild and low alloy steels, copper, nickel alloys, lead, silver, titanium
and other metals that do not contain aluminium, magnesium or their alloys.
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The electrode must be connected to the negative terminal, where one third of the heat is
generated. Two thirds of the heat of the arc is generated at the positive pole. A
tungsten electrode connected to the positive pole would overheat and melt causing
contamination of the weld and cracks in the ceramic shroud.
AC (Alternating current) - is used only for TIG welding of aluminium, magnesium and
their alloys. Surface oxidation is automatically removed by the action of the arc each
time the electrode becomes positive, (50 times per. second), thus the need for
corrosive fluxes is unnecessary. Equal heat distribution is achieved by the rapid
reversal of the polarity between positive and negative.
If DC supply was used and the electrode was connected to the positive pole it would
overheat. If DC supply was used, and the electrode was connected to the negative
pole there would be no removal of the surface oxides.
Equipment
The basic equipment for TIG welding is the same as that used for MMA, but with the
additions of a torch/electrode holder which can provide a gas supply to the weld
area, and additional components with specific functions are also included.
Requirements
 Power source
 high frequency unit
 DC suppressor
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 contactor unit
 cables and hoses
 torch
 electrodes
 filler wire
Requires a controllable supply of AC/DC current, any where between 1 amp

and 300 amps, with an open circuit voltage of between 60 and 100 volts.
Power source
AC/DC rectifiers, AC only, or DC only power sources with a drooping
characteristic supply are required.
The two main functions of this unit are :-
 To initiate the arc without the electrode touching the workpiece by

High means of a high frequency spark thus preventing contamination of
frequency the work by the electrode.
unit
 To stabilise the AC arc by superimposing a high frequency current on
the welding current there by giving positive re-ignition of the arc at
the positive/negative changeovers.
To suppress the inherent DC tendency of the AC welding arc. When
welding aluminium with a tungsten electrode on AC polarity there is a
DC tendency for the current to be changed to DC. This condition (inherent
Suppressor rectification) increases as the oxide film increases. A DC suppressor unit
unit allows the AC current but prevents what is known as the DC component,
thus a suppressor is only necessary when welding aluminium, magnesium,
and their alloys.
Contactor The two main functions of this unit are:-
1. To break the arc without removing the electrode and gas shield from
the weld area.
2. To protect the operator by cutting of the open circuit voltage when
the torch is not in use.
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Contactors may be operated by a switch on the torch or a foot pedal. The
foot control may also allow the current to be adjusted during welding.
These must be of the type recommended by the manufacturer of the
Cables equipment with suitable plugs and connections for AC and /or DC power
sources.
The two main types of torches are:-
Torches  Air cooled
 Water cooled
Used for light duty work up to approximately 1.6mm thickness, they vary
Air cooled from pencil type and swivel head type with a capacity of up to 50 amps, to
torches the general purpose torch used for continuous welding at 75 amps.
Used for heavy duty work up to approximately 12mm thickness with
current capacities of between 100 and 500 amps. Cooling water passes
through the tube carrying the welding cable. This allows a reduction in
Water cooled
power cable size thus reducing weight and increasing flexibility. A safety
switch is incorporated on the power source which prevents the arc being
initiated if the water supply fails.
The non-consumable electrodes are improved by the addition of small
Electrodes
amounts of zirconium, thorium, and ceriated tungsten.
Colour coded red, used mainly on DC negative polarity for stainless and
Thoriated heat resisting steels, mild steels, low alloy steels, nickel, silver, lead, copper,
electrodes monel, titanium etc. These electrodes can also be used on AC polarity but
the arc characteristics are poor.
Zirconiated Colour coded white, designed for AC welding of aluminum and
electrodes magnesium and their alloys.
Specially designed for DC welding, with negative polarity and used exactly
Ceriated as thoriated electrodes. The main use of these type electrodes are in areas
electrodes where no radioactivity can be allowed, i.e. aircraft industry, and nuclear
industries. Colour coded blue/green.
Electrode Preparation
A silicon carbide grinding wheel should be reserved for tungsten grinding to prevent
contamination of the electrode by other materials. As a general guide for DC welding a
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sharp point with a 1-3 x diameter taper should be used, the lower the current the longer
the taper and vice-versa. For 100% X-ray quality, a slightly rounded point will prevent
any tungsten inclusions within the weld.
Under these conditions the arc is so short that the molten globules at the electrode (wire)
tip short circuit to the work piece at rapid time intervals. The rise in the current melts the
electrode tip and this re-establishes the arc. This cycle occurs approximately 100 times per
second.
Shielding Gas
A chemically inert gas is required for TIG welding. Argon is the most common gas used, it
is present in the atmosphere to approximately .94% volume. Argon is tasteless, odourless,
non-toxic and does not burn. The gas is supplied in light blue steel cylinders and
generally at a pressure of 2500 lbs per square inch (14.5 lbs = 1 Bar). It is extracted through
a pressure regulator at 30 lbs per square inch. Cylinders should be changed when the
reading on the contents gauge falls to 30 lbs.
Argon combined with either Hydrogen, Helium, or Oxygen is used to improve the
welding characteristics on various materials.
Consumables
Apart from the shielding gases and the electrical power used, the main consumable is the
filler wire. The process may be used without the addition of filler especially on thin
material. If filler is required then it is added to the weld pool in the form of a rod which
can either be added manually or by an automatic wire feed unit. It may also be added in
the form of a fusible insert to produce an accurate penetration bead through a joint.
Control of the Process
The main controls are :-
 current
 filler wire addition
 travel speed
These are the main parameters for the TIG welding process. Current range is dependent
on the type and size of electrode used, and the thickness of the material and joint position.
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A high level of manual dexterity is required to co-ordinate the addition of filler wire to the
travel speed and also to maintain a constant arc length.
Features of the Process
In spite of the low speed of the process, its ability to produce high quality welds in a wide
range of materials has made it a viable proposition for more demanding applications. The
process is not considered economic for thicker materials or low integrity joints in plain
carbon steels.
Safety
The main safety points using the TIG process is good insulation of all power cables, secure
welding return clamps and protection against arc radiations. The high frequency
spark used to initiate the arc can occur through any break in the insulation, and can
cause deep seated burns which can be very painful, medical advice should be sought
as soon as possible.
Precautions in Use of Inert Gas for Welding
The delivery of inert gases such as Argon, and Nitrogen into confined spaces may lead to
the oxygen content of the air being reduced to a point where there is a danger of
asphyxiation. For this reason adequate ventilation should be used.
Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding [MIG/GMAW]
Terminology
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding

MIG Metal Inert Gas
MAG Metal Active Gas
CO2 Carbon Dioxide + Oxygen
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GMAW is an American description of the process. MIG welding means the use of an inert
(i.e. Non Active) gas; MAG welding requires the use of an active gas (i.e. carbon dioxide
and oxygen). CO2 is a more commonly used abbreviation of MAGS welding gas.
The process consists of a DC arc burning between a thin bare metal wire electrode and the
work piece. The arc and weld area are enveloped in a protective gas shield. The wire
electrode is fed from a spool, through a welding torch which is connected to the positive
terminal into the weld zone.
GMAW Circuit diagram. (1) Welding torch (2) Workpiece (3) Power source (4)Wire feed unit (5) Electrode
source (6)Shielding gas supply.
Fig. 1
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The arc is self adjusting; any variation in the arc length made by the welder produces a
change in the burn off rate of the electrode, and the arc re-establishes its original length.
Application
It is used on all thicknesses of steels, aluminum, nickel, stainless steels etc. Due to the
process being semiautomatic, low operator skill is required compared to other welding
processes. It is used in most metal forming/working environments.
Safety
Good ventilation is essential and personnel protection such as overalls, mask, gloves,
screens etc. are required to prevent burns from the molten metal and arc radiations.
Equipment
The basic equipment consists of :
Power A direct current unit of design and capacity according to particular usage, i.e.
source motor generator for site use or a rectifier for shop use.
Wire drive
Containing feed rolls connected to a variable speed motor.
unit
Correct gas for material, thickness, etc. required.
Shielding
15-20 cubic feet per hour (7 to 10 l/min.) under normal conditions increasing
gas
to as high as 35 CFH (17 l/min),Both the mixture of CO2 and Argon is used.
Connected to the wire feed unit to allow both gas and wire to travel to weld
Torch/gun
area.
Electrical conditions
Welding Current and Wire Feed Speed
These are generally set by the same control; higher wire speeds mean higher amperages
and vice-versa.
Contact tip to work distance (CTWD) is usually 10-12 mm
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Voltage
Open circuit voltages can be either varied or stepped.
Metal Transference Across the Arc
Dip Transfer
Also known as short circuiting arc welding, is carried out using currents below 200 amps
and 25 volts. Under these conditions the arc is so short that the molten globules at the
electrode (wire) tip short circuit to the work piece at rapid time intervals. The rise in the
current melts the electrode tip and this re-establishes the arc. This cycle occurs
approximately 100 times per second. Dip transfer is therefore suitable for all positions
welding, thin material, open butt type joint etc.
Spray Transfer
Using high currents and voltages, i.e. 250-500 amps and 25+ volts, the metal is transferred
across the arc in the form of fine droplets in a spray. It is used for high deposition rates
and deeper penetrating welds. Spray, due to the high current and voltages involved, is
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mainly used on thick materials in the flat position only; (except when welding aluminium,
where spray transfer is used on all positions).
Inductance Settings
This control can only be used on dip transfer, and it fine-tunes the arc by either making the
arc hotter or cooler. To rapid a rise during short circuiting will cause globules to explode
out of the arc at the current peak, thus creating excessive spatter. Too slow a current rise
will cause the electrode to freeze in the weld pool. Therefore :-
1. Low inductance setting:- Gives higher short circuiting frequency and relatively cold
welding
2. High inductance setting:- Gives lower short circuiting frequency and longer arcing
periods between short circuiting giving hotter welding.
Applications and Advantages of Spray Transfer
Pulsed Arc (Controlled Spray Transfer)
This combines two power sources into one unit, one side supplies a back-ground current;
keeping the electrode in a molten condition, while the other unit produces pulses of higher
current at regular intervals, which detach and accelerate the droplets of metal into the
weld pool.
This type of transfer allows positions welding and higher deposition rates.
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Electrodes
Mainly consisting of a bare wire to allow compatibility with parent plate. Metal powder
and flux coated wires are also used with CO2 shielding gas to allow high deposition rates
and to improve weld metal quality.
General Sizes: 0.5 mm to 1.6 mm(sometimes 3.0 mm)
Brazing
Brazing is the joining of two materials by means of another which has a melting point
lower than that of either of the two parent metals. There are three types of brazing:
 Soldering, where the melting temperature is less than 450°C.

 Low Temperature Brazing, where the temperature of melting is between 450°C and
1000°C.
 High Temperature Brazing, where the melting temperature is greater than 1000°C
The accepted method of introducing the molten filler material is to apply the brazing alloy
to the outer surface of the joint and to allow it to flow in and through the joint. There are
three mechanisms that promote the flow of the brazing alloy - capillary attraction,
temperature gradient and gravity.
A major difference between welding and brazing is the way joints are made.
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Figure 8. Welding and Brazing Joints Compared
Bronze Welding
Bronze welding is a process of joining metals in which the edges of the metal are heated to
a temperature below their melting point and a bronze alloy is simultaneously melted and
caused to flow over the edges and join with them. By this means a strong and ductile
union is produced between high melting point metals, i.e. cast iron, steel, copper and
malleable iron etc.
Bronze welding resembles brazing up to a point, the application of brazing is generally

limited to joints where a close fit or mechanical fastening serves to consolidate the
assembly. In bronze welding the filler alone provides the joint strength, and is applied by
the manipulation of a heating flame in the same manner as gas welding. The heating flame
to serve the dual purpose of melting off the bronze filler and simultaneously heating the
surface to be joined. the operator in this manner controls the work, hence the term "bronze
welding".
Almost any copper-zinc alloy can be used as a medium for such welding, but the
consideration of costs, flowing qualities, strength and ductility of the deposit, have led to
the adoption of one general purpose 60-40 copper-zinc alloy with minor constituents
incorporated to prevent zinc oxide fuming and to improve fluidity and strength.
Silicon is the most important of these minor constituents, it is useful in three ways :-
1. Silicon in the manner with which it readily unites with oxygen to form silica,
provides a covering for the molten metal which prevents zinc volatilisation and also
serves to maintain the balance of the constituents of the alloy to be carried through
to the deposit.
2. The coating of silica combines with the flux used in bronze welding to form a very
fusible slag, which material assists the tinning operation, which is an essential
feature of any bronze welding process.
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3. Silicon prevents the formation of gas holes and porosity in the deposited weld
metal, which would reduce the strength of the weld, by its capacity for retaining
gases in solution during solidification of the alloy.
Silicon introduces valuable properties to the bronze welding rod, other elements, such as
lead, have a detrimental effect on the deposit. A welding rod with a reduced lead content
is essential if porosity, brittleness and low-tensile strength is to be avoided.
Welding Technique
The type of metal being welded has no effect on the welding technique. It is essential that
the surfaces are cleaned and degreased, the temperature is raised to approximately 850°C,
or dull red in colour. The bronze rod is melted by the heating flame and allowed to flow
over these surfaces.
The types of flame which can be used are :-
 Oxy-acetylene
 Oxy-hydrogen
 Oxy-coal gas
 Air-acetylene
The Oxy-acetylene flame has the highest flame intensity and is most generally used; the
use of Air-acetylene is limited to work on light gauge material. The size of the flame
depends on the thickness and mass of metal to be welded, and upon the extent of pre-
heating. To reduce volatilisation of the Zinc from the bronze alloy by forming a skin of
oxide on the surface of the deposit, a slightly reducing (oxidising) flame should be used.
PART A – Short Questions

1. Define the term welding.
2. What is Plastic welding? Give some examples.
3. What is fusion welding? Give some examples.
4. Name few gases used in welding.
5. What is the function of regulator in gas welding?
6. What is carburizing flame?
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7. What is neutral flame? Write down its temperature.
8. List out the advantages of gas welding.
9. List the different equipments and accessories used in electric arc welding.
10. What is torch brazing?
Welding of Aluminum
Much of the successful art of aluminum welding is to be found in careful thought and
preparation even before welding is started. Through correct preparation, it is easier to
avoid the pitfalls that can trap the unwary. Therefore, below are a few facts on base metals,
welding methods, types of joint and filler metals.
Base Metals
Aluminum and its alloys can, in general terms, be divided up into three groups:
 aluminium (pure aluminum)

 non-heat-treatable alloys
 heat-treatable alloys.
Aluminums occur in various degrees of purity. The most common commercial grades
contain 99.7, 99.5 or 99.0% aluminum. Non-hardenable alloys, i.e. not suitable for heat
treatment, contain small amounts of manganese (Mn) or magnesium (Mg). Al-Mn alloys
are often made up of between 1.0 and 1.2% Mn, while Al-Mg alloys with up to 5% are
quite common. Al-Mg-Mn alloys are also used.
The hardenable alloys contain copper (Cu), magnesium and silicon (Mg + Si), or zinc and
magnesium (Zn + Mg).
Aluminum and most of the non-heat-treatable and heat-treatable alloys possess good
weldability. In the case of hardenable alloys with copper and lead additives, there is a risk
of hot cracking and therefore they are difficult to weld. Many casting alloys are also
suitable for welding except in the case of those which have high content of copper or
magnesium which are unsuitable for welding.
Welding Methods
Aluminium is an easily welded metal. However, consideration must be given to both the
welding method, the type of joint and the filler material. The two dominating welding
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methods are MIG and TIG welding, but also gas, plasma, and resistance welding are used
as well as welding with covered electrodes.
Whether to use MIG or TIG welding depends on numerous factors. The TIG method is
better for thin light-gauge materials, when there is a need for good surface finish and
when welding from one side, that is to say when the root side is not accessible such as
when welding pipes, and when repairing castings. TIG welding of aluminium is generally
done with alternating current.
The MIG method is used primarily in the case of thicker or heavy-gauge materials when
high welding speed is a priority and also for long, continuous welds. Due to the lower
heat input, MIG welding results in less distortion in the welding zone. For consistent,
reliable feeding of soft aluminium filler wire, the push-pull type of equipment gives the
best results.
Pulse-Arc welding with MIG is an interesting technology in the context of aluminium

welding and is quickly paining in popularity. One of the main benefits of this method is
that it gives better control of the molten pool in the case of thin material, and the arc is
more stable and there is less spatter. The risk of welding imperfections is also lower.
Types of Joint
The type of joint chosen for aluminium welding depends on the thickness of the material
and the type and shape of the workpiece. As a rule, no preparation of the joint is required
for thinner materials. An ordinary Tee joint is recommended for one sided TIG welding up
to 4mm thickness, and two-sided welding for thicknesses, a 50° V-joint with a 2 to 3mm
unbevelled edge is recommended or, alternatively, a 90° double V-joint.
Good joint fit-up makes the welding easier, saves shielding gas and filler material and also
contributes to a higher quality of welding. If jigs are not used, the weldments should be
tack welded in the correct position prior to final welding. Where it is possible, use of a root
support or backing is recommended. The backing can be either copper or steel.
A special characteristic of aluminium is the higher melting point of oxide that forms on its
surface, which is mixed into the molten pool, can cause welding defects. The joint surfaces
must therefore be scraped or brushed clean using stainless steel wire brush immediately
prior to welding. Aluminium is also sensitive to other impurities such a soil, grease, paint
and general contamination, all of which can cause pores in the weld. Cleaning of the joint
surfaces, as well as the root and top surfaces bordering on the joint is recommended.
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Bear in mind that welding causes greater deformation in aluminium than it does in steel. It
is therefore essential to give good consideration to the welding sequence, the need of pre-
setting to allow for contraction, use of fixtures, and so on.
Filler Metals
When welding aluminium, the choice of filler metal must be determined by the
composition of the base metal and the demands which will be made on the end product.
Generally speaking, aluminium and non-heat-treatable alloys should be welded with a

filler metal of the same type of alloy as the base metal. Alloys which are suitable for
hardening should be welded with a filler metal with a high content of silicon (Si) or
magnesium (Mg) in order to avoid the risk of hot cracking.
If there is need of a good match in colour between the welded joint and the base material
after anodic treatment, a suitable filler metal should be used. As in the case of the base
metal, care must be taken to keep the filler metal clean. On no account must it be
contaminated by oil, grease or dust and therefore it must be kept well protected and stored
in warm and dry conditions
Oxy-Gas Cutting
Oxygen cutting is more partial disintegration than cutting. It relies on the fact that when
steel is heated in the presence of oxygen it will combine with the oxygen to form a
magnetic oxide (slag).
The velocity of the oxygen has a scouring effect on the sides of the cut which removes
particles of oxidised metal adjacent to the oxygen stream. To start cutting the steel requires
to be at a temperature of approximately 900°C which is known as the ignition
temperature. This is below the melting point of steel. A slight hardening at the surface of
the cut edge is unavoidable, however this can easily be removed by a non-thermal process.
(e.g. grinding).
Note : Iron and steel can be cut by the Oxy-hydrogen, Oxy-propane, Oxy-natural gas, and
Oxy-acetylene
Equipment
Regulators
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Regulators for cutting must allow a higher outlet pressure than the equivalent welding
regulator:- (i)Oxygen regulators, for cutting, should read up to 14 bar.
(ii)Acetylene regulators, for cutting, should read up to 2 bar (14.505 psi = 1 bar)
Cutting Torches
Torches for use with propane or acetylene gas may either be of the injector type or nozzle
mix pattern, therefore torches are either:-
 High pressure, where the gases are generally mixed in the cutting nozzle.
 Low pressure, where an injector system is used.
Cutting Nozzles
High pressure nozzles usually have three seats, where as low pressure have two seats.
Certain types of nozzles are made in two pieces, i.e. propane. The correct size nozzle for
the plate being cut with the correct pressures is essential for good quality cutting.
Application
Oxy-fuel cutting can be performed on all plain carbon steels, but not on aluminium,
stainless steels or cast iron. It is an extremely fast and versatile process and because of the
ease of use accidents do happen.
Gases Used in Welding and Cutting Processes
Selection of the appropriate gas depends on :-
 The compatibility of the gas with the material being welded

 Joint type and thickness of material
 Physical properties of the material
 The welding process and mode of operation
If the material has a high thermal conductivity a shielding gas which increases the heat
transferred to the workpiece should be used. For copper and aluminium, helium/argon
mixtures are particularly useful as they reduce preheat requirements and improve
penetration particularly on thicker sections. A table of the most common gases used is
given below.
Name Contents Colour Application

Oxygen Oxygen O2 Black Cutting/Heating
22
Acetylene Acetylene Maroon Cutting/Heating
Propane Propane Red Cutting/Heating
Argon Argon Ar Blue Welding
Argoshield Ar and CO2 Blue/Green Welding
CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) CO2 Black Welding
GAS WELDING
Oxyacetylene and oxy-MAPP (methylacetylene- propadiene) welding are two types of
gas-welding processes.
They require a gas-fueled torch to raise the temperature of two similar pieces of metal to
their fusion point that allows them to flow together. A filler rod is used to deposit
additional metal.
The gas and oxygen are mixed to correct proportions in the torch, and you can adjust the
torch to produce various types of flames.
Some of the factors you must consider when making a gas weld are as follows:
 Edge Preparation,
 Spacing and Alignment of the Parts,
 Temperature Control (Before, During, and After the Welding Process)
 Size of The Torch Tip
 Size and Type Of The Filler Rod
 Flame Adjustment, Rod and Torch Manipulation.
In some cases, fluxes are needed to remove oxides and slag from the molten metal
and to protect the puddle from atmospheric contamination.
When you join sections of plate by gas welding, the edges of the plate at the joint are
uniformly melted by the heat from the torch. When welding heavier sheets and plates, you
have to use filler metals. The edges of the heavier plate are beveled to permit penetration
to the base of the joint. Both the filler metal and the base metal are melted, and as they
solidify, they form one continuous piece. For welding light sheet metal, filler metal is
usually not necessary. The edges of light sheet metal are flanged at the joint so they flow
together to form one solid piece when you melt them.
OXYGAS WELDING EQUIPMENT
This equipment consists of tip cleaners, cylinder trucks, clamps, and holding jigs.
Safety apparel, which includes goggles, hand shields, gloves, leather aprons, sleeves
and leggings, is essential and should be worn as required. Information on safety apparel is
contained in chapter 3. Oxygas welding equipment, like cutting equipment, may be
stationary or portable. A portable oxygas outfit, as shown in figure 5-2, is an advantage
when it becomes necessary to move the equipment. To perform your welding duties,
you must be able to set up the welding equipment and make the adjustments required to
23
perform the welding operation. Thus it is important that you understand the purpose
and function of the basic pieces of equipment that makeup the welding outfit.
WELDING TORCHES
The oxygas welding torch mixes oxygen and fuel gas in the proper proportions and
controls the amount of the mixture burned at the welding tip. Torches have two needle
valves: one for adjusting the oxygen flow and the other for adjusting the fuel gas flow.
Other basic parts include a handle (body), two tubes (one for oxygen and another for fuel),
a mixing head, and a tip. On some models the tubes are silver-brazed to the head and the
rear end forgings, which are, in turn, fitted into the handle. Welding tips are made from a
special copper alloy and are available indifferent sizes to handle a wide range of uses and
plate thicknesses. Two general types of welding torches are used:
l. Low pressure 2 Medium pressure
The low-pressure torch is also known as an injector torch. The fuel-gas pressure is 1 psi
(pound per square inch) or less. The oxygen pressure ranges between 10 to 40 pounds,
depending on the size of the torch tip. A jet of relatively high-pressure oxygen produces
the suction necessary to draw the fuel gas into the mixing head. The welding tips may or
may not have separate injectors in the tip.
A typical mixing head for the low-pressure (or injector) torch is shown in figure 5-3.
Medium-pressure torches are often called balanced- pressure or equal-pressure
torches because the fuel gas and the oxygen pressure are kept equal. Operating pres-
sures vary, depending on the type of tip used.
DANGER If acetylene is used as the fuel gas, the pressure must never be allowed to
exceed 15 psi because acetylene becomes very dangerous at 15 psi and self-explosive at
29.4 psi. Figure 5-2.—A portable oxygas welding and cutting outfit, 5-2
24
25
26
A typical equal-pressure welding torch, also called Welding TIPS and MIXERS are
designed in several a general-purpose torch, is shown in figure 5-4. The ways, depending
on the manufacturer. Some torch de- medium-pressure torch is easier to adjust than
the low- signs have a separate mixing head or mixer for each tip pressure torch and, since
equal gas pressures are used, size. Other designs have only one mixer for several tip you
are less likely to get a flashback. (Flashbacks are sizes. Tips come in various types;
some are one-piece covered in chapter 4.) hard-copper tips and others are two-piece tips
that 5-include an extension tube to make the connection between the tip and the
mixing head. When used with an extension tube, removable tips are made of hard copper,
brass, or bronze. Tip sizes are designated by numbers, and each manufacturer has his own
arrangement for classifying them. Tip sizes differ in the diameter of the hole.
FILLER RODS The term filler rod refers to a filler metal used in gas welding, brazing,
and certain electric welding processes in which the filler metal is not a part of the
electrical circuit. The only function of the filler rod is to supply filler metal to the joint.
Filler rod comes in wire or rod form that is often referred to as “welding rod.” As a rule,
filler rods are uncoated except for a thin film resulting from the manufacturing process.
Filler rods for welding steel are often copper-coated to protect them from corrosion
during storage. Most rods are furnished in 36-inch lengths and a wide variety of
diameters, ranging from 1/32 to 3/8 inch. Rods for welding cast iron vary from 12 to 24
inches in length and are frequently square, rather than round. You determine the rod
diameter for a given job by the thickness of the metal you are joining. Except for rod
diameter, you select the filler rod based on the specifications of the metals being joined.
These specifications may be federal, military, or Navy specifications. This means that they
apply to all federal agencies, the Military Establishment, or the Navy, respectively. Filler
metals are presently covered by one or more of these three types of specifications.
Eventually, all Navy specifications will be rewritten as military (MIL) specifications. For
that reason, some of the specifications for welding materials presented in this
section may subsequently be published as military, rather than Navy specifications.
Many different types of rods are manufactured for welding ferrous and nonferrous metals.
In general, welding shops stock only a few basic types that are suitable for use in all
welding positions. These basic types are known as general-purpose rods.
TORCH LIGHTING AND FLAME ADJUSTMENT When lighting the torch and
adjusting the flame, you should always follow the manufacturer’s directions for the
particular model of torch being used.
27
Welding Rod Sizes and Tip Sizes Used to Weld Various Thicknesses of Metal different
types of torches and, in some cases, even with types of maintenance duties that you will be
required to different models made by the same manufacturer. After lighting the torch,
you adjust the flame according to the type of metal being welded.
The carburizing flame is best used for welding high-carbon steels, for hardfacing,
and for welding nonferrous alloys, such as Monel. A neutral flame is the correct flame
to use for welding most metals. When steel is welded with this flame, the puddle of
molten metal is quiet and clear, and the metal flows without boiling, foaming, or sparking.
The welding flame should always be adjusted to neutral before either the oxidizing or
carburizing flame mixture is set. The oxidizing flame has a limited use and is harmful to
many metals. When applied to steel, the oxidizing flame causes the molten metal to foam
and produce sparks. The major use of the flame is that of the slightly oxidizing flame used
to braze steel and cast iron. A stronger oxidizing flame is used for fusion welding
brass and bronze. You determine the amount of excess oxygen to use by watching the
molten metal.
MAINTAINING THE EQUIPMENT For welding equipment to operate at peak efficiency

and give useful service, you must perform the proper maintenance and upkeep on it. Your
responsibilities involve the maintenance and care of oxygas welding equipment. You will
not be required to make major repairs to welding equipment; but when major repairs are
needed, it is your responsibility to see that the equipment is removed from service and
turned in for repair. This section briefs you on some of the common perform, Torch Gas
Leaks At times the needle valves may fail to shut off when hand tightened in the usual
manner. When this happens, do not use a wrench to tighten the valve stem. Instead, open
the valve and try to blow the foreign matter off the valve seat, using the working gas
pressure in the hose. If this fails, it will be necessary to remove the stem assembly and
wipe the seat clean. Reassemble the valve and try closing it tightly by hand several times.
If these measures fail to stop the leak, you should have the parts replaced or the valve
body reseated. These repairs should be made only by qualified personnel. When there is
28
leakage around the torch valve stem, you should tighten the packing nut or repack it if
necessary. For repacking, you should use only the packing recommended by the
manufacturer of the torch.
The flame end of the tip must be clean and smooth. The surface must beat right angles to
the centerline of the tip orifice to ensure a proper shaped flame. A 4-inch mill file or the file
in the tip cleaner can be used to recondition the surface, as shown in figure 5-7.
Recondition the tip if it becomes rough and pitted or the orifice is bell-mouthed. An easy
method to use involves placing apiece of emery cloth, grit side up, on a flat surface; hold
the tip perpendicular to the emery cloth, and rub the tip back and forth just enough to true
the surface and to bring the orifice back to its original diameter. Welding Torch Tips
Regulator Leaks Welding tips are subject to considerable abuse and you must keep the
orifice smooth and clean if the tip is to perform satisfactorily. When cleaning a welding tip,
you must be careful and ensure you do not enlarge or scar the orifice. Carbon deposits
and slag must be removed regularly to ensure good performance. Avoid dropping a
tip because the seat that seals the joint may be damaged. Also, the flame end of the tip also
may receive damage if it is allowed to come in contact with the welding work, bench, or
firebricks. This damage roughens the end of the tip and causes the flame to burn with a
“fishtail.” Special welding tip cleaners have been developed to remove the carbon or
slag from the tip orifice. The cleaner consists of a series of broach like wires that
correspond in diameter to the diameter of the tip orifices (fig. 5-5). These wires
29
are packaged in a holder, which makes their use safe and convenient. Figure 5-6 shows a
tip cleaner in use. Some welders prefer to use a number drill the size of the tip orifice
to clean welding tip orifices. A number drill must be used carefully so the orifice is
not enlarged, bell-mouthed, reamed out of round, or otherwise deformed. With
regulators, gas leakage between the regulator seat and nozzle is the most common type
of trouble. You often hear this problem referred to as regulator creep. This problem can
be detected by the gradual rise in pressure on the working-pressure gauge without
moving the adjusting screw. Frequently, this trouble is caused by worn or cracked seats. It
also can be caused by foreign matter lodged between the seat and the nozzle. It is
important that you have leaking regulators repaired at once; otherwise, injury to personnel
or equipment damage could result. This is particular y dangerous with fuel-gas regulators
because fuel gas at a high pressure in a hose becomes an explosive hazard. To ensure the
safety of personnel and equipment, ensure that regulators with such leaks are removed
from service and turned in for repair.
OXYGAS WELDING TECHNIQUES Oxygas welding maybe done using either the fore-
hand or the backhand method. Each of these techniques has special advantages and you
should become skillful with both. The deciding factor that determines whether a
technique is considered forehand or backhand is the relative position of the torch and rod
during welding, and the direction of welding.
The
best method to use depends upon the type of joint, joint position, and the need for heat
control on the parts to be welded.
FOREHAND WELDING Forehand welding (fig. 5-8) is often called PUDDLE or RIPPLE
WELDING. In this method of welding, the rod is kept ahead of the flame in the
direction in which the weld is being made. You point the flame in the direction of travel
and hold the tip at an angle of about 45 degrees to the working surfaces. This flame
position preheats the edges you are welding just ahead of the molten puddle. Move the
rod in the same direction as the tip, and by moving the torch tip and the welding rod back
and forth in opposite, semicircular paths, you can distribute the heat evenly. As the flame
passes the welding rod, it melts a short length of the rod and adds it to the puddle. The
30
motion of the torch distributes the molten metal evenly to both edges of the joint and to
the molten puddle. The forehand method is used in all positions for welding sheet and
light plate up to 1/8 of an inch thick. This method is ideal because it permits better control
of a small puddle and results in a smoother weld. The forehand technique is not
recommended for welding heavy plate due to its lack of base metal penetration.
BACKHAND WELDING In backhand welding (fig. 5-9), the torch tip precedes the rod
in the direction of welding and the flame points back at the molten puddle and completed
weld. The welding tip should make an angle of about 60 degrees with the plates or
joint being welded. The end of the welding rod is placed between the torch tip and the
molten puddle. Figure 5-9.—Backhand welding. Less motion is used in the backhand
method than in the forehand method. If you use a straight welding rod, you should rotate
it so the end rolls from side to side and melts off evenly. You might have to bend the rod
when working in confined spaces. If you do, it becomes difficult to roll a bent rod, and to
compensate, you have to move the rod and torch back and forth at a rather rapid rate.
When making a large weld, you should move the rod so it makes complete circles in the
molten puddle. The torch is moved back and forth across the weld while it is advanced
slowly and uniformly in the direction of the welding. The backhand method is best for
welding material more than 1/8 of an inch thick. You can use a narrower vee at the joint
than is possible in forehand welding. An included angle of 60 degrees is a sufficient angle
of bevel to get a good joint. The backhand method requires less welding rod or puddling
as the forehand method. By using the backhand technique on heavier material, you can
increase your welding speed, better your control of the larger puddle, and have
more complete fusion at the weld root. If you use a slightly reducing flame with the
backhand technique, a smaller amount of base metal is melted while welding the joint.
When you are welding steel with a backhand technique and a slightly reducing flame,
the absorption of carbon by a thin surface layer of metal reduces the melting point of
the steel. This speeds up the welding operation, This technique is also used in
surfacing with chromium-cobalt alloys.
MULTILAYER WELDING is used in order to avoid carrying too large a puddle of
molten metal when welding thick plate and pipe. Large puddles are difficult to control.
Concentrate on getting a good weld at the bottom of the vee in the first pass. Then, in the
next layers, concentrate on getting good fusion with the sides of the vee and the
previous layer. The final layer is easily controlled to get a smooth surface. This method
of welding has an added advantage in that it refines the previous layer as the succeeding
layer is made. In effect, it heat-treats the weld metal by allowing one layer to cool to a
black heat before it is reheated This improves the ductility of the weld metal. If this added
quality is desired in the last layer, an additional or succeeding layer is deposited and then
machined off.
OXYGAS WELDING OF FERROUS METALS Low-carbon steel, low-alloy steel, cast
steel, and wrought iron are easily welded by the oxygas process. A flux is not
necessary with these metals because their oxides melt at a lower temperature than the base
31
metal. During the welding process, you should enclose the molten puddle with the flame
envelope to ensure the molten metal does not contact the air. If the metal is exposed to the
air, it will oxidize rapidly. You also should avoid overheating the metal. The proper flame
adjustment is required to make a good weld Adjust the flame to a neutral or slightly
reducing (carburizing) flame. Do not use an oxidizing flame. Manipulate the torch and rod
so the tip of the oxygas cone is about 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch from the surface of the metal.
Melt the end of the filler rod in the puddle, not with the flame. The welding of low-
carbon steels and cast steels presents no special problems other than the selection of the
proper filler rod Low-alloy steels usually require prewelding and postwelding heat
treatment. This heat treatment relieves the stresses developed during the welding
phase and produces the desired physical properties of the metal. As the carbon content of
a steel increases, welding becomes more difficult. Steels whose carbon content is
within the 0.3-percent to 0.5-percent range are welded with a slightly carburizing
flame. These low-carbon steels require postwelding heat treatment to develop their best
physical properties. High-carbon steel and tool steel require a slightly different
technique. While protecting the parts from drafts, slowly preheat them to about 1000°F.
Complete the weld as rapidly as possible using a carburizing flame and no flux. Do not
manipulate either rod or torch and add the filler metal in small amounts, as it is needed.
You should use a smaller flame and lower gas pressure than that used for low-carbon
steel. This is to ensure you do not overheat the steel. You must heat-treat high-carbon
steels and tool steels after welding to develop the physical properties required.
Oxygas welding of CAST IRON is not difficult, but does require a modification of the
procedure used with steel. For material that does not exceed 3/16 of an inch 5-8 layers,
concentrate on getting good fusion with the sides of the vee and the previous layer.
The final layer is easily controlled to get a smooth surface. This method of welding
has an added advantage in that it refines the previous layer as the succeeding layer is
made. In effect, it heat-treats the weld metal by allowing one layer to cool to a black heat
before it is reheated This improves the ductility of the weld metal. If this added quality is
desired in the last layer, an additional or succeeding layer is deposited and then machined
off.
JOINT EDGE PREPARATION Sheet metal is easily melted and does not require
special edge preparation. In welding operations involving plate, joint edge
preparation and proper spacing between edges are important factors. The thickness of
the plates determines the amount of edge preparation required. The faces of square edges
can be butted together and welded You can use this type of joint on plate up to 3/16 of an
inch thick. For plate 3/16 to 1/4 of an inch thick, a slight root opening between the parts is
necessary to get complete penetration. Plate more than 1/4 of an inch thick requires
beveled edges and a root opening of 1/16 of an inch. For oxygas welding on plate more
than 1/4 of an inch thick, bevel the edges at an angle of 30 degrees to 45 degrees, making
the groove included angle from 60 degrees to 90 degrees. You can prepare the edges by
flame cutting, shearing, flame grooving, machining, chipping, or grinding. In any case,
32
the edge surfaces should be free of oxides, scale, dirt, grease, or other foreign matter.
Plate from 3/8 to 1/2 of an inch thick can be welded from one side only, but thicker
sections should be welded by preparing the edges on both sides. Generally, butt
joints prepared on both sides permit easier welding, produce less distortion, and ensure
better weld qualities. Heavy steel plate is rarely welded with oxygas unless other
types of welding equipment are not available. The welding of heavy plate is just not cost
effective because of the amount of gas consumed and time used to complete a weld. If at
all possible, use a form of electric arc welding because the joint can be welded faster,
cheaper, and there is less heat distortion
The procedure for oxygas welding of WROUGHT IRON is the same as that for low-
carbon or mild steel; however, you should keep several points in mind. Wrought iron
contains a slag that was incorporated in it during the manufacturing stage. This slag gives
the surface of the molten puddle a greasy appearance. Do not confuse this greasy
appearance with the appearance of actual fusion. Continue heating until the sidewalls of
the joint break down into the puddle. Best results with wrought iron are obtained when
the filler metal (usually mild steel) and base metal are mixed in the molten puddle with a
minimum of agitation Oxygas welding of CAST IRON is not difficult, but does require a
modification of the procedure used with steel. For material that does not exceed 3/16 of
an inch 5-8 in thickness, you do not need to make a V-groove. Metal that is between 3/16 of
an inch and 3/8 of an inch should have a single V-butt joint with an included angle of 60
degrees. For metal over 3/8 of an inch, use a double V-butt joint with 60-degree included
angles. Before you begin welding, preheat the entire weldment to a temperature
between 750°F and 900°F The welding should be done with a neutral flame using the
backhand method. Use a cast-iron filler metal and the appropriate flux. The flux is
necessary, but use it spar- ingly as needed Add filler metal by directing the inner cone of
the flame against the rod instead of dipping the tip of the rod into the puddle. The filler
metal should be deposited inlayers not exceeding 1/8 of an inch thick. Upon completion of
the weld, you must stress relieve the weldment by heating it to a temperature
between 1100°F and 1150°F and then cool it slowly. Oxygas welding cast iron gives a
good color match and good machinability; however, if color match is not essential, a cast-
iron repair can be made more easily and economi- cally by braze welding.
Oxygas welding can be used with some CHRO- MIUM-NICKEL STEELS
(STAINLESS STEELS). As a rule, oxygas welding is used only for light sheet;
heavier pieces of these steels are usually joined by one of the electric arc welding
processes. On material 20 gauge (0.040 of an inch) or less in thickness, a flange equal to the
thickness of the metal is turned up and the weld is made without filler metal. Before
welding, you should clean the joint surfaces of the metal with sand- paper or other
abrasives and then apply a stainless steel flux. The torch tip used for welding stainless
steel is usually one or two sizes smaller than the tip used to weld mild steel of the same
thickness. Adjust the torch so you have a carburizing flame, as seen through your goggles,
33
with an excess fuel-gas feather extending about 1/16 of an inch beyond the tip of the inner
cone. Hold the torch so the flame makes an angle of 80 degrees to the surface of the sheet.
The tip of the cone should almost, but not quite touch the molten metal. Make the weld in
one pass, using a forehand technique. Do not puddle or retrace the weld. A uniform speed
of welding is essential. If it is necessary to stop the welding process or reweld a sec-
tion, wait until the entire weld has cooled.
OXYGAS WELDING OF NONFERROUS METALS Although brazing and braze
welding are used extensively to make joints in nonferrous metals, there are many
situations in which oxygas welding is just as suitable. The joint designs are the same
for nonferrous metals as for ferrous metals in most cases. Oxygas welding of
nonferrous metals usually requires mechanical cleaning of the surfaces before welding
and the use of flux during welding. Filler metals must be suitable for the base metal
being welded A separate section on aluminum and aluminum alloys is included as
part of this chapter since you may need more detailed instruc- tions in welding these
materials. Copper Pure copper can be welded using the oxygas torch. Where high-joint
strength is required you should use DEOXIDIZED copper (copper that contains no oxy-
gen). A neutral flame is used and flux is required when welding copper alloys. Because of
the high thermal conductivity of copper, you should preheat the joint area to a
temperature ranging between 500°F to 800°F and use a larger size torch tip for welding.
The larger size tip supplies more heat to the joint and thus makes it possible to maintain
the required temperature at the joint. After welding is completed, cool the part
slowly. Other than the extra volume of heat required, the technique for welding copper
is the same as for steel.
Copper-Zinc Alloy (Brasses) Copper-zinc alloys (brasses) can be welded using the same
methods as deoxidized copper; however, a silicon-copper rod is used for welding brasses.
The rods are usually flux-coated so the use of additional flux is not required. Preheat
temperatures for these metals range between 200°F to 300°F. Copper-Silicon Alloy
(Silicon Bronze) Copper-silicon alloy (silicon bronze) requires a different oxygas
welding technique from that used for copper and copper-zinc. You weld this material
with a slightly oxidizing flame and use a flux having a high boric acid content. Add filler
metal of the same composition as the base metal; as the weld progresses, dip the tip of
the rod under the viscous film that covers the puddle. Keep the puddle small so the weld
solidifies quickly. A word of caution: when welding copper-zinc, you should
safeguard against zinc poisoning by either doing all the welding outdoors or by
wearing a respirator or by both, depending on the situation Copper-Nickel Alloy Oxygas
welding of copper-nickel alloys requires surface preparation and preheating.
The flux used for 5-9 this welding is a thin paste and is applied by brush to all parts
of the joint and to the welding rod. Adjust the torch to give a slightly carburizing flame;
the tip of the inner cone should just touch the base metal. Do not melt the base metal any
more than necessary to ensure good fusion. Keep the end of the filler rod within the
protective envelope of the flame, adding the filler metal without disturbing the molten
34
pool of weld metal. If possible, run the weld from one end of the joint to the other without
stopping. After you complete the weld, cool the part slowly and remove the remaining
traces of flux with warm water.
Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys Oxygas welding of nickel and high-nickel alloys is
similar to that for copper-nickel alloys. Good mechanical cleaning of the joint surfaces is
essential. The joint designs are basically the same as steel of equivalent thickness. The
included angle for V-butt welds is approximately 75 degrees. You may weld plain nickel
without a flux, but high-nickel alloys require a special boron-free and borax-free flux. The
flux is in the form of a thin paste and should be applied with a small brush. You should
flux both sides of the seam, the top and bottom, and the filler rod. Adjust the torch to give
a very slightly carburizing flame; the tip selected should be the same size or one size larger
than for steel of the same thickness. The flame should be soft and the tip of the cone kept
in contact with the molten pool. Use a rod suitable for the base metal, and always keep the
rod well within the protective envelope of the flame. After the weld is completed,
postheat the part and cool it slowly. Then remove the flux with warm water. Lead Oxygas
welding of lead requires special tools and special techniques. Although you do not
require a flux, you must ensure that the metal in the joint area is scrupulously clean. You
may accomplish this by shaving the joint surfaces with a scraper and wire brushing them
to remove oxides and foreign matter. In the flat-welding position, a square butt joint is
satisfactory. In other positions, a lap joint is used almost exclusively. When you use a lap
joint, the edges should overlap each other from 1/2 of an inch to 2 inches, depending upon
the thickness of the lead. To weld lead, use a special, lightweight, fingertip torch,
with tips ranging from 68 to 78 in drill size. Adjust your torch to a neutral flame with the
gas pressure ranging from 1 1/2 psig to 5 psig, depending on the thickness of the lead. The
length of the flame varies from about 1 1/2 inches to 4 inches, depending upon the gas
pressures used. When you are welding in the horizontal and flat positions, a soft, bushy
flame is most desirable. But, when you are welding in the vertical and overhead positions,
better results are obtained with a more pointed flame. For oxygas welding of lead, you
should ensure that the filler metal has the same composition as the base metal. The molten
puddle is controlled and distributed by manipulating the torch so the flame moves in a
semicircular or V-shaped pattern. Each tiny segment of the weld is made separately,
and the torch is flicked away at the completion of each semicircular or V-shaped
movement. Joints are made in thin layers. Filler metal is not added during the first pass,
but it is added on subsequent passes. When welding lead or lead alloys, you should wear
a respirator of a type approved for protection against lead fumes.
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys When assigned to work with nonferrous metals, you
can expect jobs that involve the welding of aluminum and aluminum alloys. Pure
aluminum has a specific gravity of 2.70 and a melting point of 1210°F. Pure aluminum is
soft and seldom used in its pure form because it is not hard or strong enough for
structural purposes; however, the strength of aluminum can be improved by the addition
35
of other elements to form aluminum alloys. Aluminum alloys are usually 90-percent
pure. When elements, such as silicon, magnesium, copper, nickel, and manganese, are
added to aluminum, an alloy stronger than mild steel results; whereas pure aluminum is
only about one fourth as strong as steel. A considerable number of aluminum alloys are
available. You may use some of the aluminum alloys in sheet form to make and repair
lockers, shelves, boxes, trays, and other containers. You also may have to repair chairs,
tables, and other items of furniture that are made of aluminum alloys. Oxygas welding of
aluminum alloys is usually confined to materials from 0.031 of an inch to 0.125 of an inch
in thickness.
By the oxygas process if necessary; however, thinner material is usually spot or seam
welded.
MELTING CHARACTERISTICS.— Before attempting to weld aluminum alloy for the
first time, you should become familiar with how the metal reacts when under the welding
flame. A good example of how aluminum reacts when heated can be seen if you place
a small piece of sheet aluminum on a welding table and heat it with a neutral flame. Hold
the flame perpendicular to the surface of the sheet and bring the tip of the inner cone
almost in contact with the metal. Observe that almost without warning the metal suddenly
melts and runs away, leaving a hole in the sheet. Now repeat the operation with the torch
held at an angle of about 30 degrees to the plane of the surface. With a little practice, you
will be able to melt the surface metal without forming a hole. Now try moving the flame
slowly along the surface of the sheet, melting a small puddle. Observe how quickly the
puddle solidifies when the flame is removed. Continue this practice until you are able to
control the melting. When you have mastered this, proceed by practicing actual welding.
Start with simple flanged and notched butt joints that do not require a welding rod. Next,
you should try using a welding rod with thin sheet and then with castings. WELDING
RODS.— Two types of welding rods available for gas welding aluminum alloys are
the 1100 and 4043 rods. The 1100 rod is used when maximum resistance to corrosion and
high ductility are of primary importance. The 1100 rod is used for welding 1100 and 3003
type aluminum alloys only. The 4043 rod is used for greater strength and minimizes the
tendency for cracking. It also is used for all other wrought aluminum alloys and castings.
WELDING FLUXES.— The use of the proper flux in welding aluminum is extremely
important. Aluminum welding flux is designed to remove the aluminum oxide by
chemically combining with it. In gas welding, the oxide forms rapidly in the molten metal.
It must be removed or a defective weld will result. To ensure proper distribution, you
should paint flux on the welding rod and the surface to be welded. Aluminum flux is
usually in powder form and is prepared for use by mixing with water to form a paste. The
paste should be kept in an aluminum, glass, or earthenware container because steel or
copper containers tend to contaminate the mixture. It is essential that plenty of flux be
applied to the edges of flanged joints because no filler rod is used in Figure 5-10.—
Edge preparation for gas-welding aluminum. these joints. In all cases, the flux should be
36
applied to both the bottom and top sides of the sheet in the area of the weld. After you
finish welding, it is important that you remove all traces of flux. You can do this by using a
brush and hot water. If aluminum flux is left on the weld, it will corrode the metal.
WELDING PREPARATION.— The thickness of the aluminum determines the method
of edge preparation. On material up to 0.062 of an inch, the edges should be formed to a
90-degree flange. The height of the flange should be about the same height, or a little
higher, as the thickness of the material (fig. 5-10, view A). The only requirement for the
flanges is that their edges be straight and square. If desired, material up to 0.125 of an inch
can be welded with a flange joint. No filler rod is necessary if you flange the edges.
Unbeveled butt welds can be made on thicknesses from 0.062 of an inch to 0.188 of an inch;
but in these applications, it is necessary to notch the edges with a saw or cold chisel
in a manner similar to that shown in view B of figure 5-10. Edge notching is
recommended in aluminum welding because it aids in getting full penetration and
prevents local distortion. All butt welds made in material over 0.125 of an inch thick are
usually notched in some manner. 5-11
In welding aluminum more than 0.188 of an inch thick, bevel the edges and notch
them, as shown in view C of figure 5-10. The included angle of bevel maybe from 90 to 120
degrees. After you have prepared the edges of the pieces properly, you should then
clean the surfaces to be welded. If heavy oxide is present on the metal surface, you may
have to use a stainless-steel wire brush to remove it. Dirt, grease, or oil can be removed by
wiping the weld area with a solvent-soaked rag. Aluminum plate 1/4 of an inch thick
or greater should be preheated to a temperature ranging between 500°F to 700°F. This aids
in avoiding heat stresses. Preheating also reduces fuel and oxygen requirements for the
actual welding. It is important that the preheating temperature does exceed 700°F. If the
temperature does go above 700°F, the alloy maybe severely weakened. High temperatures
also could cause large aluminum parts to collapse under their own weight. Thin material
should be warmed with the torch before welding. This slight preheat helps to prevent
cracks.
WELDING TECHNIQUES— After preparing and fluxing the pieces for welding, you
should pass the flame, in small circles, over the starting point until the flux melts. Keep the
inner cone of the flame off the flux to avoid burning it. If the inner cone of the flame
should burn the flux, it will be necessary to clean the joint and apply new flux. Next,
scrape the rod over the surface at about 3- or 4-second intervals, permitting the rod to
come clear of the flame each time. If you leave the rod in the flame too long, it melts before
the parent metal does. The scraping action indicates when you can start welding without
overheating the metal. Maintain this cycle throughout the course of welding except
for allowing the rod to remain under the flame long enough to melt the amount of metal
needed. With practice, the movement of the rod can be easily mastered. Forehand
welding is usually preferred for welding aluminum alloys because the flame points
away from the completed weld, and this preheats the edges to be welded that
37
prevents too rapid melting. Hold the torch at a low angle when you are welding thin
material. For thicknesses 0.188 of an inch and above, you should increase the angle of the
torch to a near vertical position. Changing the angle of the torch according to the thick-
ness of the metal minimizes the possibility of burning through the sheet during
welding. When welding aluminum alloys up to 0.188 of an inch thick, you have little need
to impart any motion to the torch other than moving it forward. On flanged material, care
must be taken to break the oxide film as the flange melts down. This may be done by
stirring the melted flange with a puddling rod. A puddling rod is essentially a paddle
flattened and shaped from a 1/4- inch stainless steel welding rod. With aluminum
alloys above 0.188 of an inch in thickness, you should give the torch a more uniform lateral
motion to distribute the weld metal over the entire width of the weld. A slight back-and-
forth motion assists the flux in its removal of oxides. Dip the filler rod in the weld puddle
with a forward motion. The angle of the torch is directly related to the welding speed.
Instead of lifting the flame from time to time to avoid melting holes in the metal, you will
find it advantageous to hold the torch at a flatter angle to the work The welding speed
should be increased as the edge of the sheet is approached. The inner cone of the flame
should never be permitted to come in contact with the molten metal, but should beheld
about 1/8 of an inch away from the metal. In the vertical position, the torch is given an
up-and- down motion, rather than a rotating one. In the overhead position, alight back-
and-forth motion is used the same as in flat welding. Heat-treatable alloys should be held
in a jig for welding, whenever possible. This helps to eliminate the possibility of
cracking. The likelihood of cracking can also be reduced by the use of a 4043 filler rod. This
rod has a lower melting range than the alloy being joined which permits the base metal to
solidify before the weld puddle freezes. As the weld is the last area to solidify, all of the
contraction strains are in the weld bead, rather than throughout the base metal. You may
reduce weld cracking by tack welding the parts while they are in the jig and then
loosening the clamps before completing the seam. As soon as the weld is completed and
the work has had time to cool, you should thoroughly wash the weld. This can be done by
vigorously scrubbing it with a stiff brush while hot water runs over it until all traces of the
flux are removed. This is important, because if any flux is left on the weld, it can corrode
the metal. If hot water is not available, you may use a diluted solution of 10 percent
sulfuric acid. The acid solution should then be washed off with cold, fresh water.
Weld Defects
1. Porosity is one of the most common weld defects. The cause of weld metal porosity is
the contamination of hydrogen in the weld metal. Hydrogen is picked up in the weld
metal in the liquid phase. Hydrogen is easily soluble in molten weld metal. However,
when solidified, the solubility reduces drastically and results in hydrogen gas
entrapment (pores) in the solidified weld metal.
38
The origin of hydrogen is dirt (oil or grease) or moisture in or near the weld zone
during welding. Hydrogen may also come from dirt on the welding filler wire, if it is
not sufficiently cleaned.
To avoid porosity:
ñ Degrease joint surfaces with alcohol or similar before welding
ñ Use high purity shielding gas
Size and location can classify porosity. Fine scattered pores are less severe than larger
pores, which are clustered or aligned. Clustered pores are usually attributed to
variations in the welding conditions. Aligned pores are normally related to other weld
defects such as incomplete penetration or lack of fusion.
NDT-detectability:
Porosity is easily detected by radiographic inspection of the welds.
2. Lack of fusion is a very common type of weld defects. With lack of fusion means an
area without sufficient mechanical binding between weld metal and base metal.
Lack of fusion may be caused by:
ñ Insufficient welding current
ñ Insufficient edge preparation
ñ Too long weld arc
ñ Attempts to weld over heavily oxidised joint surfaces
ñ Welding in too narrow joints
ñ Insufficient oxide removal
ñ Wrong position of the welding torch.
Avoid lack of fusion by:
ñ Brushing the joint surfacesñ Machining the joint surfaces before welding
ñ Increase joint angle or
Lack of fusion are usually not acceptable weld defects, as they are characterised as
planar defects and treated in the same way as cracks. Use of fracture mechanics may,
if relevant fracture toughness parameters are available, be used to evaluate the
severity of lack of fusion.
NDT-detectability:
Lack of fusion is normally not detectable by radiographic examination, and may often
be difficult to detect by ultrasonic, as the two surfaces are pressed closely together
and reflects only limited amount of ultrasonic waves.
3. Incomplete penetration is defined as a weld where penetration of the weld metal into
the joint is insufficient compared to what is specified for the joint according to the
welding symbol.
Incomplete penetration is caused by:
ñ Too low welding current
ñ Too high welding speed
39
ñ Incorrect joint geometry (too large root nose)
To avoid incomplete penetration:
ñ Increase welding current
ñ Reduce welding speed
ñ Reduce root nose, if necessary use backing. If welding of extruded profile, this
should be integrated in the profile design
ñ Select a gas mixture with better penetration capability, for example argon-helium
mixtures or pure helium when welding thicker plates
NDT-detectability:
Incomplete penetration is detectable by radiographic inspection in butt welds. The
defects may also be detected by ultrasonic, provided that the plate thickness is above
10 mm.
4. Cracks are the most severe weld defect when welding aluminum. Cracks may be
embedded or at the surface, in the weld metal or in the heat affected zones. Most of the
cracks are formed during solidification and cooling. Some cracks may also occur at a
later stage, however, this is then caused by certain stress or environmental conditions
such as stress corrosion or fatigue.
It is useful to distinguish between several different crack types:
Weld metal cracks
Heat affected zone (HAZ) cracks
Crater cracks
NDT-detectability:
Cracks are difficult to detect by radiographic inspection unless their plane are aligned
with the radiation direction. Cracks are detectable by ultrasonic provided that the
plate thickness is above about 10 mm. Surface cracks are detected by dye penetrant.
Weld metal cracks are normally caused by a combination of high stresses across the
weld and metallurgical weakness of the filler metal. Filler material with too low alloy
content [Mg less than 3% or Si less than 2%) tend to crack easier than filler material
with a higher alloy content. Defects in the fused zone may also appear in 6000-group
alloys when welded without filler metal, where the fused zone has a Si + Mg content
below 2%.
Weld metal cracks may be avoided by:
ñ Selecting higher alloyed filler metal
ñ Always using filler metal when welding the 6000-group alloys.
HAZ cracks are a particular problem for the more crack sensitive alloys such as the
6000-alloys. The cracks are caused by low melting point phases present at the grain
boundaries. Due to the thermal cycle of welding, the temperature may be so high that
these phases melt. During the cooling phase the unmelted material shrinks, resulting
in residual tensile stresses. A material deficiency at the grain boundary may then
result in voids or intergranular, crack like defects. The presence of small HAZ-cracks
40
does not necessarily affect the mechanical strength of a weld, however, it may reduce
the fatigue lifetime and the fracture toughness.
It is difficult to know how to avoid HAZ-cracks. Some factors may, however, affect
the tendency to HAZ cracking:
ñ AlSi5 filler metal tends to reduce the tendency to HAZ-cracks compared to AlMg5
or similar filler material. This is due to the lower melting temperature of this alloy.
ñ Coarse grain structure tends to increase the tendency to HAZ-cracks
ñ The welding process or welding parameters may also affect the tendency. High
heat input will increase the HAZ size and also increase the size of the zone prone to
give HAZ-cracks.
Crater cracks occur at the stop of a weld. They are caused by the same mechanism
as other hot cracks.
Crater cracks can be avoided by proper weld stopping techniques:
ñ With TIG-welding this means several quick arc re-strikes while adding filler metal
to the crater
ñ With MIG-welding an increase in the travel speed just before termination of the
welding
It is further recommended to use run-off tabs whenever this is practical.
Inclusions may also appear in aluminum welds. In TIG-welding the most common
inclusion type is tungsten inclusions coming from the welding electrode. The cause
of tungsten inclusions can be:
ñ Too high welding current for the used electrode
ñ An unstable arc
ñ Touching of the electrode by the weld pool or the filler metal
In MIG-welding copper inclusions may be found when burn-backs has occurred.
Steel inclusions may appear when pieces of steel wire from the brushes are broken
free and trapped in the joint.
NDT-detectability:
Inclusions are easily detected by radiographic inspection.
Undercut are the formation of grooves at one or both sides of the weld.
The reason for undercut can be:
ñ Incorrect welding technique
ñ Too high welding current or too low welding speed
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing (NDT) may be defined as the application of an inspection method

to a component or structure in which the testpiece is not adversely affected by the testing
method. Generally, NDT is normally carried out in one of the following circumstances:
41
1. As a control check and an aid to the monitoring of quality during manufacture. In
this case NDT is used to check the maintenance of required quality levels during
manufacture. The presence of manufacturing imperfections and defects may be
detected. The physical characteristics and the severity of such imperfections and
defects may also be assessed.
2. During in-service inspection. In this case NDT methods are used in order to detect
any physical deterioration in a component or structure that might occur under
service conditions. NDT methods are most usually employed to detect cracking, or
crack propagation from existing defects. Such cracking is commonly associated with
some form of fatigue.
3. Critical defect assessment. This use of NDT normally involves an in-depth
examination of known defects in a structure in order to provide detailed
information for "fitness for purpose" assessments and fracture mechanics
calculations.
Figure 1. Penetrant Inspection
There are six major NDT methods used in engineering.
Visual Surface inspection method

Penetrant Surface inspection method
Magnetic Particle Inspection Surface & slightly subsurface inspection
Ultrasonics Volumetric inspection method
Eddy Current Primarily surface inspection method
Radiography Volumetric inspection method
42
Figure 2. Defects in a surface can be
detected through the magnetic field
Whatever the circumstances under which a non-destructive test is carried out and
whatever method is applied there are a number of essential prerequisites that must be met
if the engineer is to have confidence in the accuracy of the reported results.
 NDT Operator Training, Certification and Approval

 NDT Procedure Approval
 Correctly Maintained and Calibrated Equipment
 Comprehensive Reporting Procedures and Formats
Surveillance of Testing Activities
Weldments (Welded Joints)
The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag inclusions, lack
of side-wall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root penetration, undercutting, and
longitudinal or transverse cracks.
With the exception of single gas pores all the defects listed are usually well detectable by
ultrasonics. Most applications are on low-alloy construction quality steels, however, welds
in aluminum can also be tested. Ultrasonic flaw detection has long been the preferred
method for nondestructive testing in welding applications. This safe, accurate, and simple
technique has pushed ultrasonics to the forefront of inspection technology.
Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam transducer in
conjunction with an angle beam transducer and wedge. A straight beam transducer,
producing a longitudinal wave at normal incidence into the test piece, is first used to
locate any laminations in or near the heat-affected zone. This is important because an
43
angle beam transducer may not be able to provide a return signal from a laminar flaw.
The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer to inspect the
actual weld. Angle beam transducers use the principles of refraction and mode conversion
to produce refracted shear or longitudinal waves in the test material. [Note: Many AWS
inspections are performed using refracted shear waves. However, material having a large
grain structure, such as stainless steel may require refracted longitudinal waves for
successful inspections.] This inspection may include the root, sidewall, crown, and heat-
affected zones of a weld. The process involves scanning the surface of the material around
the weldment with the transducer. This refracted sound wave will bounce off a reflector
(discontinuity) in the path of the sound beam. With proper angle beam techniques, echoes
returned from the weld zone may allow the operator to determine the location and type of
discontinuity.
44
To determine the proper scanning area for the weld, the inspector must first calculate the
location of the sound beam in the test material. Using the refracted angle, beam index
point and material thickness, the V-path and skip distance of the sound beam is found.
Once they have been calculated, the inspector can identify the transducer locations on the
surface of the material corresponding to the crown, sidewall, and root of the weld.
Nondestructive testing methods for Welds
APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS:

AWS Structural Welding Code Bl.10
Ultrasonic, ASTM E 114, 164, and 797
Dye Penetrant, ASTM E 165
Magnetic Particle, ASTM E 709
Radiography, ASTM E 94 and E 1032
ADVANTAGE: Nondestructive testing is ideally suited for the inspection of Welds and
can be used to monitor the performance of welders, as well as to determine the quality of
welds and metal components.
DESCRIPTION: This technical note covers the five most common nondestructive testing
methods used in the construction industry to detect surface and internal discontinuities in
welds and fabricated components: visual, penetrants magnetic particle, ultrasonic, and
radiographic testing.
Visual: Visual inspection of a weld can be used to determine if the weld was made
properly. Unacceptable weld profiles, insufficient throat, or excessive concavity can reduce
the strength of a weld by producing undesirable stress concentrations. Alignment,
distortion, arc strikes, and the general condition of the weld can be observed in addition to
weld profiles. The person performing this inspection should have a magnifying glass,
flashlight, and "fillet" measuring gage.
45
Penetrants: Penetrant inspection methods are used for inspecting almost any nonporous
material for defects that are open to the surface. Surface defects that can be found are all
types of cracks in connection with welding, grinding, fatigue, etc. Penetrant methods are
restricted to the location of surface defects; therefore, cleanliness is of the utmost
importance. Penetrant inspection consists normally of four steps (Figure 1):
(1)application of the penetrant, (2)removal of excessive penetrant fromthe surface,(3)
application of a developer, and (4)inspection.
The two main groups of penetrants are visible dyes and fluorescent penetrants.
Figure 1. Major steps of fluorescent penetrant inspection
1. The advantages of the visible dye penetrant method are that it provides fast, on-the-spot
inspection and its initial cost is relatively low. A white or blank surface indicates freedom
from cracks or other defects that are open to the surface. Disadvantages are that it is not
practical on rough surfaces and it detects only defects open to the surface.
2. The advantages of the fluorescent penetrant method are that it can be used on rough
surfaces and it is much more sensitive than dye penetrants. Disadvantages are that a black
light and hood are required (unless testing is performed at night) and only defects open to
the surface are detected.
Magnetic particle: Magnetic particle inspection will indicate surface or near-surface
defects in ferromagnetic materials such as iron and steel. A magnetic current is introduced
into the area to be inspected, and iron oxide powder is dusted on the area. The induced
magnetic field will be distorted if there is a discontinuity such as a crack on or near the
surface (Figure 2). A leakage of this field creates poles that attract the iron oxide powder
dusted on the area. A sharp line indicates a surface discontinuity. When the discontinuity
46
is below the surface, the field is weaker and less concentrated; therefore, the powder
indication on the surface will be broad and fuzzy.
1. A principal limitation of the magnetic particle method is that it applies only to magnetic
materials and is not suited for small deep-seated defects. The deeper the defect is below
the surface,the larger it must be to be detected. With magnetic particle testing, the surface
to be inspected must be accessible. This means shafts or other equipment cannot be
inspected without removing pressed wheels, pulleys, or bearing housing. The advantages
of magnetic particle inspection are that it is a positive method of finding all cracks at the
surface, the equipment is portable, and the method is flexible.
Figure 2. Disruption of magnetic field by weld-metal defect
Ultrasonic: Ultrasonic inspection uses a beam of high-frequency sound, in the range of

1 to 5 MHz, to inspect a wide range of thicknesses and materials. The ultrasonic unit
produces electrical pulses that are fed to a handheld transducer or search unit, where the
electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy. A couplant, which can be oil, grease,
water, etc., is placed on the area being inspected; the transducer is then placed on the
couplant in contact with the metal. The mechanical energy emitted from the transducer is
similar to a beam of light from a flashlight. The sound wave is emitted as bursts or pulses
of energy vibrations. These vibrations travel into the area being inspected until
they strike or are interrupted by a crack, inclusion, or other discontinuity or by the far side
of the material. When a discontinuity is encountered, some of the sound vibrations are
reflected to the transducer. The larger the discontinuity (crack, porosity, slag inclusion,
etc.), the larger the amount of energy that will be reflected to the transducer. The
47
transducer converts the returning vibrations into electrical impulses that are amplified and
appear on the screen of a cathode-ray tube (CRT) as indications. The initial pulse on the
screen represents the contact face or the testing surfaces (A, Figure 3). The flaw (B) reflects
some sound, and the rear surface (C) reflects more sound. The presentation on the CRT
displays the location in the thickness and relative size of the flaw. The distance between A
and C is representative of the material thickness; therefore, the distance that the flaw is
below the surface can be fairly accurately measured. The size of the flaw determines the
height of the indication B. A calibration standard is required to accurately measure defect
size.
Figure 3. A scan presentation on CRT
1. A limitation of the ultrasonic inspection method is that a permanent record is difficult

to obtain during field inspection. A picture of the CRT and written reports of the
inspection results are sometimes difficult to correlate. Rough surfaces make transducer
contact difficult and sometimes impossible. A couplant must always be used to eliminate
compressible air and fill the voids and irregularities on the test surface. Calibration
standards are usually required to calibrate the instrument and evaluate sizes of defects.
2. Ultrasonic inspection allows the inspector to inspect almost any material quickly with
minimum restriction to size, shape, or thickness. With a variety of plastic wedge angles
that can be used with transducers, sound energy can be transmitted into a part at different
angles for complete inspection.
Radiography: Radiography includes X-ray and gamma ray inspection. X-ray is
radiation generated from an X-ray tube, whereas gamma is a radioisotope, usually iridium
192. The radiation from these sources is of such a short wavelength that it can penetrate
materials to disclose the presence of flaws and imperfections in the interior of metals and
weldments. The radiation intensity is affected by flaws and material differences. The
radiation emitted from either of these sources is passed through, absorbed, or scat-
tered in the metal. For example, if there is a slag inclusion or porosity as the radiation
passes through a weld, the void results in the reduction of the total thickness of the weld
figure. This reduction in metal allows more radiation to pass through the section
48
containing the void than through the surrounding metal. Variations in the radiation beam
are recorded as an image on a film. A dark spot, corresponding to the projected position of
the void, will appear on the film when it is developed. Thus, a radiograph is a kind of
shadow picture: the darker regions on the film represent the more penetrable parts of the
weld; the lighter regions, the more opaque.
A limitation to radiography is the radiation hazard. The work area near the source must be
cleared when X-ray gamma sources are used. Companies that perform radiography use
two or three people for safety reasons. While one inspector is performing the radiography,
another is developing the film, and the third, if used, is monitoring the area. The X-ray or
gamma source, portable darkroom, film, and development solutions make radiography an
expensive process. 2. Radiography will produce a permanent record on film that can be
kept on file. Gamma or isotope radiography is used much more than X-radiography
because of the higher penetrating power and its portability.
Questions and Answers
1.1 Explain the technique of forge welding.
Ans: The pieces to be welded are heated to about 1000°C and then hammered together.
This action forces out the surface oxide layer which is molten at this temperature
(although the metal is still in a plastic condition) and the pressure causes the metal
surfaces to fuse together.
1.2 Name the three main gases that are burned with oxygen, which can be used in
Ans: In increasing order of flame temperatures these are hydrogen, propane and
acetylene.
1.3 State the temperatures of the oxyacetylene flame and the electric arc.
Ans: The oxyacetylene flame has a temperature of 3250 °C. The electric arc has a
temperature of about 20 000 °C, although that of the molten pool is no more than a
quarter of this.
1.4 At what pressures are oxygen and acetylene stored in the cylinders?
Ans: Oxygen is stored at a pressure of 175 bar and acetylene at 15 bar.
1.5 Explain what is meant by a neutral oxyacetylene flame
49
Ans: When approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are being burned so
that there is -no excess of either of the gases in the flame,
1.6 Explain the meaning of the word 'kerf’
Ans: The cut made by the high pressure oxygen jet as the metal is oxidized and,
becoming instantly molten, is blown away.
1.7 State the maximum rated output in terms of current associated with the arc-
welding process.
Ans: This is usually about 600 amps for both a.c. and d.c- power equipment.
1.8 What is the approximate maximum thickness of metal that can be arc welded in a
single pass?
Ans: The maximum thickness is about 6 mm using the largest electrodes.
1.9 Explain the meaning of the term 'edge preparation'.
Ans: This refers to the way in which the mating edges of the metal to be welded are
bevelled or shaped to receive the weld metal.
1.10 How is the flux introduced into the arc-welding process?
Ans: It is in the form of a solid coating on the metal electrode so that the arc melts this
along with the rod and it is deposited into the weld pool, floating to the surface to
form a slag coating.
1.11 Apart from visual inspection, name another way that a welded joint may be
inspected.
Ans: By radiographic techniques, using either X-rays or gamma rays, or by ultrasonic
waves.
1.12 Through what angle should a welded specimen be capable of being bent,
assuming good quality materials and correct preparation?
Ans: 180°.
1.13 Under normal circumstances, acetylene is highly unstable if stored at pressures

above 2 bar. State the means by which it can be safely stored at a pressure of 15 bar.
Ans: By dissolving it in liquid acetone which can absorb 25 times its own volume
of acetylene, and also distributing it in a cellular matrix to separate it into very small
units..
50
1.14 From the following list of fire-fighting media, choose those which are most suited
to a welding bay: foam, dry powder and CO; extinguishers; fire blanket; water
hose; sand.
Ans: Sand, fire blankets and dry powder or CO; extinguishers would be the most
suitable- Foam and water should not be used where electrical equipment is being
operated.
1.15 A welded component, undergoing testing, failed due to lack of penetration. What
would be the probable cause (or causes) of the failure?
Ans: The two most common causes of lack of penetration are too low a welding current
for the size of electrode used or too great an arc length.
1.16 Explain why the electric arc process is more correctly referred to as manual metal
arc welding.
Ans: The process is manually operated and the filler metal is deposited in molten
droplets via the arc. Some electric arc processes are automatic and the filler metal is
introduced separately.
1.17 A cutting torch heats up the metal satisfactorily, but no cutting action ensues when
the oxygen lever is depressed. What is the probable cause of the malfunction?
Ans: It is likely that the oxygen has not been turned on to the full cutting pressure at the
first control knob. or insufficient pressure has been set at the regulator valve.
1.18 One volume of acetylene requires 2½ volumes of oxygen for complete
combustion, and outlet pressures are normally balanced. Explain how efficient
combustion of acetylene is obtained under these circumstances.
Ans: The balance of the oxygen needed for efficient combustion of the acetylene is
derived from the atmosphere.
1.19 Explain how it is possible for the operator of electric arc-welding

equipment to come into contact with the component being welded, without
receiving an electric shock.
Ans: Once the arc has been struck, the welding circuit is complete and electricity always
takes the least line of resistance,
1.20 A component made from hardened and tempered high carbon steel is to be
fabricated from two pieces by electric arc welding. State at what stage of the
51
manufacturing process the fabrication should be undertaken, giving the reason for
your choice.
Ans: The welding operation must be completed before any hea! treatment, otherwise the
temperature generated will cancel out any form of heat treatment which has been
done previously.
1.21 ‘The polarity of d.c. powered metal arc-welding equipment can have a critical
effect on the electrode.' Comment on this statement.
Ans: Heat is generated in the ratio of two thirds at the positive pole and one third at the
negative pole in a d.c. circuit in which the current flows in only one direction- If the
electrode is connected to the positive pole it may heat up too rapidly and become
impossible to use. In an a.c. circuit in which the current polarity reverses 100 times
per second, this problem does not exist.
1.22 List the main items that would have to be considered in calculating a rate for the
costing of welded jobs.
Ans: Labour, power (or gas) and electrodes for filler metal) are the main direct cosl.
although an allowance would probably have to be made for accessories such as
protective glasses, gloves, wire brushes, etc- Other indirect costs such as inspection,
transport, depreciation of equipment, etc., are normally allowed for in the overhead
charges.
1.23 To what category of welding do the oxyacetylene and electric arc processes belong?
Ans: These are both fusion welding processes.
1.24 What basic rule must be observed to ensure the soundness of the weld when
performing multiple runs with metal arc welding equipment?
Ans: The slag must be completely chipped away from the previous run before laying
down the following run. Other wise slag inclusions will detract from the soundness
of the weld.
1.25 Explain clearly the difference in the way that two pieces of metal become joined by
welding as opposed to soldering or brazing.
Ans: When two pieces of metal are joined by fusion welding, the heal source melts the
mating faces and, aided by the introduction of the filler metal, their surfaces
intermingle to form a single homogeneous piece. The metallurgist would probably
52
disagree with the joint being described as homogeneous, however, as the large
quantities of heat used causes changes in the metallurgical structure of the metal,
1.26 The flame culling torch has two oxygen control knobs whereas the gas welding
torch has only one. Explain why two are needed for flame cutting.
Ans: The first control knob allows the oxygen through to the cutting lever at the high
pressure required for cutting. The second control knob bleeds off a quantity of this
oxygen into the mixing chamber at the much lower pressure needed to support the
combustion of the acetylene.,
1.27 State the three factors that govern the type of joint preparation used.
Ans: (a) The type of load to which the joint wilt he subjected.
(b) The way in which the load will be applied.
(c) The cost of preparing the joint.
1.28 List the safety features which are part of the oxyacetylene equipment, and which
are designed to prevent mishaps from occurring.
Ans: (a) Colour coding of the gas cylinders and hoses.
(b) The use of right-hand and left-hand threads for oxygen and acetylene fittings
respectively.
(c) The use of non-return valves or blow-back arresters.
1.29 List the visually identifiable weld defects.
Ans: (a) Lack of penetration.
(b) Undercutting.
(c) Slag inclusions.
(d) Porosity.
(e) Cracking.
(f) Distortion,
1.30 What five functions are served by the flux in the arc-welding process?
Ans: (a) To provide a suitable gaseous atmosphere or shield.
(b) To produce a slag covering for the hot metal.
53
(c) To introduce alloying elements and grain refiners.
(d) To stabilize the arc and maintain ifs consistency.
(e) To flux away impurities.
1.31 What feedback do operators receive when carrying out an arc-welding operation,
which helps them to judge the quality of the weld?
Ans: (a) The length and sound of the arc.
(b) The size, shape and depth of the crater.
(c) The speed of welding.
(d) The burn off of the electrode.
1.32 Use examples to explain what is meant by the jobbing operations which account
for much of the popularity of oxyacetylene welding.
Ans: Jobbing operations are basically one-off jobs which are so individual they are
unlikely to be repeated; or a series of Jobs which, although similar, are sufficiently
varied to prevent the permanent setting up of equipment. Typical examples would
be found in service industries specializing in the repair of machinery, plant
equipment- The most widely practiced application of oxyacetylene welding to
Jobbing operations is in the trade of automobile repair.
Questions
1.33 Produce a simple sketch to show the operating circuit of an electric arc welder.
1.34 Sketch an oxy-acetylene flame and identify the various areas.
1.35 Describe the features of the oxyacetylene flame which distinguish between
carburizing, neutral and oxidizing.
1.36 Explain how it is possible that a relatively neat cut can be made through quite thick
pieces of red-hot ferrous metal by a high-pressure oxygen jet.
1.37 Produce a detailed sketch to show the operation of the electric arc process and the
contribution made by the filler metal and the flux-
54
1.38 Briefly list the procedure for starting up oxyacetylene welding equipment.
1.39 Distinguish between leftward and rightward welding by briefly describing the
aspects, which characterize these two techniques.
1.40 Give the reasons why leftward welding should be limited to metal thickness of less
than 4.5mm.
1-41 Compare the relative merits of a.c. and d.c. power sources for metal arc welding.
1.42 Contrast the advantages and disadvantages of oxyacetylene welding.
1.43 Describe, using sketches as necessary, the principles of the oxyacetylene welding
process.
1.44 Describe the principle of oxyacetylene cutting, using a neatly produced sketch of
the cutting torch to aid your description.
1.45 With the aid of sketches, distinguish between leftward and rightward welding
techniques.
1.46 Describe, with the aid of simple line diagrams, the principles of the manual
metal arc-welding process.
1.47 Using sketches, distinguish between the three types of oxyacetylene flame,
1.48 List the advantages and disadvantages of a-c. and d.c. power sources for metal arc
welders.
1.49 State the type and purpose of filler metals and fluxes used in fusion welding
processes.
1.50 Describe three visually identifiable defects that can occur in welds produced by
fusion welding processes.
1.51 State six main sources of danger associated with electric welding, mentioning the
necessary precautions and treatment.
1.52 State six main sources of danger, specifying the necessary precautions and
treatment, associated with gas welding.
1.53 The danger of electrocution exists for operators of arc-welding equipment. Write a
report on the correct procedure to be followed upon witnessing someone being
electrocuted. Your report should contain the details of how you would protect
yourself should it not prove possible to isolate the electricity supply, and the first
55
aid treatment you would administer (including that for cardiac arrest) while
waiting for professional help.
1.54 Carry out a bend test on a simple butt-welded specimen. Prepare the surfaces as
prescribed and ensure all machining marks have been removed. Obtain a former
whose diameter is four times the metal thickness and check that it is positioned
exactly on the weld.
1.55 In view of the difficulties, which may be encountered in setting up the bend test,
design and build a suitable rig to overcome these. It need only be very simple (the
simplest equipment usually functions the best) providing it satisfies the criteria laid
down.
2.1 What purpose is served by the copper coating on the electrode wire used
for submerged arc welding?
Ans: The copper coating improves electrical pick-up from the guide tube and
helps prevent corrosion during storage.
2.2 State the reason why, and how it is possible that, submerged arc welding employs
currents of up to 4000 A.
Ans: By employing such heavy welding currents the process can weld plate up to 35 mm
thick in a single pass and at speeds which would otherwise be impossible. By
smothering the arc in a heavy blanket of flux, the problems associated with such a
powerful arc (e.g. radiation and spatter) are eliminated.
2.3 Explain how the flow of gases is controlled in the MIG and TIG processes.
Ans: In the TIG process the gas flow is controlled by an electro-mechanical device which
has a built-in time delay. This allows the gas to continue flowing for a few seconds
after the arc is extinguished. In the M1G process the gas flow, like the wire feed, is
controlled by the trigger on the torch.
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2.4 List the factors, which make TIG welding the most suitable process for non-ferrous
metals such as aluminum and its alloys.
Ans: (a) Inert gas shrouding results in a very clean weld with none of the
corrosion or contamination associated with fluxes.
(b) The ii-c, arc has a scavenging effect on the surface oxide films.
(c) The non-consumable tungsten electrode gives a fine, controlled arc,
which keeps the heat absorbed by the metal to a minimum, so reducing
distortion and other heat-associated defects.
(d) The operator has a clear view of the weld at all limes, and thus can produce
better joints.
2.5 Why is an arc-ignition device only necessary on TIG welding equipment?

Ans: It is only in the TIG system that the electrode must not contact the work in order to
strike the arc.
2.6 State three disadvantages that can occur when using flux-coated electrodes.
Ans: (a) Any moisture present in the flux coating may result in porosity of
the weld metal.
(b) Slag inclusion can occur, particularly when the procedure is
interrupted to renew the electrode
(c) The slag coating must be removed after completing the weld.
2.7 Explain why overhead welding can be carried out more easily with MIG welders
than with other equipment.
Ans: A strong directional magnetic field with a pinch effect enables the fine droplets,
resulting from the heat concentration in the electrode wire, to be transferred
upwards as easily as they are downwards.
2.8 Explain why a depression on the outside of the plates must result if a sound spot
weld is to be achieved.
Ans: The contraction of the cooling metal would otherwise result in a shrinkage cavity
within the joint.
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2.9 Why is it necessary to use welding currents up to 50 000 A on resistance-welding
applications?
Ans: The current has to overcome the contact resistance between the two plates and
between the electrodes and plates, as well as the resistance of the plate;, themselves.
2.10 What single factor accounts for the high strength of flash-butt-welded joints?
Ans: Any oxides present on the mating faces are forced out during flashing and
the close contact of the faces during forging prevents further oxidation occurring.
2.11 State the two advantages, which arise from the use of friction welding.
Ans: All oxides and other impurities arc expelled during the heat generation stage and,
as this heating is due entirely to friction, distortion is minimal.
2.12 Explain why columnar crystals are always formed tangentially to the heat-affected
zone.
Ans: As the metal cools, it does so from the outside towards the centre of the weld area.
Crystallization occurs as the metal solidifies from the molten state. As this is a
continuous process, the crystals which form initially around the outer layer of the
molten zone continue lo grow inwards in the same way. This results in their
characteristic column shape.
2.13 Explain the main functions of the flux coating on coated electrodes.
Ans: There are three main functions served by the flux coating. It gives off a gaseous
shield to protect the arc and molten pool. It provides a slag coating on the weld
metal to prevent oxidation until it has cooled. It can be used to impart refining
elements to the molten metal in order to improve its structure,
2.14 Explain the difference between solid state welding and fusion welding.
Ans: Solid state welding relies solely on pressure to create the weld after the mating faces
have been plasticized. Fusion welding actually melts the metal of the two parts in
the joint area.
2.15 Explain why certain spot-welding operations necessitate water-cooled electrodes.

Ans: For heavy-current or rapid-cycle spot-welding operations, it is possible for [he
copper alloy electrodes to become so overheated that they would deform.
58
2.16 Explain why the high-frequency spark oscillator operates continuously on
a.c. TIG welders but only with a single pulse on d.c. TIG welders,
Ans: With d.c. operation the spark oscillator has only to provide ignition at the
commencement of welding. With a.c. operation it also has to re-ignite the spark
after each negative half cycle.
2.17 Derive the expression for the heat generated during a resistance welding
operation.
Ans: The heal generated is a product of the square of the current, the total resistance and
the time that the current is flowing. Hence the heat generated is given by the
expression: H = I2RT joules
2.18 By means of sketches show why twin-head automatic welding machines can
minimize distortion in fillet hull welds.
Ans: When a single fillet is welded, contraction of the cooling weld metal can cause the
distortion shown in Figure 2-19, By welding both fillets simultaneously, the
contractional force in each fillet balances the other.
2.19 Car brake shoes (the metal component to which the friction material is
attached) are fabricated from two pre-shaped metal plates resulting in a radiused
T-shaped section. Choose the most suitable welding process for this. giving
reasons to justify the choice.
Ans: The brake shoes are manufactured in very large quantities which would
render fillet welding too costly. This eliminates all possible processes other than
projection welding. The quantities involved would easily justify the cost of specially
shaped electrodes to carry out the process.
2.20 Sketch or describe the detailed differences in design that would be needed to
convert the submerged arc welder illustrated in Figure 2.2 into one suitable for
welding ships deck plates.
59
Ans: The welder would require mounting on wheels to enable it to he driven
along, the deck, the drive being transmitted to the wheels- To ensure linear
movement, some form of guidance rail would be needed, or the entire welder could
be driven along rails.
2.21 Thin-walled tubing K made by rolling from a flat strip and joining the edges by
bull-seam welding. Produce a simple sketch to illustrate how this would be
carried out.
Ans: The welding operation could be carried out using either a single wheel or the
second electrode contact below the tube, of a pair of wheels running each side of the
seam, as shown in Figure 2.20.
2.22 A spot welder set to the correct conditions produced perfect spot welds when these
were fairly widely spaced. When the spacing were very close together, however,
the first spot weld was perfect, hut the second one was very poor. Comment on the
probable explanation for the problem.
Ans: When a second spot is positioned close to the first, the current will follow the line of
least resistance, which would be through the solid metal formed by the first spot as
shown in Figure 2-21. This would considerably reduce the power available for the
second weld.
Questions:
2.23 Using the knowledge gained, sketch the edge preparation necessary to enable thin-
gauge aluminum sheet to be TIG welded without the need for a filler metal.
2.24 Describe the changes made to a seam welder to enable it to carry out a stitch-
welding operation.
2.25 Describe the general theory of resistance welding, using sketches which could be
common to any of the individual techniques.
2.26 State the reason why d.c. TIG welding is not used for aluminum and its alloys.
2.27 Flash-bull welding is unique among the resistance welding techniques.' Explain
why this statement can be made.
60
2.28 Gas-shielded welding is a technique, which is being adopted to a greater
extent in current welding practice. Discuss the reasons for the adoption of this
particular process.
2.29 When materials are joined by welding, consideration has to be given to the
technique used, the type of joint, the type of metal and its thickness. List and
comment on the problems which can arise when these factors have been ignored,
2.30 List the variables which determine the success of a resistance-welded joint and
consider each one in turn lo show how a change may affect the others.
2.31 Produce a sketch of a suitable jig to facilitate the lap seam welding of sheet metal
circular dueling. The jig is required to accommodate a range of duel sizes varying
from 150 mm to 1 m in diameter and up to 2 m in length.
Ans: The sketch should incorporate two pairs of rollers to support the dueling as
it passes between the welding rollers. The latter would be on extension arms to
accommodate the 2 m dueling length
2.32 Determine whether a spot welder rated at 500 kVA has the capacity to spot weld
aluminum which requires 42 000 A at 10 V. The power factor of the machine is 0.75.
Ans: With a power factor of 0.75 the machine can produce only 375 kW of power, which
is less than the 420 kW required for spot welds.
2.33 After improving an inefficient radiator system in a small factory by installing warm
air blowers, it was found that TIG-welded aluminum joints were showing signs of
oxygen absorption. The machine, an automatic system with permanent settings
used for repetitive work had previously produced consistent results. Suggest the
probable reason for the problem and a suitable remedy.
Ans: The blowers are deflecting the gas covering the arc and the joints are absorbing
oxygen from the atmosphere.
61
2-34 Drawing on (he information given in section 2.6. describe the result that would
indicate a satisfactory spot weld. when two plates that had been welded by a single
spot were pulled apart, the separation being such that one plate is lifted off the
other without any sliding taking place.
Ans: The metal should fracture around the spot weld, leaving a plug from one sheet
firmly attached to the other.
2.35 A welder using MIG equipment is overcome by fumes when working in the
bottom of an open-top galvanized water tank. The tank was 5 m square and 2 m
deep. Which allowed adequate area for the fumes to escape from the open top?
Comment on the likely reason for the accident.
Ans: Fumes which were heavier than air have become trapped in the tank. This
illustrates the danger in assuming that all fumes rise in the atmosphere.
Questions
2.36 Explain in simple terms the processes of MIG and TIG welding using diagrammatic
sketches to illustrate the salient features.
2.37 Discuss the advantages of gas-shielded welding in comparison with metal arc
welding.
2.38 Analyse and compare three types of welding technique that could be used in the
manufacture of a domestic appliance cabinet, e.g. washing machine, refrigerator,
etc.
2.39 Use sketches to explain the principles of submerged arc welding.
2.40 Consider flash-butt welding and friction welding to compare their similarities and
contrast their differences.
2.41 MIG welding is considered a suitable alternative to oxy-acetylene welding.
Compare the various aspects of these two processes in order to test the validity of
this.
2.42 Sketch the cross-section of a typical welded joint to indicate the crystal structure
and briefly explain the existence of the different types shown.
62
2.43 Choose three examples of projection-welded components. Give the reasons why
this technique was adopted in preference to the others which could have been used,
including non-welding processes-
2.44 Describe the spot and seam methods of resistance welding by first considering the
points which are common to all resistance welding methods, and then the points
which characterize these particular methods. Your sketches should complement this
approach to the question.
2.45 Analyse all the cost aspects of installing and running a M1G welder as opposed to a
comparable metal arc welder,
2.46 Select the most appropriate welding process for the following components, stating
the reasons for the choice.
(a) The cracked block of a cast-iron internal combustion engine.
(b) The repair of a nickel alloy pipe in a chemical plant.
(c) The titanium casing of a jet engine.
(d) The end plates of the containers for petrol tanker lorries.
(e) A fillet weld in thick aluminum plate.
(f) The high-speed steel end of a carbon steel shank lathe tool.
(g) The skeleton wire frame for a lamp shade,
(h) The rain water channel on a car roof-
(i) The flange on the end of a car half shaft.
2.47 Fractures can occur in a welded joint while the process is being carried out or after
it has been completed. Explain the differences between these two types of fracture
and describe in detail how they occur.
2.48 Select a suitable component which has been made by casting, or fabricated by
fastening, and devise a scheme for producing it is an all-welded construction- Use
sketches to show its construction both before and after your proposal.
63
2.49 Make a study of a welding shop, or a major working project, to establish the extent
of safe working practice.
2.50 The TIG welding process is often automated using a specially designed bench, for
welding runs up to about 3 in long. Using your knowledge of automatic submerged
arc welding, sketch a design for the TIG process, bearing in mind that this is on a
much smaller scale than the submerged arc process.
3.1 Name the oldest and the most recent solidification techniques.
Ans: Investment casting is the oldest and shell moulding is the most recent process.
3.2 What metal would normally be used for gravity die-casting dies?
Ans: Cast iron.
3.3 How is the problem of complex core removal overcome?
Ans: By making the core collapsible.
3.4 What technique is adopted to overcome the main limitations of gravity die-casting?
Ans: Preheating the die to avoid the chilling effect of the cast iron.
3.5 Identify the two basic pressure die-casting techniques.

Ans: The hot-chamber process and the cold-chamber process.
3.6 What type of alloy steel is normally used for pressure die-casting dies?
Ans: Chrome-tungsten or chrome-molybdenum steel.
3.7 State the magnitude of the pressure range associated with pressure die-casting.
Ans: 1 bar to 3500 bar.
3.8 What single characteristic is required of ail casting metals?
Ans: Fluidity
3.9 State the limiting liquidus temperature for a die-casting metal.
64
Ans: 1000 °C.
3.10 List the materials that can be used to make the pattern for an investment Casting.
Ans: Wax, thermoplastic polymer and frozen mercury.
3.11 State the temperature necessary to fire the ceramic mould of an investment casting.
Ans: 1000 °C.
3.12 State the operating temperature needed in order to make sand shell moulds.
Ans: 2500C.
3.13 Identify the unusual ingredient that goes into the sand used for shell moulding.
Ans: Thermo setting polymer resin.
3.14 Name the two basic techniques of centrifugal casting.
Ans: Semi-centrifuged casting and centrifuged casting.
3.15 One of the major considerations when designing a mould for a cast component is
to decide on a parting line. Describe what this entails and comment on its
importance.
Ans: The parting line is the plane which divides the two halves of the mould or die and.
for the majority of shapes, it can exist in only one position. Its position must be such
that the component (or pattern in the case of sand casting) can be extracted from
each half of the die or mould.
3.16 Silicon added to a die-casting alloy can greatly increase its fluidity index. Explain
how it achieves this.
Ans: Silicon can break down the oxide film, which forms on the surface of many molten
alloys. These acts like the skin of a toy balloon filled with water and greatly impede
the fluidity of the metal.
3.17 A small jobbing foundry decided to produce a small run of large steel castings
because the shape involved was quite simple. The shell mould was made in the
usual way but a few minutes after pouring had been completed, the shell broke
apart and the still molten metal poured out. Subsequent tests proved that the
thickness of the shell was sufficient and that the polymer resin in the sand was of
65
the required quantity, correctly dispersed and freshly formulated- Suggest the
reason why the shell failed.
Ans: The size of the casting was probably too great for shell moulding- even though the
sand shell had been correctly made and was sufficiently thick. The heat from the
casting decomposed the polymer binder before the solidifying skin of the casting
was strong enough to support the mass of molten metal inside and this broke free
and flowed out.
3.18 A 90° cylindrical bend with flanged ends is required in bronze. The outside
diameter is 100 mm and the total radial length is 600 mm. and it is required in
quantities of 100. Decide on a suitable casting process for producing the
component, giving reasons for your choice.
Ans: Sand casing is the most suitable, mainly because the quantity required would not
justify the cost of making a permanent mould. The shape could easily be formed in
the sand and a core could be incorporated to form the bore. Bronze is ideally suited
to the sand-casting Process.
3.19 The component illustrated in Figure 3.16 is the cross-section of a simple pulley
wheel to be manufactured by sand casting. The shape illustrated is the finished
profile required for the pulley. Re-draw the profile to indicate the shape as it
would be cast and briefly state the reasons for the shape chosen.
Ans: The component would he cast into the shape shown in Figure 3.19. The outer
periphery is tapered to enable the pattern to be removed from the sand and the
internal corners have been radiused as the corresponding external corners cannot
be maintained in the sand during pouring.
3.20 Some of the general terms used to describe casting processes are: expendable
mould, permanent mould, expendable pattern and permanent pattern- Group
66
each of the casting processes under Hie respective headings. Some of the
processes will appear more than once.
Ans: Expendable mould: sand casting, shell moulding and investment casting.
Permanent mould: gravity and pressure die casting,
Expendable pattern: investment casting.
Permanent pattern: sand casting and shell moulding.
3 21 If the 90° bend of question 3.18 has an inside diameter of 70 mm and flanges of 150
mm diameter and 10 mm thick, calculate the volume of molten metal needed for its
production if the shrinkage factor for this is 4 per cent by volume.
p p
Ans: Total volume of bend =
4
(1002 - 702 ) x 600 + (150 2 - 1002 ) x10 x 2
4
p p
= x3060000 + x 250000
4 4
p
= x3310000
4
p
\ Total volume of metal = x3310000 x1.04
4
= 2703655mm3
3 22 The investment-casting process tends to be limited to component sizes in the
region of 10 kg due to the cost involved in making the wax pattern. Give an
example of a much larger component produced by this process and explain why
the limiting cost factor does not apply.
Ans: Although a number of specialized examples may exist, the most common one
would be when this process is used by sculptors (o produce figures in bronze or
light alloys. These could run to several hundred kilograms but the process is the
most convenient one 10 enable artists to reproduce their original sculptures in
metal.
3 23 A number of metallurgical terms have been used in this chapter although the
student should be familiar with their meaning from the study of Materials
Technology II. Produce a theoretical equilibrium diagram and indicate on this the
eutectic. liquidus and solidus.
67
Ans: Figure 3.20
3 24 Figure 3.17 illustrates three different methods of accommodating threaded

Inserts around the rim of a die-cast aluminum-alloy gearbox, to enable the cover
plate to be attached. Choose the most suitable design, giving the reasons for your
choice and also giving the reasons for rejecting the other designs.
Ans: The third design is the most suitable as it results in the least expensive die
requirements. The first design would necessitate; a collapsible core which would he
unnecessarily expensive. The second design incorporates sidewall, which arc too
thick in relation to the base.
3.25 A company capable of die casting the gearbox illustrated in Figure 3.17 is
given the chance of producing 100 000 of these in batches of 5000 per month. The
die will cost £80 000 to produce and will require refurbishment every six months al
a cost of £5000. The aluminum alloy costs £1200 per tonne and the gearbox mass is
5 kg. Production costs for each gearbox produced, including all overheads and
indirect costs, will be £12. Calculate the unit cost price of the gearbox.
100000
Ans: Total production period = = 20months
5000
= 3 xe 5000 = e 15000
= e 95000
e1200 x5
Material costs per gearbox = = e6
1000
Production costs per gearbox = e 12
68
95000
Die costs per gear box = = e 0.95
100000
\ Total unit cost price per gear box = e 18.95
3.26 Study Figure 3.18, which illustrates a piston that has been produced by die casting,
and then sketch the detail of the collapsible core that would have been used.
Ans: Figure 3.21
3.27 List some of the problems associated with gravity die-casting dies made from cast
iron.
Ans: (a) Dies have a chilling effect on the molten metal and may need pre-
heating.
(b) Large dies may need to be cooled.
(c) Small dies may need pre-heating
3.28 List [he advantages of cast iron when used for gravity die-casting dies.
Ans: (a) Resistant to erosive action of molten alloy.
(b) Can be made by casting.
69
(c) The metal is cheap.
3.29 List (he advantages and limitations of sand cores in relation to collapsible metal
cores.
Ans: (a) Sand cores are cheap and easy lo produce.
(b) They are simple and easy [o remove,
(c) The finish they can produce is restricted.
3.30 Explain why pressure die-casting dies have to be made from alloy steels such as
chrome-tungsten or chrome-molybdenum.
Ans: To accommodate the rapid heating; and cooling cycles \\ilhoul cracking.
3.31 What characteristics are required of the polymer resin used in shell moulding
sand?
Ans: It is required to cure out in a few seconds after coming into contact with (he heated
pattern but degrade when subjected to the higher temperatures of the molten metal.
3.32 List the factors, which govern the degree of fluidity, or fluidity index, of a die-
casting metal.
Ans: (a) The temperature of the metal.
(b) The temperature of the mould.
(c) The composition of the metal.
(d) The strength of the oxide film.
3.33 List the main characteristics which make aluminum alloys the most popular of the
die-casting metals.
Ans: Light weight, high strength, corrosion resistance, low cost and good fluidity
3.34 How can the strength of zinc alloys be improved?
Ans: By the addition of aluminum or copper
3.35 Explain why the eutectic composition of magnesium-aluminum alloys is not used
for die-casting.
Ans: Because the alloy. at this composition, is far too brittle
70
3.36 Explain why the eutectic composition is an important consideration in die-casting
alloys.
Ans: At this composition the metal solidifies quickly without passing through a wide
solidification phase.
3.37 List (he constraints generally imposed on die-casting processes, which limit their
use to some extent.
Ans: (a) Large numbers have to be produced.
(b) The range of metals is limited,
(c) The size of the castings is limited.
3.38 State the reason, which could result in a metal capable of being cast by other
means being cast by the lost wax process Graded un-worked examples
Ans: Extreme complexity of shape in a component required as a ‘one off’ or in a very
small quantity.
Questions
3.39 Describe the two techniques of centrifugal casting.
3.40 Describe the method or technique that is adopted for large gravity-die-casting dies
to reduce turbulence when pouring.
3.41 Explain why investment casting is the most expensive of the solidification
processes.
3.42 Give [he reason why investment casting and shell moulding are sometimes referred
to as precision casting techniques.
3.43 Describe the method used (o assess the fluidity index of a die casting.
3.44 Describe the main role played by silicon in die-casting alloys.
3.45 Identify the groups of alloys that are suitable for all casting processes.
3.46 State why the hot-chamber pressure-die-casting process is unsuitable for
aluminum-based alloys.
3.47 Describe the three ways of making the wax pattern for the injection-moulding
process.
71
3.48 Identify the main groups of metals used to produce components by the investment-
casting process.
3.49 Describe the method sometimes used (o support the investment when this is large
or is comprised of varying section thicknesses.
3.50 List the advantages to be gained with die casting over sand casting.
3.51 List the types of finishes that can be applied lo die-cast components.
3.52 Describe, with the aid of sketches, the basic principles of gravity die casting and
give three examples of the types of metals that can be used with this process.
3.53 Briefly describe, with the aid of sketches, high- and low-pressure die casting, clearly
showing the difference between the processes- Give an example of the most suitable
metal for each process.
3.54 List the advantages and (imitations of die-casting.
3.55 Give the reasons why inserts are used in die-cast components, and describe some
typical examples, using sketches to illustrate your answer.
3.56 Select the appropriate casting process for each of the following components- clearly
explaining the reasons for your choice: (a) an aluminum combustion engine piston;
(b) magnesium alloy car wheels; (c) a zinc alloy toy pistol; (d) a bronze
doorknocker.
3.57 Describe, with the aid of sketches, the principles of investment casting and
list the steps involved in the construction of the mould,
3.58 Describe, with the aid of sketches, the principles of shell moulding and identify the
areas in the process where it differs from sand casting.
3.59 Describe the types of metals that would be suitable for investment casting, clearly
explaining their unsuitability for other processes.
3.60 Draw up a table to compare the various factors of die casting, sand casting and
precision casting, using the heading-,: maximum size of component, type of finish
attainable, quality of finished casting, mould co-;t and minimum economic
quantity.
72
3.61 Examine a few items of domestic equipment in your home (e.g. cooker, washing
machine, electric or gas fire, etc.) and identify the components in their construction
that have been produced by casting processes. Draw up a table listing these, the
metal, used in their construction, the probable process used and any finishing
technique. Try to ascertain the position of the mould parting line and make an
assessment of why this was chosen.
3.62 Produce a simple split die in the workshop for the purpose of investigating the
gravity die-casting process. The shape of the cavity is unimportant, although a
simple bottle shape would be "the most suitable. Try to ensure that the inside face
of the cavity has a very rough machined area as well as a very smooth one, so that
an assessment can be made of surface detail reproduction. It may prove easier, in
the making of the die, if the cavity is machined from a rectangular block and then
the block carefully slit along its centre line to produce the two die halve-;. The
mating faces will require grinding 10 ensure a liquid-tight seal. A pair of holes
drilled on either side of the cavity, prior to splitting the block, will provide a
register for the two halves when location pins are inserted in the holes.
Use scrap pieces of aluminum or aluminum alloy for the die-casting metal as this is
easily melted by means of a gas-fired blowtorch. Clamp the die halves firmly in a
vice before pouring the molten metal, and be sure to observe the precautions
mentioned in Chapter 1 and wear the recommended protective clothing. After
retrieving the casting, write a report on the observations made while carrying out
the process, and on the finished component.
73
74
1
discontinuity.

2
3

4
size.

5
6
Weld Defects
To avoid porosity:
NDT-detectability:
NDT-detectability:
1
welding symbol.
NDT-detectability:
10 mm.
Weld metal cracks
Crater cracks
NDT-detectability:
below 2%.
2
give HAZ-cracks.
to the crater
welding
ñ An unstable arc
NDT-detectability:
5. Undercut are the formation of grooves at one or both sides of the weld.
3
4
Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding [MIG/GMAW]
Terminology
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding

MIG Metal Inert Gas
MAG Metal Active Gas
CO2 Carbon Dioxide + Oxygen
GMAW is an American description of the process. MIG welding means the use of an inert
(i.e. Non Active) gas; MAG welding requires the use of an active gas (i.e. carbon dioxide
and oxygen). CO2 is a more commonly used abbreviation of MAGS welding gas.
The process consists of a DC arc burning between a thin bare metal wire electrode and the
work piece. The arc and weld area are enveloped in a protective gas shield. The wire
electrode is fed from a spool, through a welding torch which is connected to the positive
terminal into the weld zone.
GMAW Circuit diagram. (1) Welding torch (2) Workpiece (3) Power source (4)Wire feed unit (5) Electrode
source (6)Shielding gas supply.
1
Fig. 1
The arc is self adjusting; any variation in the arc length made by the welder produces a
change in the burn off rate of the electrode, and the arc re-establishes its original length.
Application
It is used on all thicknesses of steels, aluminum, nickel, stainless steels etc. Due to the
process being semiautomatic, low operator skill is required compared to other welding
processes. It is used in most metal forming/working environments.
Safety
Good ventilation is essential and personnel protection such as overalls, mask, gloves,
screens etc. are required to prevent burns from the molten metal and arc radiations.
Equipment
The basic equipment consists of :
Power A direct current unit of design and capacity according to particular usage, i.e.
source motor generator for site use or a rectifier for shop use.
Wire drive
Containing feed rolls connected to a variable speed motor.
unit
Correct gas for material, thickness, etc. required.
Shielding
15-20 cubic feet per hour (7 to 10 l/min.) under normal conditions increasing
gas
to as high as 35 CFH (17 l/min),Both the mixture of CO2 and Argon is used.
Connected to the wire feed unit to allow both gas and wire to travel to weld
Torch/gun
area.
2
Electrical conditions
Welding Current and Wire Feed Speed
These are generally set by the same control; higher wire speeds mean higher amperages
and vice-versa.
Contact tip to work distance (CTWD) is usually 10-12 mm
Voltage
Open circuit voltages can be either varied or stepped.
Metal Transference Across the Arc
Dip Transfer
3
Also known as short circuiting arc welding, is carried out using currents below 200 amps
and 25 volts. Under these conditions the arc is so short that the molten globules at the
electrode (wire) tip short circuit to the work piece at rapid time intervals. The rise in the
current melts the electrode tip and this re-establishes the arc. This cycle occurs
approximately 100 times per second. Dip transfer is therefore suitable for all positions
welding, thin material, open butt type joint etc.
Spray Transfer
Using high currents and voltages, i.e. 250-500 amps and 25+ volts, the metal is transferred
across the arc in the form of fine droplets in a spray. It is used for high deposition rates
and deeper penetrating welds. Spray, due to the high current and voltages involved, is
mainly used on thick materials in the flat position only; (except when welding aluminium,
where spray transfer is used on all positions).
Inductance Settings
This control can only be used on dip transfer, and it fine-tunes the arc by either making the
arc hotter or cooler. To rapid a rise during short circuiting will cause globules to explode
out of the arc at the current peak, thus creating excessive spatter. Too slow a current rise
will cause the electrode to freeze in the weld pool. Therefore :-
1. Low inductance setting:- Gives higher short circuiting frequency and relatively cold
welding
2. High inductance setting:- Gives lower short circuiting frequency and longer arcing
periods between short circuiting giving hotter welding.
Applications and Advantages of Spray Transfer
Pulsed Arc (Controlled Spray Transfer)
This combines two power sources into one unit, one side supplies a back-ground current;
keeping the electrode in a molten condition, while the other unit produces pulses of higher
current at regular intervals, which detach and accelerate the droplets of metal into the
weld pool.
This type of transfer allows positions welding and higher deposition rates.
4
Electrodes
Mainly consisting of a bare wire to allow compatibility with parent plate. Metal powder
and flux coated wires are also used with CO2 shielding gas to allow high deposition rates
and to improve weld metal quality.
General Sizes: 0.5 mm to 1.6 mm(sometimes 3.0 mm)
5
Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Oxy-Acetylene welding relies on the heat of a flame to melt the material being welded.
Fusion can either be autogenous or with the addition of a filler material.
Safety
The high flame temperature required for oxy-fuel welding and cutting processes is
obtained by combining oxygen with a fuel gas to produce flame temperatures of
approximately 2500°C to 3000°C. There are certain precautions to be taken when using
gases and these are described below:-
Fig.1 OXYGEN (black, right hand thread) should be handled carefully and must not be
stored in warm areas. The pressure of oxygen in cylinders when full is 2500lbs.per square
inch (200 bar) at normal temperature and any rise in surrounding temperature will cause
an increase in cylinder pressure above 2500lbs.Oil or grease should never be allowed to
come into contact with oxygen cylinders as an inflammable mixture will be formed, which
may ignite spontaneously.
Fig. 2 ACETYLENE (maroon, left hand thread) should be stored in a separate fuel
compound as acetylene and air form an explosive mixture, these cylinders should also be
6
chained when either in use or in storage. No alloy containing more than 70% copper
should be used on any part of the equipment as a highly explosive compound is formed.
Cylinders must always be stored upright and away from high temperatures.
Fig 3. PROPANE (red, left hand thread). Storage as for acetylene, a fuel gas. Highly
inflammable and can form explosive mixtures with air or oxygen (2% to 10%). With
propane being heavier than air it can flow easily in still air some considerable distances
therefore care must be exercised when using this gas.
Equipment
Pressure Regulators
Regulators should always be treated as delicate, precision instruments and must not be
subject to sudden pressures or knocks. Not only are regulators identified by colour, they
also have right hand or left hand threads depending on the type of gas being used. The
type of thread can be identified by a notch cut on the equipment connections, showing the
gas to be a fuel gas.
Single or multi stage regulators are available depending on working conditions. Single
stage are suitable for welding with maximum outlet pressure of 2.1 bar, or scrap and heavy
duty cutting with pressures of 8.3 to 14 bar.
Multi stage reduces pressure twice, giving a more stable output pressure, suitable for
quality welding and cutting applications.
Blowpipes
Various types available, low pressure and high pressure, high pressure where gas is mixed
in either the head or the shank, while a low pressure blowpipe with an injector mixing can
be used with low pressure. Cutting torches must be kept clean and free from oil, grease etc.
and periodically inspected for wear and damage.
Gas Hose
Should be maintained in good condition at all times and fitted with the proper connections.
Most hoses are fitted with hose check valves to prevent damage to the regulators.
Flashback Arrestors
These are safety devices on the outlet of the oxygen and fuel gas regulators. A highly
sensitive cut off mechanism operates at the slightest back pressure, whether the pressure
7
wave is slow or sudden. An effective non-return valve, which also prevents flashback.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding Techniques
There are two techniques used to weld flat joints:
Leftward Welding
This method is used on low carbon steel sheet and plate in thicknesses up to 5 mm and also
on cast iron and certain non-ferrous metals. As the name implies, the weld is started at the
right hand side and progresses towards the left. The filler rod precedes the blowpipe and is
held at an angle of 30° - 40° to the work surface. The blowpipe is held at an angle of 60° -
70° to the work surface and is given a slight side to side movement to ensure side fusion as
the filler rod is fed into the molten pool.
Fig. 4
Rightward Welding
This method is used on steel plate over 5 mm thick. The weld is started at the left hand side
of the joint and progresses towards the right. The blowpipe is held at an angle of 40° - 50°
to the work surface and travels in a straight line. The filler rod, which is held at an angle of
30° - 40° to the work surface, follows the blowpipe and is fed into the molten pool with a
circular action. A considerable amount of practice is required to perfect this technique.
The advantages of rightward welding over the leftward technique are higher speed, less
distortion and more economical use of gas and filler rod. This is due to the fact that
thicknesses up to and including 8 mm need not be bevelled and for butt joints in plate over
8
8 mm the included angle of the vee preparation is only 60°.
Fig. 5
The Oxy-Acetylene Flame
The heat source for this process is a chemical reaction resulting from the combustion of
acetylene with oxygen. This is an exothermic reaction in which equal volumes of acetylene
and oxygen supplied by the blowpipe react to produce carbon monoxide, and hydrogen as
products of the first stage of combustion. The reaction is as follows:-
Fig. 6 The Oxy-Acetylene flame
Theoretically, equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are supplied to the blowpipe.
Chemical reactions are as follows:-
Stage 1
Acetylene + Oxygen = Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen

C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2
Stage 2
Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water

CO + H2 + O2 = CO2 + H2O
9
In Stage 2, the carbon monoxide burns and forms carbon dioxide, while the hydrogen
which is formed from the action in Stage 1, combines with oxygen to form water. The
combustion is therefore complete and carbon dioxide and water (turned to steam) are the
chief products of combustion.
This produces a flame temperature of approximately 32000°C.
Oxy-Acetylene Flame Types
Neutral Flame
As the supply of oxygen to the blowpipe is further increased, the flame contracts and the
white cone becomes clearly defined, assuming a definite rounded shape. At this stage
approximately equal quantities of acetylene and oxygen are being used and combustion is
complete, all the carbon supplied by the acetylene is being consumed and the maximum
heat given out. The flame is now neutral, and this type of flame is the one most extensively
used by the welder, who should make himself thoroughly familiar with its appearance and
characteristics.
Carburising Flame
This is a flame in which an excess of acetylene is burning, i.e. combustion is incomplete and
unconsumed carbon is present. When lighting the blowpipe the acetylene is turned on first
and ignited, giving a very smoky yellow flame of abnormal size, showing two cones of
flame in addition to an outer envelope; this is an exaggerated form of the carburising
flame, but gives out comparatively little heat and is of little use for welding. When the
oxygen is turned on and the supply is gradually increased, the flame, though still of
abnormal size contracts towards the blowpipe tip where an inner white cone of great
luminosity commences to make its appearance. If the increase in the supply of oxygen is
stopped before the cone becomes clearly defined and while it is still an inch or so long, the
result is a carburising flame which is mainly used for hard surfacing and should not be
employed for welding steel as unconsumed carbon may be introduced into the weld and
produce a hard, brittle, deposit.
Oxidising Flame
A further increase in the oxygen supply will produce an oxidising flame in which there is
more oxygen than is required for complete combustion. The inner cone will become shorter
and sharper, the flame will turn a deeper purple colour and emit a characteristic slight
"hiss", while the molten metal will be less fluid and tranquil during welding and excessive
sparking will occur. An oxidising flame is only used for special applications, and should
10
never be used for welding.
Gas Shielded Tungsten Arc Welding
Terminology
TIG Tungsten Inert Gas

ARGONARC Tungsten Inert Gas (BOC Tradename)
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
HELIARC CO2 + Oxygen (US Tradename)
Consists of an AC/DC arc burning between a non-consumable electrode and the workpiece
to melt the joint area. The area of the arc is enveloped in a protective gas shield
which protects the weld pool and electrode from contamination while allowing a
stable arc to be maintained. The filler wire is added either by hand, or in the
mechanised process, by feed rollers attached to the torch.
Application
Common applications consists of high quality welding on stainless steels; aluminium and
its alloys; copper; nickel alloys and rare materials such as titanium and zirconium.
Mild steels are welded when full penetration welds are required within certain
tolerances, both in size and x-ray quality.
Used widely in the aerospace, chemical and nuclear industries.
Electrical Conditions
DC (direct current) - most normally used for TIG welding of stainless steels and heat
resisting steels, mild and low alloy steels, copper, nickel alloys, lead, silver, titanium
and other metals that do not contain aluminium, magnesium or their alloys.
The electrode must be connected to the negative terminal, where one third of the heat is
generated. Two thirds of the heat of the arc is generated at the positive pole. A
tungsten electrode connected to the positive pole would overheat and melt causing
contamination of the weld and cracks in the ceramic shroud.
11
AC (Alternating current) - is used only for TIG welding of aluminium, magnesium and
their alloys. Surface oxidation is automatically removed by the action of the arc each
time the electrode becomes positive, (50 times per. second), thus the need for
corrosive fluxes is unnecessary. Equal heat distribution is achieved by the rapid
reversal of the polarity between positive and negative.
If DC supply was used and the electrode was connected to the positive pole it would
overheat. If DC supply was used, and the electrode was connected to the negative
pole there would be no removal of the surface oxides.
Equipment
The basic equipment for TIG welding is the same as that used for MMA, but with the
additions of a torch/electrode holder which can provide a gas supply to the weld
area, and additional components with specific functions are also included.
Requirements
 Power source
 high frequency unit
 DC suppressor
 contactor unit
 cables and hoses
 torch
 electrodes
12
 filler wire
Requires a controllable supply of AC/DC current, any where between 1 amp

and 300 amps, with an open circuit voltage of between 60 and 100 volts.
Power source
AC/DC rectifiers, AC only, or DC only power sources with a drooping
characteristic supply are required.
The two main functions of this unit are :-
 To initiate the arc without the electrode touching the workpiece by

High means of a high frequency spark thus preventing contamination of
frequency the work by the electrode.
unit
To stabilise the AC arc by superimposing a high frequency current on
the welding current there by giving positive re-ignition of the arc at
the positive/negative changeovers.
To suppress the inherent DC tendency of the AC welding arc. When
welding aluminium with a tungsten electrode on AC polarity there is a
DC tendency for the current to be changed to DC. This condition (inherent
Suppressor rectification) increases as the oxide film increases. A DC suppressor unit
unit allows the AC current but prevents what is known as the DC component,
thus a suppressor is only necessary when welding aluminium, magnesium,
and their alloys.
The two main functions of this unit are:-
1. To break the arc without removing the electrode and gas shield from
the weld area.
Contactor 2. To protect the operator by cutting of the open circuit voltage when
the torch is not in use.
Contactors may be operated by a switch on the torch or a foot pedal. The

foot control may also allow the current to be adjusted during welding.
Cables These must be of the type recommended by the manufacturer of the
equipment with suitable plugs and connections for AC and /or DC power
13
sources.
The two main types of torches are:-
Torches  Air cooled
 Water cooled
Used for light duty work up to approximately 1.6mm thickness, they vary
Air cooled from pencil type and swivel head type with a capacity of up to 50 amps, to
torches the general purpose torch used for continuous welding at 75 amps.
Used for heavy duty work up to approximately 12mm thickness with
current capacities of between 100 and 500 amps. Cooling water passes
through the tube carrying the welding cable. This allows a reduction in
Water cooled
power cable size thus reducing weight and increasing flexibility. A safety
switch is incorporated on the power source which prevents the arc being
initiated if the water supply fails.
The non-consumable electrodes are improved by the addition of small
Electrodes
amounts of zirconium, thorium, and ceriated tungsten.
Colour coded red, used mainly on DC negative polarity for stainless and
Thoriated heat resisting steels, mild steels, low alloy steels, nickel, silver, lead, copper,
electrodes monel, titanium etc. These electrodes can also be used on AC polarity but
the arc characteristics are poor.
Zirconiated Colour coded white, designed for AC welding of aluminum and
electrodes magnesium and their alloys.
Specially designed for DC welding, with negative polarity and used exactly
Ceriated as thoriated electrodes. The main use of these type electrodes are in areas
electrodes where no radioactivity can be allowed, i.e. aircraft industry, and nuclear
industries. Colour coded blue/green.
Electrode Preparation
A silicon carbide grinding wheel should be reserved for tungsten grinding to prevent
contamination of the electrode by other materials. As a general guide for DC welding a
sharp point with a 1-3 x diameter taper should be used, the lower the current the longer
the taper and vice-versa. For 100% X-ray quality, a slightly rounded point will prevent
any tungsten inclusions within the weld.
Under these conditions the arc is so short that the molten globules at the electrode (wire)
14
tip short circuit to the work piece at rapid time intervals. The rise in the current melts the
electrode tip and this re-establishes the arc. This cycle occurs approximately 100 times per
second.
Shielding Gas
A chemically inert gas is required for TIG welding. Argon is the most common gas used, it
is present in the atmosphere to approximately .94% volume. Argon is tasteless, odourless,
non-toxic and does not burn. The gas is supplied in light blue steel cylinders and
generally at a pressure of 2500 lbs per square inch (14.5 lbs = 1 Bar). It is extracted through
a pressure regulator at 30 lbs per square inch. Cylinders should be changed when the
reading on the contents gauge falls to 30 lbs.
Argon combined with either Hydrogen, Helium, or Oxygen is used to improve the
welding characteristics on various materials.
Consumables
Apart from the shielding gases and the electrical power used, the main consumable is the
filler wire. The process may be used without the addition of filler especially on thin
material. If filler is required then it is added to the weld pool in the form of a rod which
can either be added manually or by an automatic wire feed unit. It may also be added in
the form of a fusible insert to produce an accurate penetration bead through a joint.
Control of the Process
The main controls are :-
 current
 filler wire addition
 travel speed
These are the main parameters for the TIG welding process. Current range is dependent
on the type and size of electrode used, and the thickness of the material and joint position.
A high level of manual dexterity is required to co-ordinate the addition of filler wire to the
travel speed and also to maintain a constant arc length.
Features of the Process
In spite of the low speed of the process, its ability to produce high quality welds in a wide
15
range of materials has made it a viable proposition for more demanding applications. The
process is not considered economic for thicker materials or low integrity joints in plain
carbon steels.
Safety
The main safety points using the TIG process is good insulation of all power cables, secure
welding return clamps and protection against arc radiations. The high frequency
spark used to initiate the arc can occur through any break in the insulation, and can
cause deep seated burns which can be very painful, medical advice should be sought
as soon as possible.
Precautions in Use of Inert Gas for Welding
The delivery of inert gases such as Argon, and Nitrogen into confined spaces may lead to
the oxygen content of the air being reduced to a point where there is a danger of
asphyxiation. For this reason adequate ventilation should be used.
Brazing
Brazing is the joining of two materials by means of another which has a melting point
lower than that of either of the two parent metals. There are three types of brazing:
 Soldering, where the melting temperature is less than 450°C.

 Low Temperature Brazing, where the temperature of melting is between 450°C and
1000°C.
 High Temperature Brazing, where the melting temperature is greater than 1000°C
The accepted method of introducing the molten filler material is to apply the brazing alloy
to the outer surface of the joint and to allow it to flow in and through the joint. There are
three mechanisms that promote the flow of the brazing alloy - capillary attraction,
temperature gradient and gravity.
A major difference between welding and brazing is the way joints are made.
16
Figure 8. Welding and Brazing Joints Compared
Bronze Welding
Bronze welding is a process of joining metals in which the edges of the metal are heated to
a temperature below their melting point and a bronze alloy is simultaneously melted and
caused to flow over the edges and join with them. By this means a strong and ductile
union is produced between high melting point metals, i.e. cast iron, steel, copper and
malleable iron etc.
Bronze welding resembles brazing up to a point, the application of brazing is generally

limited to joints where a close fit or mechanical fastening serves to consolidate the
assembly. In bronze welding the filler alone provides the joint strength, and is applied by
the manipulation of a heating flame in the same manner as gas welding. The heating flame
to serve the dual purpose of melting off the bronze filler and simultaneously heating the
surface to be joined. the operator in this manner controls the work, hence the term "bronze
welding".
Almost any copper-zinc alloy can be used as a medium for such welding, but the
consideration of costs, flowing qualities, strength and ductility of the deposit, have led to
the adoption of one general purpose 60-40 copper-zinc alloy with minor constituents
incorporated to prevent zinc oxide fuming and to improve fluidity and strength.
Silicon is the most important of these minor constituents, it is useful in three ways :-
1. Silicon in the manner with which it readily unites with oxygen to form silica,
provides a covering for the molten metal which prevents zinc volatilisation and also
serves to maintain the balance of the constituents of the alloy to be carried through
to the deposit.
2. The coating of silica combines with the flux used in bronze welding to form a very
fusible slag, which material assists the tinning operation, which is an essential
feature of any bronze welding process.
17
3. Silicon prevents the formation of gas holes and porosity in the deposited weld
metal, which would reduce the strength of the weld, by its capacity for retaining
gases in solution during solidification of the alloy.
Silicon introduces valuable properties to the bronze welding rod, other elements, such as
lead, have a detrimental effect on the deposit. A welding rod with a reduced lead content
is essential if porosity, brittleness and low-tensile strength is to be avoided.
Welding Technique
The type of metal being welded has no effect on the welding technique. It is essential that
the surfaces are cleaned and degreased, the temperature is raised to approximately 850°C,
or dull red in colour. The bronze rod is melted by the heating flame and allowed to flow
over these surfaces.
The types of flame which can be used are :-
 Oxy-acetylene
 Oxy-hydrogen
 Oxy-coal gas
 Air-acetylene
The Oxy-acetylene flame has the highest flame intensity and is most generally used; the
use of Air-acetylene is limited to work on light gauge material. The size of the flame
depends on the thickness and mass of metal to be welded, and upon the extent of pre-
heating. To reduce volatilisation of the Zinc from the bronze alloy by forming a skin of
oxide on the surface of the deposit, a slightly reducing (oxidising) flame should be used.
PART A – Short Questions

1. Define the term welding.
2. What is Plastic welding? Give some examples.
3. What is fusion welding? Give some examples.
4. Name few gases used in welding.
5. What is the function of regulator in gas welding?
6. What is carburizing flame?
18
7. What is neutral flame? Write down its temperature.
8. List out the advantages of gas welding.
9. List the different equipments and accessories used in electric arc welding.
10. What is torch brazing?
Welding of Aluminum
Much of the successful art of aluminum welding is to be found in careful thought and
preparation even before welding is started. Through correct preparation, it is easier to
avoid the pitfalls that can trap the unwary. Therefore, below are a few facts on base metals,
welding methods, types of joint and filler metals.
Base Metals
Aluminum and its alloys can, in general terms, be divided up into three groups:
 aluminium (pure aluminum)

 non-heat-treatable alloys
 heat-treatable alloys.
Aluminums occur in various degrees of purity. The most common commercial grades
contain 99.7, 99.5 or 99.0% aluminum. Non-hardenable alloys, i.e. not suitable for heat
treatment, contain small amounts of manganese (Mn) or magnesium (Mg). Al-Mn alloys
are often made up of between 1.0 and 1.2% Mn, while Al-Mg alloys with up to 5% are
quite common. Al-Mg-Mn alloys are also used.
The hardenable alloys contain copper (Cu), magnesium and silicon (Mg + Si), or zinc and
magnesium (Zn + Mg).
Aluminum and most of the non-heat-treatable and heat-treatable alloys possess good
weldability. In the case of hardenable alloys with copper and lead additives, there is a risk
of hot cracking and therefore they are difficult to weld. Many casting alloys are also
19
suitable for welding except in the case of those which have high content of copper or
magnesium which are unsuitable for welding.
Welding Methods
Aluminium is an easily welded metal. However, consideration must be given to both the
welding method, the type of joint and the filler material. The two dominating welding
methods are MIG and TIG welding, but also gas, plasma, and resistance welding are used
as well as welding with covered electrodes.
Whether to use MIG or TIG welding depends on numerous factors. The TIG method is
better for thin light-gauge materials, when there is a need for good surface finish and
when welding from one side, that is to say when the root side is not accessible such as
when welding pipes, and when repairing castings. TIG welding of aluminium is generally
done with alternating current.
The MIG method is used primarily in the case of thicker or heavy-gauge materials when
high welding speed is a priority and also for long, continuous welds. Due to the lower
heat input, MIG welding results in less distortion in the welding zone. For consistent,
reliable feeding of soft aluminium filler wire, the push-pull type of equipment gives the
best results.
Pulse-Arc welding with MIG is an interesting technology in the context of aluminium

welding and is quickly paining in popularity. One of the main benefits of this method is
that it gives better control of the molten pool in the case of thin material, and the arc is
more stable and there is less spatter. The risk of welding imperfections is also lower.
Types of Joint
The type of joint chosen for aluminium welding depends on the thickness of the material
and the type and shape of the workpiece. As a rule, no preparation of the joint is required
for thinner materials. An ordinary Tee joint is recommended for one sided TIG welding up
to 4mm thickness, and two-sided welding for thicknesses, a 50° V-joint with a 2 to 3mm
unbevelled edge is recommended or, alternatively, a 90° double V-joint.
Good joint fit-up makes the welding easier, saves shielding gas and filler material and also
contributes to a higher quality of welding. If jigs are not used, the weldments should be
tack welded in the correct position prior to final welding. Where it is possible, use of a root
support or backing is recommended. The backing can be either copper or steel.
A special characteristic of aluminium is the higher melting point of oxide that forms on its
surface, which is mixed into the molten pool, can cause welding defects. The joint surfaces
20
must therefore be scraped or brushed clean using stainless steel wire brush immediately
prior to welding. Aluminium is also sensitive to other impurities such a soil, grease, paint
and general contamination, all of which can cause pores in the weld. Cleaning of the joint
surfaces, as well as the root and top surfaces bordering on the joint is recommended.
Bear in mind that welding causes greater deformation in aluminium than it does in steel. It
is therefore essential to give good consideration to the welding sequence, the need of pre-
setting to allow for contraction, use of fixtures, and so on.
Filler Metals
When welding aluminium, the choice of filler metal must be determined by the
composition of the base metal and the demands which will be made on the end product.
Generally speaking, aluminium and non-heat-treatable alloys should be welded with a

filler metal of the same type of alloy as the base metal. Alloys which are suitable for
hardening should be welded with a filler metal with a high content of silicon (Si) or
magnesium (Mg) in order to avoid the risk of hot cracking.
If there is need of a good match in colour between the welded joint and the base material
after anodic treatment, a suitable filler metal should be used. As in the case of the base
metal, care must be taken to keep the filler metal clean. On no account must it be
contaminated by oil, grease or dust and therefore it must be kept well protected and stored
in warm and dry conditions
Oxy-Gas Cutting
Oxygen cutting is more partial disintegration than cutting. It relies on the fact that when
steel is heated in the presence of oxygen it will combine with the oxygen to form a
magnetic oxide (slag).
The velocity of the oxygen has a scouring effect on the sides of the cut which removes
particles of oxidised metal adjacent to the oxygen stream. To start cutting the steel requires
to be at a temperature of approximately 900°C which is known as the ignition
temperature. This is below the melting point of steel. A slight hardening at the surface of
the cut edge is unavoidable, however this can easily be removed by a non-thermal process.
(e.g. grinding).
21
Note : Iron and steel can be cut by the Oxy-hydrogen, Oxy-propane, Oxy-natural gas, and
Oxy-acetylene
Equipment
Regulators
Regulators for cutting must allow a higher outlet pressure than the equivalent welding
regulator:- (i)Oxygen regulators, for cutting, should read up to 14 bar.
(ii)Acetylene regulators, for cutting, should read up to 2 bar (14.505 psi = 1 bar)
Cutting Torches
Torches for use with propane or acetylene gas may either be of the injector type or nozzle
mix pattern, therefore torches are either:-
 High pressure, where the gases are generally mixed in the cutting nozzle.
 Low pressure, where an injector system is used.
Cutting Nozzles
High pressure nozzles usually have three seats, where as low pressure have two seats.
Certain types of nozzles are made in two pieces, i.e. propane. The correct size nozzle for
the plate being cut with the correct pressures is essential for good quality cutting.
Application
Oxy-fuel cutting can be performed on all plain carbon steels, but not on aluminium,
stainless steels or cast iron. It is an extremely fast and versatile process and because of the
ease of use accidents do happen.
Gases Used in Welding and Cutting Processes
Selection of the appropriate gas depends on :-
 The compatibility of the gas with the material being welded

 Joint type and thickness of material
 Physical properties of the material
 The welding process and mode of operation
If the material has a high thermal conductivity a shielding gas which increases the heat
transferred to the workpiece should be used. For copper and aluminium, helium/argon
22
mixtures are particularly useful as they reduce preheat requirements and improve
penetration particularly on thicker sections. A table of the most common gases used is
given below.
Name Contents Colour Application

Oxygen Oxygen O2 Black Cutting/Heating
Acetylene Acetylene Maroon Cutting/Heating
Propane Propane Red Cutting/Heating
Argon Argon Ar Blue Welding
Argoshield Ar and CO2 Blue/Green Welding
CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) CO2 Black Welding
GAS WELDING
This chapter discusses equipment and materials used in gas welding. Information is
provided on the operation and maintenance of oxyacetylene and oxy- MAPP equipment.
Included are welding techniques and safety precautions associated with gas
welding. Oxyacetylene and oxy-MAPP (methylacetylene- propadiene) welding are two
types of gas-welding processes.
They require a gas-fueled torch to raise the temperature of two similar pieces of metal to
their fusion point that allows them to flow together. A filler rod is used to deposit
additional metal. The gas and oxygen are mixed to correct proportions in the torch, and
you can adjust the torch to produce various types of flames. A properly made gas weld is
consistent in appearance, showing a uniform deposit of weld metal. Complete fusion of
the sidewalls is necessary to form a good joint. Some of the factors you must consider
when making a gas weld are as follows: edge preparation, spacing and alignment of the
parts, temperature control (before, during, and after the welding process), size of the
torch tip, size and type of the filler rod, flame adjustment, and rod and torch
manipulation. In some cases, fluxes are needed to remove oxides and slag from the molten
metal and to protect the puddle from atmospheric contamination.
When you join sections of plate by gas welding, the edges of the plate at the joint are
uniformly melted by the heat from the torch. When welding heavier sheets and plates, you
have to use filler metals. The edges of the heavier plate are beveled to permit penetration
to the base of the joint. Both the filler metal and the base metal are melted, and as they
solidify, they form one continuous piece. For welding light sheet metal, filler metal is
usually not necessary. The edges of light sheet metal are flanged at the joint so they flow
together to form one solid piece when you melt them.
OXYGAS WELDING EQUIPMENT
An oxygas welding outfit is basically the same as an oxygas cutting outfit with the
exception of the torch. The welding outfit usually consists of a cylinder of acetylene
23
or MAPP gas, a cylinder of oxygen, two regulators, two lengths of hose with fittings,
and a welding torch with tips (fig. 5-1). An oxygas welding outfit also is called a welding
rig. In addition to the basic equipment mentioned, you also use the same auxiliary
equipment that was discussed in chapter 4. This equipment consists of tip cleaners,
cylinder trucks, clamps, and holding jigs. Safety apparel, which includes goggles,
hand shields, gloves, leather aprons, sleeves and leggings, is essential and should be
worn as required. Information on safety apparel is contained in chapter 3. Oxygas
welding equipment, like cutting equipment, may be stationary or portable. A portable
oxygas outfit, as shown in figure 5-2, is an advantage when it becomes necessary to move
the equipment. To perform your welding duties, you must be able to set up the welding
equipment and make the adjustments required to perform the welding operation.
Thus it is important that you understand the purpose and function of the basic pieces of
equipment that makeup the welding outfit.
WELDING TORCHES
The oxygas welding torch mixes oxygen and fuel gas in the proper proportions and
controls the amount of the mixture burned at the welding tip. Torches have two needle
valves: one for adjusting the oxygen flow and the other for adjusting the fuel gas flow.
Other basic parts include a handle (body), two tubes (one for oxygen and another for fuel),
a mixing head, and a tip. On some models the tubes are silver-brazed to the head and the
rear end forgings, which are, in turn, fitted into the handle. Welding tips are made from a
special copper alloy and are available indifferent sizes to handle a wide range of uses and
plate thicknesses. Two general types of welding torches are used:
l. Low pressure 2 Medium pressure
The low-pressure torch is also known as an injector torch. The fuel-gas pressure is 1 psi
(pound per square inch) or less. The oxygen pressure ranges between 10 to 40 pounds,
depending on the size of the torch tip. A jet of relatively high-pressure oxygen produces
the suction necessary to draw the fuel gas into the mixing head. The welding tips may or
may not have separate injectors in the tip.
A typical mixing head for the low-pressure (or injector) torch is shown in figure 5-3.
Medium-pressure torches are often called balanced- pressure or equal-pressure
torches because the fuel gas and the oxygen pressure are kept equal. Operating pres-
sures vary, depending on the type of tip used.
DANGER If acetylene is used as the fuel gas, the pressure must never be allowed to
exceed 15 psi because acetylene becomes very dangerous at 15 psi and self-explosive at
29.4 psi. Figure 5-2.—A portable oxygas welding and cutting outfit, 5-2
24
25
26
A typical equal-pressure welding torch, also called Welding TIPS and MIXERS are
designed in several a general-purpose torch, is shown in figure 5-4. The ways, depending
on the manufacturer. Some torch de- medium-pressure torch is easier to adjust than
the low- signs have a separate mixing head or mixer for each tip pressure torch and, since
equal gas pressures are used, size. Other designs have only one mixer for several tip you
are less likely to get a flashback. (Flashbacks are sizes. Tips come in various types;
some are one-piece covered in chapter 4.) hard-copper tips and others are two-piece tips
that 5-include an extension tube to make the connection between the tip and the
mixing head. When used with an extension tube, removable tips are made of hard copper,
brass, or bronze. Tip sizes are designated by numbers, and each manufacturer has his own
arrangement for classifying them. Tip sizes differ in the diameter of the hole.
FILLER RODS The term filler rod refers to a filler metal used in gas welding, brazing,
and certain electric welding processes in which the filler metal is not a part of the
electrical circuit. The only function of the filler rod is to supply filler metal to the joint.
Filler rod comes in wire or rod form that is often referred to as “welding rod.” As a rule,
filler rods are uncoated except for a thin film resulting from the manufacturing process.
Filler rods for welding steel are often copper-coated to protect them from corrosion
during storage. Most rods are furnished in 36-inch lengths and a wide variety of
diameters, ranging from 1/32 to 3/8 inch. Rods for welding cast iron vary from 12 to 24
inches in length and are frequently square, rather than round. You determine the rod
diameter for a given job by the thickness of the metal you are joining. Except for rod
diameter, you select the filler rod based on the specifications of the metals being joined.
These specifications may be federal, military, or Navy specifications. This means that they
27
apply to all federal agencies, the Military Establishment, or the Navy, respectively. Filler
metals are presently covered by one or more of these three types of specifications.
Eventually, all Navy specifications will be rewritten as military (MIL) specifications. For
that reason, some of the specifications for welding materials presented in this
section may subsequently be published as military, rather than Navy specifications.
Many different types of rods are manufactured for welding ferrous and nonferrous metals.
In general, welding shops stock only a few basic types that are suitable for use in all
welding positions. These basic types are known as general-purpose rods.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF OXYGAS EQUIPMENT This section discusses

basic procedures involved in setting up oxygas equipment, lighting off, adjusting the
flame, and securing the equipment. Information also is provided on the maintenance of
oxygas welding equipment. SELECTING THE WELDING TORCH TIP SIZE Welding
torch tip size is designated by a number stamped on the tip. The tip size is determined by
the size of the orifice. There is no standard system of numbering welding torch tip sizes;
each manufacturer has his own numbering system. In this manual, the tip size is given in
the number drill orifice size. Number drills consist of a series of 80 drills, number 1
through 80. The diameter of a number 1 drill is 0.2280 of an inch and the diameter of a
number 80 drill is 0.0135 of an inch. NOTE: As the drill size number increases, the size of
the drill decreases. Once you become familiar with the use of a specific manufacturer’s
torch and numbering system, it becomes unnecessary to refer to orifice number drill size.
The orifice size determines the amount of fuel gas and oxygen fed to the flame; therefore,
it determines the amount of heat produced by the torch. The larger the orifice, the greater
the amount of heat generated. If the torch tip orifice is too small, not enough heat will be
available to bring the metal to its fusion temperature. If the torch tip is too large, poor
welds result from the following: the weld is made too fast, control of the welding rod
melting is difficult, and the appearance and quality of the weld is unsatisfactory. For
practice purposes, using an equal-pressure torch, the welding rod sizes and the tip sizes
shown in table 5-1 should give satisfactory results. EQUIPMENT SETUP Setting up
the oxygas equipment and preparing for welding is identical to setting up for oxygas
cutting (chapter 4) except for the selection of the torch tip. Select the correct tip and
mixing head (depending on torch manufacturer), and connect them to the torch body.
Tighten the assembly by hand, and then adjust to the proper angle. After the desired
adjustment has been made, tighten the tip. On some types of equipment, the tip is
tightened with a wrench, while on other types, only hand tightening is required.
TORCH LIGHTING AND FLAME ADJUSTMENT When lighting the torch and
adjusting the flame, you should always follow the manufacturer’s directions for the
particular model of torch being used.
28
Table 5-1
Welding Rod Sizes and Tip Sizes Used to Weld Various Thicknesses of Metal different
types of torches and, in some cases, even with types of maintenance duties that you will be
required to different models made by the same manufacturer. After lighting the torch,
you adjust the flame according to the type of metal being welded.
The carburizing flame is best used for welding high-carbon steels, for hardfacing,
and for welding nonferrous alloys, such as Monel. A neutral flame is the correct flame
to use for welding most metals. When steel is welded with this flame, the puddle of
molten metal is quiet and clear, and the metal flows without boiling, foaming, or sparking.
The welding flame should always be adjusted to neutral before either the oxidizing or
carburizing flame mixture is set. The oxidizing flame has a limited use and is harmful to
many metals. When applied to steel, the oxidizing flame causes the molten metal to foam
and produce sparks. The major use of the flame is that of the slightly oxidizing flame used
to braze steel and cast iron. A stronger oxidizing flame is used for fusion welding
brass and bronze. You determine the amount of excess oxygen to use by watching the
molten metal.
MAINTAINING THE EQUIPMENT For welding equipment to operate at peak efficiency

and give useful service, you must perform the proper maintenance and upkeep on it. Your
responsibilities involve the maintenance and care of oxygas welding equipment. You will
not be required to make major repairs to welding equipment; but when major repairs are
needed, it is your responsibility to see that the equipment is removed from service and
turned in for repair. This section briefs you on some of the common perform, Torch Gas
Leaks At times the needle valves may fail to shut off when hand tightened in the usual
manner. When this happens, do not use a wrench to tighten the valve stem. Instead, open
the valve and try to blow the foreign matter off the valve seat, using the working gas
pressure in the hose. If this fails, it will be necessary to remove the stem assembly and
29
wipe the seat clean. Reassemble the valve and try closing it tightly by hand several times.
If these measures fail to stop the leak, you should have the parts replaced or the valve
body reseated. These repairs should be made only by qualified personnel. When there is
leakage around the torch valve stem, you should tighten the packing nut or repack it if
necessary. For repacking, you should use only the packing recommended by the
manufacturer of the torch.
The flame end of the tip must be clean and smooth. The surface must beat right angles to
the centerline of the tip orifice to ensure a proper shaped flame. A 4-inch mill file or the file
in the tip cleaner can be used to recondition the surface, as shown in figure 5-7.
Recondition the tip if it becomes rough and pitted or the orifice is bell-mouthed. An easy
method to use involves placing apiece of emery cloth, grit side up, on a flat surface; hold
the tip perpendicular to the emery cloth, and rub the tip back and forth just enough to true
the surface and to bring the orifice back to its original diameter. Welding Torch Tips
Regulator Leaks Welding tips are subject to considerable abuse and you must keep the
orifice smooth and clean if the tip is to perform satisfactorily. When cleaning a welding tip,
you must be careful and ensure you do not enlarge or scar the orifice. Carbon deposits
and slag must be removed regularly to ensure good performance. Avoid dropping a
tip because the seat that seals the joint may be damaged. Also, the flame end of the tip also
may receive damage if it is allowed to come in contact with the welding work, bench, or
firebricks. This damage roughens the end of the tip and causes the flame to burn with a
30
“fishtail.” Special welding tip cleaners have been developed to remove the carbon or
slag from the tip orifice. The cleaner consists of a series of broach like wires that
correspond in diameter to the diameter of the tip orifices (fig. 5-5). These wires
are packaged in a holder, which makes their use safe and convenient. Figure 5-6 shows a
tip cleaner in use. Some welders prefer to use a number drill the size of the tip orifice
to clean welding tip orifices. A number drill must be used carefully so the orifice is
not enlarged, bell-mouthed, reamed out of round, or otherwise deformed. With
regulators, gas leakage between the regulator seat and nozzle is the most common type
of trouble. You often hear this problem referred to as regulator creep. This problem can
be detected by the gradual rise in pressure on the working-pressure gauge without
moving the adjusting screw. Frequently, this trouble is caused by worn or cracked seats. It
also can be caused by foreign matter lodged between the seat and the nozzle. It is
important that you have leaking regulators repaired at once; otherwise, injury to personnel
or equipment damage could result. This is particular y dangerous with fuel-gas regulators
because fuel gas at a high pressure in a hose becomes an explosive hazard. To ensure the
safety of personnel and equipment, ensure that regulators with such leaks are removed
from service and turned in for repair.
OXYGAS WELDING TECHNIQUES Oxygas welding maybe done using either the fore-
hand or the backhand method. Each of these techniques has special advantages and you
should become skillful with both. The deciding factor that determines whether a
technique is considered forehand or backhand is the relative position of the torch and rod
during welding, and the direction of welding.
The
best method to use depends upon the type of joint, joint position, and the need for heat
control on the parts to be welded.
FOREHAND WELDING Forehand welding (fig. 5-8) is often called PUDDLE or RIPPLE
WELDING. In this method of welding, the rod is kept ahead of the flame in the
direction in which the weld is being made. You point the flame in the direction of travel
and hold the tip at an angle of about 45 degrees to the working surfaces. This flame
position preheats the edges you are welding just ahead of the molten puddle. Move the
31
rod in the same direction as the tip, and by moving the torch tip and the welding rod back
and forth in opposite, semicircular paths, you can distribute the heat evenly. As the flame
passes the welding rod, it melts a short length of the rod and adds it to the puddle. The
motion of the torch distributes the molten metal evenly to both edges of the joint and to
the molten puddle. The forehand method is used in all positions for welding sheet and
light plate up to 1/8 of an inch thick. This method is ideal because it permits better control
of a small puddle and results in a smoother weld. The forehand technique is not
recommended for welding heavy plate due to its lack of base metal penetration.
BACKHAND WELDING In backhand welding (fig. 5-9), the torch tip precedes the rod
in the direction of welding and the flame points back at the molten puddle and completed
weld. The welding tip should make an angle of about 60 degrees with the plates or
joint being welded. The end of the welding rod is placed between the torch tip and the
molten puddle. Figure 5-9.—Backhand welding. Less motion is used in the backhand
method than in the forehand method. If you use a straight welding rod, you should rotate
it so the end rolls from side to side and melts off evenly. You might have to bend the rod
when working in confined spaces. If you do, it becomes difficult to roll a bent rod, and to
compensate, you have to move the rod and torch back and forth at a rather rapid rate.
When making a large weld, you should move the rod so it makes complete circles in the
molten puddle. The torch is moved back and forth across the weld while it is advanced
slowly and uniformly in the direction of the welding. The backhand method is best for
welding material more than 1/8 of an inch thick. You can use a narrower vee at the joint
than is possible in forehand welding. An included angle of 60 degrees is a sufficient angle
of bevel to get a good joint. The backhand method requires less welding rod or puddling
as the forehand method. By using the backhand technique on heavier material, you can
increase your welding speed, better your control of the larger puddle, and have
more complete fusion at the weld root. If you use a slightly reducing flame with the
backhand technique, a smaller amount of base metal is melted while welding the joint.
When you are welding steel with a backhand technique and a slightly reducing flame,
the absorption of carbon by a thin surface layer of metal reduces the melting point of
the steel. This speeds up the welding operation, This technique is also used in
surfacing with chromium-cobalt alloys.
MULTILAYER WELDING is used in order to avoid carrying too large a puddle of
molten metal when welding thick plate and pipe. Large puddles are difficult to control.
Concentrate on getting a good weld at the bottom of the vee in the first pass. Then, in the
next layers, concentrate on getting good fusion with the sides of the vee and the
previous layer. The final layer is easily controlled to get a smooth surface. This method
of welding has an added advantage in that it refines the previous layer as the succeeding
layer is made. In effect, it heat-treats the weld metal by allowing one layer to cool to a
black heat before it is reheated This improves the ductility of the weld metal. If this added
quality is desired in the last layer, an additional or succeeding layer is deposited and then
machined off.
32
OXYGAS WELDING OF FERROUS METALS Low-carbon steel, low-alloy steel, cast
steel, and wrought iron are easily welded by the oxygas process. A flux is not
necessary with these metals because their oxides melt at a lower temperature than the base
metal. During the welding process, you should enclose the molten puddle with the flame
envelope to ensure the molten metal does not contact the air. If the metal is exposed to the
air, it will oxidize rapidly. You also should avoid overheating the metal. The proper flame
adjustment is required to make a good weld Adjust the flame to a neutral or slightly
reducing (carburizing) flame. Do not use an oxidizing flame. Manipulate the torch and rod
so the tip of the oxygas cone is about 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch from the surface of the metal.
Melt the end of the filler rod in the puddle, not with the flame. The welding of low-
carbon steels and cast steels presents no special problems other than the selection of the
proper filler rod Low-alloy steels usually require prewelding and postwelding heat
treatment. This heat treatment relieves the stresses developed during the welding
phase and produces the desired physical properties of the metal. As the carbon content of
a steel increases, welding becomes more difficult. Steels whose carbon content is
within the 0.3-percent to 0.5-percent range are welded with a slightly carburizing
flame. These low-carbon steels require postwelding heat treatment to develop their best
physical properties. High-carbon steel and tool steel require a slightly different
technique. While protecting the parts from drafts, slowly preheat them to about 1000°F.
Complete the weld as rapidly as possible using a carburizing flame and no flux. Do not
manipulate either rod or torch and add the filler metal in small amounts, as it is needed.
You should use a smaller flame and lower gas pressure than that used for low-carbon
steel. This is to ensure you do not overheat the steel. You must heat-treat high-carbon
steels and tool steels after welding to develop the physical properties required.
Oxygas welding of CAST IRON is not difficult, but does require a modification of the
procedure used with steel. For material that does not exceed 3/16 of an inch 5-8 layers,
concentrate on getting good fusion with the sides of the vee and the previous layer.
The final layer is easily controlled to get a smooth surface. This method of welding
has an added advantage in that it refines the previous layer as the succeeding layer is
made. In effect, it heat-treats the weld metal by allowing one layer to cool to a black heat
before it is reheated This improves the ductility of the weld metal. If this added quality is
desired in the last layer, an additional or succeeding layer is deposited and then machined
off.
JOINT EDGE PREPARATION Sheet metal is easily melted and does not require
special edge preparation. In welding operations involving plate, joint edge
preparation and proper spacing between edges are important factors. The thickness of
the plates determines the amount of edge preparation required. The faces of square edges
can be butted together and welded You can use this type of joint on plate up to 3/16 of an
inch thick. For plate 3/16 to 1/4 of an inch thick, a slight root opening between the parts is
necessary to get complete penetration. Plate more than 1/4 of an inch thick requires
beveled edges and a root opening of 1/16 of an inch. For oxygas welding on plate more
33
than 1/4 of an inch thick, bevel the edges at an angle of 30 degrees to 45 degrees, making
the groove included angle from 60 degrees to 90 degrees. You can prepare the edges by
flame cutting, shearing, flame grooving, machining, chipping, or grinding. In any case,
the edge surfaces should be free of oxides, scale, dirt, grease, or other foreign matter.
Plate from 3/8 to 1/2 of an inch thick can be welded from one side only, but thicker
sections should be welded by preparing the edges on both sides. Generally, butt
joints prepared on both sides permit easier welding, produce less distortion, and ensure
better weld qualities. Heavy steel plate is rarely welded with oxygas unless other
types of welding equipment are not available. The welding of heavy plate is just not cost
effective because of the amount of gas consumed and time used to complete a weld. If at
all possible, use a form of electric arc welding because the joint can be welded faster,
cheaper, and there is less heat distortion
The procedure for oxygas welding of WROUGHT IRON is the same as that for low-
carbon or mild steel; however, you should keep several points in mind. Wrought iron
contains a slag that was incorporated in it during the manufacturing stage. This slag gives
the surface of the molten puddle a greasy appearance. Do not confuse this greasy
appearance with the appearance of actual fusion. Continue heating until the sidewalls of
the joint break down into the puddle. Best results with wrought iron are obtained when
the filler metal (usually mild steel) and base metal are mixed in the molten puddle with a
minimum of agitation Oxygas welding of CAST IRON is not difficult, but does require a
modification of the procedure used with steel. For material that does not exceed 3/16 of
an inch 5-8 in thickness, you do not need to make a V-groove. Metal that is between 3/16 of
an inch and 3/8 of an inch should have a single V-butt joint with an included angle of 60
degrees. For metal over 3/8 of an inch, use a double V-butt joint with 60-degree included
angles. Before you begin welding, preheat the entire weldment to a temperature
between 750°F and 900°F The welding should be done with a neutral flame using the
backhand method. Use a cast-iron filler metal and the appropriate flux. The flux is
necessary, but use it spar- ingly as needed Add filler metal by directing the inner cone of
the flame against the rod instead of dipping the tip of the rod into the puddle. The filler
metal should be deposited inlayers not exceeding 1/8 of an inch thick. Upon completion of
the weld, you must stress relieve the weldment by heating it to a temperature
between 1100°F and 1150°F and then cool it slowly. Oxygas welding cast iron gives a
good color match and good machinability; however, if color match is not essential, a cast-
iron repair can be made more easily and economi- cally by braze welding.
Oxygas welding can be used with some CHRO- MIUM-NICKEL STEELS
(STAINLESS STEELS). As a rule, oxygas welding is used only for light sheet;
heavier pieces of these steels are usually joined by one of the electric arc welding
processes. On material 20 gauge (0.040 of an inch) or less in thickness, a flange equal to the
thickness of the metal is turned up and the weld is made without filler metal. Before
welding, you should clean the joint surfaces of the metal with sand- paper or other
34
abrasives and then apply a stainless steel flux. The torch tip used for welding stainless
steel is usually one or two sizes smaller than the tip used to weld mild steel of the same
thickness. Adjust the torch so you have a carburizing flame, as seen through your goggles,
with an excess fuel-gas feather extending about 1/16 of an inch beyond the tip of the inner
cone. Hold the torch so the flame makes an angle of 80 degrees to the surface of the sheet.
The tip of the cone should almost, but not quite touch the molten metal. Make the weld in
one pass, using a forehand technique. Do not puddle or retrace the weld. A uniform speed
of welding is essential. If it is necessary to stop the welding process or reweld a sec-
tion, wait until the entire weld has cooled.
OXYGAS WELDING OF NONFERROUS METALS Although brazing and braze
welding are used extensively to make joints in nonferrous metals, there are many
situations in which oxygas welding is just as suitable. The joint designs are the same
for nonferrous metals as for ferrous metals in most cases. Oxygas welding of
nonferrous metals usually requires mechanical cleaning of the surfaces before welding
and the use of flux during welding. Filler metals must be suitable for the base metal
being welded A separate section on aluminum and aluminum alloys is included as
part of this chapter since you may need more detailed instruc- tions in welding these
materials. Copper Pure copper can be welded using the oxygas torch. Where high-joint
strength is required you should use DEOXIDIZED copper (copper that contains no oxy-
gen). A neutral flame is used and flux is required when welding copper alloys. Because of
the high thermal conductivity of copper, you should preheat the joint area to a
temperature ranging between 500°F to 800°F and use a larger size torch tip for welding.
The larger size tip supplies more heat to the joint and thus makes it possible to maintain
the required temperature at the joint. After welding is completed, cool the part
slowly. Other than the extra volume of heat required, the technique for welding copper
is the same as for steel.
Copper-Zinc Alloy (Brasses) Copper-zinc alloys (brasses) can be welded using the same
methods as deoxidized copper; however, a silicon-copper rod is used for welding brasses.
The rods are usually flux-coated so the use of additional flux is not required. Preheat
temperatures for these metals range between 200°F to 300°F. Copper-Silicon Alloy
(Silicon Bronze) Copper-silicon alloy (silicon bronze) requires a different oxygas
welding technique from that used for copper and copper-zinc. You weld this material
with a slightly oxidizing flame and use a flux having a high boric acid content. Add filler
metal of the same composition as the base metal; as the weld progresses, dip the tip of
the rod under the viscous film that covers the puddle. Keep the puddle small so the weld
solidifies quickly. A word of caution: when welding copper-zinc, you should
safeguard against zinc poisoning by either doing all the welding outdoors or by
wearing a respirator or by both, depending on the situation Copper-Nickel Alloy Oxygas
welding of copper-nickel alloys requires surface preparation and preheating.
The flux used for 5-9 this welding is a thin paste and is applied by brush to all parts
of the joint and to the welding rod. Adjust the torch to give a slightly carburizing flame;
35
the tip of the inner cone should just touch the base metal. Do not melt the base metal any
more than necessary to ensure good fusion. Keep the end of the filler rod within the
protective envelope of the flame, adding the filler metal without disturbing the molten
pool of weld metal. If possible, run the weld from one end of the joint to the other without
stopping. After you complete the weld, cool the part slowly and remove the remaining
traces of flux with warm water.
Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys Oxygas welding of nickel and high-nickel alloys is
similar to that for copper-nickel alloys. Good mechanical cleaning of the joint surfaces is
essential. The joint designs are basically the same as steel of equivalent thickness. The
included angle for V-butt welds is approximately 75 degrees. You may weld plain nickel
without a flux, but high-nickel alloys require a special boron-free and borax-free flux. The
flux is in the form of a thin paste and should be applied with a small brush. You should
flux both sides of the seam, the top and bottom, and the filler rod. Adjust the torch to give
a very slightly carburizing flame; the tip selected should be the same size or one size larger
than for steel of the same thickness. The flame should be soft and the tip of the cone kept
in contact with the molten pool. Use a rod suitable for the base metal, and always keep the
rod well within the protective envelope of the flame. After the weld is completed,
postheat the part and cool it slowly. Then remove the flux with warm water. Lead Oxygas
welding of lead requires special tools and special techniques. Although you do not
require a flux, you must ensure that the metal in the joint area is scrupulously clean. You
may accomplish this by shaving the joint surfaces with a scraper and wire brushing them
to remove oxides and foreign matter. In the flat-welding position, a square butt joint is
satisfactory. In other positions, a lap joint is used almost exclusively. When you use a lap
joint, the edges should overlap each other from 1/2 of an inch to 2 inches, depending upon
the thickness of the lead. To weld lead, use a special, lightweight, fingertip torch,
with tips ranging from 68 to 78 in drill size. Adjust your torch to a neutral flame with the
gas pressure ranging from 1 1/2 psig to 5 psig, depending on the thickness of the lead. The
length of the flame varies from about 1 1/2 inches to 4 inches, depending upon the gas
pressures used. When you are welding in the horizontal and flat positions, a soft, bushy
flame is most desirable. But, when you are welding in the vertical and overhead positions,
better results are obtained with a more pointed flame. For oxygas welding of lead, you
should ensure that the filler metal has the same composition as the base metal. The molten
puddle is controlled and distributed by manipulating the torch so the flame moves in a
semicircular or V-shaped pattern. Each tiny segment of the weld is made separately,
and the torch is flicked away at the completion of each semicircular or V-shaped
movement. Joints are made in thin layers. Filler metal is not added during the first pass,
but it is added on subsequent passes. When welding lead or lead alloys, you should wear
a respirator of a type approved for protection against lead fumes.
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys When assigned to work with nonferrous metals, you
can expect jobs that involve the welding of aluminum and aluminum alloys. Pure
36
aluminum has a specific gravity of 2.70 and a melting point of 1210°F. Pure aluminum is
soft and seldom used in its pure form because it is not hard or strong enough for
structural purposes; however, the strength of aluminum can be improved by the addition
of other elements to form aluminum alloys. Aluminum alloys are usually 90-percent
pure. When elements, such as silicon, magnesium, copper, nickel, and manganese, are
added to aluminum, an alloy stronger than mild steel results; whereas pure aluminum is
only about one fourth as strong as steel. A considerable number of aluminum alloys are
available. You may use some of the aluminum alloys in sheet form to make and repair
lockers, shelves, boxes, trays, and other containers. You also may have to repair chairs,
tables, and other items of furniture that are made of aluminum alloys. Oxygas welding of
aluminum alloys is usually confined to materials from 0.031 of an inch to 0.125 of an inch
in thickness.
By the oxygas process if necessary; however, thinner material is usually spot or seam
welded.
MELTING CHARACTERISTICS.— Before attempting to weld aluminum alloy for the
first time, you should become familiar with how the metal reacts when under the welding
flame. A good example of how aluminum reacts when heated can be seen if you place
a small piece of sheet aluminum on a welding table and heat it with a neutral flame. Hold
the flame perpendicular to the surface of the sheet and bring the tip of the inner cone
almost in contact with the metal. Observe that almost without warning the metal suddenly
melts and runs away, leaving a hole in the sheet. Now repeat the operation with the torch
held at an angle of about 30 degrees to the plane of the surface. With a little practice, you
will be able to melt the surface metal without forming a hole. Now try moving the flame
slowly along the surface of the sheet, melting a small puddle. Observe how quickly the
puddle solidifies when the flame is removed. Continue this practice until you are able to
control the melting. When you have mastered this, proceed by practicing actual welding.
Start with simple flanged and notched butt joints that do not require a welding rod. Next,
you should try using a welding rod with thin sheet and then with castings. WELDING
RODS.— Two types of welding rods available for gas welding aluminum alloys are
the 1100 and 4043 rods. The 1100 rod is used when maximum resistance to corrosion and
high ductility are of primary importance. The 1100 rod is used for welding 1100 and 3003
type aluminum alloys only. The 4043 rod is used for greater strength and minimizes the
tendency for cracking. It also is used for all other wrought aluminum alloys and castings.
WELDING FLUXES.— The use of the proper flux in welding aluminum is extremely
important. Aluminum welding flux is designed to remove the aluminum oxide by
chemically combining with it. In gas welding, the oxide forms rapidly in the molten metal.
It must be removed or a defective weld will result. To ensure proper distribution, you
should paint flux on the welding rod and the surface to be welded. Aluminum flux is
usually in powder form and is prepared for use by mixing with water to form a paste. The
paste should be kept in an aluminum, glass, or earthenware container because steel or
37
copper containers tend to contaminate the mixture. It is essential that plenty of flux be
applied to the edges of flanged joints because no filler rod is used in Figure 5-10.—
Edge preparation for gas-welding aluminum. these joints. In all cases, the flux should be
applied to both the bottom and top sides of the sheet in the area of the weld. After you
finish welding, it is important that you remove all traces of flux. You can do this by using a
brush and hot water. If aluminum flux is left on the weld, it will corrode the metal.
WELDING PREPARATION.— The thickness of the aluminum determines the method
of edge preparation. On material up to 0.062 of an inch, the edges should be formed to a
90-degree flange. The height of the flange should be about the same height, or a little
higher, as the thickness of the material (fig. 5-10, view A). The only requirement for the
flanges is that their edges be straight and square. If desired, material up to 0.125 of an inch
can be welded with a flange joint. No filler rod is necessary if you flange the edges.
Unbeveled butt welds can be made on thicknesses from 0.062 of an inch to 0.188 of an inch;
but in these applications, it is necessary to notch the edges with a saw or cold chisel
in a manner similar to that shown in view B of figure 5-10. Edge notching is
recommended in aluminum welding because it aids in getting full penetration and
prevents local distortion. All butt welds made in material over 0.125 of an inch thick are
usually notched in some manner. 5-11
In welding aluminum more than 0.188 of an inch thick, bevel the edges and notch
them, as shown in view C of figure 5-10. The included angle of bevel maybe from 90 to 120
degrees. After you have prepared the edges of the pieces properly, you should then
clean the surfaces to be welded. If heavy oxide is present on the metal surface, you may
have to use a stainless-steel wire brush to remove it. Dirt, grease, or oil can be removed by
wiping the weld area with a solvent-soaked rag. Aluminum plate 1/4 of an inch thick
or greater should be preheated to a temperature ranging between 500°F to 700°F. This aids
in avoiding heat stresses. Preheating also reduces fuel and oxygen requirements for the
actual welding. It is important that the preheating temperature does exceed 700°F. If the
temperature does go above 700°F, the alloy maybe severely weakened. High temperatures
also could cause large aluminum parts to collapse under their own weight. Thin material
should be warmed with the torch before welding. This slight preheat helps to prevent
cracks.
WELDING TECHNIQUES— After preparing and fluxing the pieces for welding, you
should pass the flame, in small circles, over the starting point until the flux melts. Keep the
inner cone of the flame off the flux to avoid burning it. If the inner cone of the flame
should burn the flux, it will be necessary to clean the joint and apply new flux. Next,
scrape the rod over the surface at about 3- or 4-second intervals, permitting the rod to
come clear of the flame each time. If you leave the rod in the flame too long, it melts before
the parent metal does. The scraping action indicates when you can start welding without
overheating the metal. Maintain this cycle throughout the course of welding except
for allowing the rod to remain under the flame long enough to melt the amount of metal
38
needed. With practice, the movement of the rod can be easily mastered. Forehand
welding is usually preferred for welding aluminum alloys because the flame points
away from the completed weld, and this preheats the edges to be welded that
prevents too rapid melting. Hold the torch at a low angle when you are welding thin
material. For thicknesses 0.188 of an inch and above, you should increase the angle of the
torch to a near vertical position. Changing the angle of the torch according to the thick-
ness of the metal minimizes the possibility of burning through the sheet during
welding. When welding aluminum alloys up to 0.188 of an inch thick, you have little need
to impart any motion to the torch other than moving it forward. On flanged material, care
must be taken to break the oxide film as the flange melts down. This may be done by
stirring the melted flange with a puddling rod. A puddling rod is essentially a paddle
flattened and shaped from a 1/4- inch stainless steel welding rod. With aluminum
alloys above 0.188 of an inch in thickness, you should give the torch a more uniform lateral
motion to distribute the weld metal over the entire width of the weld. A slight back-and-
forth motion assists the flux in its removal of oxides. Dip the filler rod in the weld puddle
with a forward motion. The angle of the torch is directly related to the welding speed.
Instead of lifting the flame from time to time to avoid melting holes in the metal, you will
find it advantageous to hold the torch at a flatter angle to the work The welding speed
should be increased as the edge of the sheet is approached. The inner cone of the flame
should never be permitted to come in contact with the molten metal, but should beheld
about 1/8 of an inch away from the metal. In the vertical position, the torch is given an
up-and- down motion, rather than a rotating one. In the overhead position, alight back-
and-forth motion is used the same as in flat welding. Heat-treatable alloys should be held
in a jig for welding, whenever possible. This helps to eliminate the possibility of
cracking. The likelihood of cracking can also be reduced by the use of a 4043 filler rod. This
rod has a lower melting range than the alloy being joined which permits the base metal to
solidify before the weld puddle freezes. As the weld is the last area to solidify, all of the
contraction strains are in the weld bead, rather than throughout the base metal. You may
reduce weld cracking by tack welding the parts while they are in the jig and then
loosening the clamps before completing the seam. As soon as the weld is completed and
the work has had time to cool, you should thoroughly wash the weld. This can be done by
vigorously scrubbing it with a stiff brush while hot water runs over it until all traces of the
flux are removed. This is important, because if any flux is left on the weld, it can corrode
the metal. If hot water is not available, you may use a diluted solution of 10 percent
sulfuric acid. The acid solution should then be washed off with cold, fresh water.
Weld Defects
39
To avoid porosity:
NDT-detectability:
NDT-detectability:
welding symbol.
40
NDT-detectability:
10 mm.
Weld metal cracks
Crater cracks
NDT-detectability:
below 2%.
41
give HAZ-cracks.
to the crater
welding
ñ An unstable arc
NDT-detectability:
Undercut are the formation of grooves at one or both sides of the weld.
Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing (NDT) may be defined as the application of an inspection method

to a component or structure in which the testpiece is not adversely affected by the testing
method. Generally, NDT is normally carried out in one of the following circumstances:
42
1. As a control check and an aid to the monitoring of quality during manufacture. In
this case NDT is used to check the maintenance of required quality levels during
manufacture. The presence of manufacturing imperfections and defects may be
detected. The physical characteristics and the severity of such imperfections and
defects may also be assessed.
2. During in-service inspection. In this case NDT methods are used in order to detect
any physical deterioration in a component or structure that might occur under
service conditions. NDT methods are most usually employed to detect cracking, or
crack propagation from existing defects. Such cracking is commonly associated with
some form of fatigue.
3. Critical defect assessment. This use of NDT normally involves an in-depth
examination of known defects in a structure in order to provide detailed
information for "fitness for purpose" assessments and fracture mechanics
calculations.
Figure 1. Penetrant Inspection
There are six major NDT methods used in engineering.
Visual Surface inspection method

Penetrant Surface inspection method
Magnetic Particle Inspection Surface & slightly subsurface inspection
Ultrasonics Volumetric inspection method
Eddy Current Primarily surface inspection method
Radiography Volumetric inspection method
43
Figure 2. Defects in a surface can be
detected through the magnetic field
Whatever the circumstances under which a non-destructive test is carried out and
whatever method is applied there are a number of essential prerequisites that must be met
if the engineer is to have confidence in the accuracy of the reported results.
 NDT Operator Training, Certification and Approval

 NDT Procedure Approval
 Correctly Maintained and Calibrated Equipment
 Comprehensive Reporting Procedures and Formats
Surveillance of Testing Activities
44
discontinuity.
45

46
47

48
size.

49
1.1 Explain the technique of forge welding.
Ans: The pieces to be welded are heated to about 1000°C and then hammered together.
This action forces out the surface oxide layer which is molten at this temperature
(although the metal is still in a plastic condition) and the pressure causes the metal
surfaces to fuse together.
1.2 Name the three main gases that are burned with oxygen, which can be used in
Ans: In increasing order of flame temperatures these are hydrogen, propane and
acetylene.
1.3 State the temperatures of the oxyacetylene flame and the electric arc.
Ans: The oxyacetylene flame has a temperature of 3250 °C. The electric arc has a
temperature of about 20 000 °C, although that of the molten pool is no more than a
quarter of this.
1.4 At what pressures are oxygen and acetylene stored in the cylinders?
Ans: Oxygen is stored at a pressure of 175 bar and acetylene at 15 bar.
1.5 Explain what is meant by a neutral oxyacetylene flame
50
Ans: When approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are being burned so
that there is -no excess of either of the gases in the flame,
1.6 Explain the meaning of the word 'kerf’
Ans: The cut made by the high pressure oxygen jet as the metal is oxidized and,
becoming instantly molten, is blown away.
1.7 State the maximum rated output in terms of current associated with the arc-
welding process.
Ans: This is usually about 600 amps for both a.c. and d.c- power equipment.
1.8 What is the approximate maximum thickness of metal that can be arc welded in a
single pass?
Ans: The maximum thickness is about 6 mm using the largest electrodes.
1.9 Explain the meaning of the term 'edge preparation'.
Ans: This refers to the way in which the mating edges of the metal to be welded are
bevelled or shaped to receive the weld metal.
1.10 How is the flux introduced into the arc-welding process?
Ans: It is in the form of a solid coating on the metal electrode so that the arc melts this
along with the rod and it is deposited into the weld pool, floating to the surface to
form a slag coating.
1.11 Apart from visual inspection, name another way that a welded joint may be
inspected.
Ans: By radiographic techniques, using either X-rays or gamma rays, or by ultrasonic
waves.
1.12 Through what angle should a welded specimen be capable of being bent,
assuming good quality materials and correct preparation?
Ans: 180°.
1.13 Under normal circumstances, acetylene is highly unstable if stored at pressures

above 2 bar. State the means by which it can be safely stored at a pressure of 15 bar.
Ans: By dissolving it in liquid acetone which can absorb 25 times its own volume
of acetylene, and also distributing it in a cellular matrix to separate it into very small
units..
51
1.14 From the following list of fire-fighting media, choose those which are most suited
to a welding bay: foam, dry powder and CO; extinguishers; fire blanket; water
hose; sand.
Ans: Sand, fire blankets and dry powder or CO; extinguishers would be the most
suitable- Foam and water should not be used where electrical equipment is being
operated.
1.15 A welded component, undergoing testing, failed due to lack of penetration. What
would be the probable cause (or causes) of the failure?
Ans: The two most common causes of lack of penetration are too low a welding current
for the size of electrode used or too great an arc length.
1.16 Explain why the electric arc process is more correctly referred to as manual metal
arc welding.
Ans: The process is manually operated and the filler metal is deposited in molten
droplets via the arc. Some electric arc processes are automatic and the filler metal is
introduced separately.
1.17 A cutting torch heats up the metal satisfactorily, but no cutting action ensues when
the oxygen lever is depressed. What is the probable cause of the malfunction?
Ans: It is likely that the oxygen has not been turned on to the full cutting pressure at the
first control knob. or insufficient pressure has been set at the regulator valve.
1.18 One volume of acetylene requires 2½ volumes of oxygen for complete
combustion, and outlet pressures are normally balanced. Explain how efficient
combustion of acetylene is obtained under these circumstances.
Ans: The balance of the oxygen needed for efficient combustion of the acetylene is
derived from the atmosphere.
1.19 Explain how it is possible for the operator of electric arc-welding

equipment to come into contact with the component being welded, without
receiving an electric shock.
Ans: Once the arc has been struck, the welding circuit is complete and electricity always
takes the least line of resistance,
1.20 A component made from hardened and tempered high carbon steel is to be
fabricated from two pieces by electric arc welding. State at what stage of the
52
manufacturing process the fabrication should be undertaken, giving the reason for
your choice.
Ans: The welding operation must be completed before any hea! treatment, otherwise the
temperature generated will cancel out any form of heat treatment which has been
done previously.
1.21 ‘The polarity of d.c. powered metal arc-welding equipment can have a critical
effect on the electrode.' Comment on this statement.
Ans: Heat is generated in the ratio of two thirds at the positive pole and one third at the
negative pole in a d.c. circuit in which the current flows in only one direction- If the
electrode is connected to the positive pole it may heat up too rapidly and become
impossible to use. In an a.c. circuit in which the current polarity reverses 100 times
per second, this problem does not exist.
1.22 List the main items that would have to be considered in calculating a rate for the
costing of welded jobs.
Ans: Labour, power (or gas) and electrodes for filler metal) are the main direct cosl.
although an allowance would probably have to be made for accessories such as
protective glasses, gloves, wire brushes, etc- Other indirect costs such as inspection,
transport, depreciation of equipment, etc., are normally allowed for in the overhead
charges.
1.23 To what category of welding do the oxyacetylene and electric arc processes belong?
Ans: These are both fusion welding processes.
1.24 What basic rule must be observed to ensure the soundness of the weld when
performing multiple runs with metal arc welding equipment?
Ans: The slag must be completely chipped away from the previous run before laying
down the following run. Other wise slag inclusions will detract from the soundness
of the weld.
1.25 Explain clearly the difference in the way that two pieces of metal become joined by
welding as opposed to soldering or brazing.
Ans: When two pieces of metal are joined by fusion welding, the heal source melts the
mating faces and, aided by the introduction of the filler metal, their surfaces
intermingle to form a single homogeneous piece. The metallurgist would probably
53
disagree with the joint being described as homogeneous, however, as the large
quantities of heat used causes changes in the metallurgical structure of the metal,
1.26 The flame culling torch has two oxygen control knobs whereas the gas welding
torch has only one. Explain why two are needed for flame cutting.
Ans: The first control knob allows the oxygen through to the cutting lever at the high
pressure required for cutting. The second control knob bleeds off a quantity of this
oxygen into the mixing chamber at the much lower pressure needed to support the
combustion of the acetylene.,
1.27 State the three factors that govern the type of joint preparation used.
Ans: (a) The type of load to which the joint wilt he subjected.
(b) The way in which the load will be applied.
(c) The cost of preparing the joint.
1.28 List the safety features which are part of the oxyacetylene equipment, and which
are designed to prevent mishaps from occurring.
Ans: (a) Colour coding of the gas cylinders and hoses.
(b) The use of right-hand and left-hand threads for oxygen and acetylene fittings
respectively.
(c) The use of non-return valves or blow-back arresters.
1.29 List the visually identifiable weld defects.
Ans: (a) Lack of penetration.
(b) Undercutting.
(c) Slag inclusions.
(d) Porosity.
(e) Cracking.
(f) Distortion,
1.30 What five functions are served by the flux in the arc-welding process?
Ans: (a) To provide a suitable gaseous atmosphere or shield.
(b) To produce a slag covering for the hot metal.
54
(c) To introduce alloying elements and grain refiners.
(d) To stabilize the arc and maintain ifs consistency.
(e) To flux away impurities.
1.31 What feedback do operators receive when carrying out an arc-welding operation,
which helps them to judge the quality of the weld?
Ans: (a) The length and sound of the arc.
(b) The size, shape and depth of the crater.
(c) The speed of welding.
(d) The burn off of the electrode.
1.32 Use examples to explain what is meant by the jobbing operations which account
for much of the popularity of oxyacetylene welding.
Ans: Jobbing operations are basically one-off jobs which are so individual they are
unlikely to be repeated; or a series of Jobs which, although similar, are sufficiently
varied to prevent the permanent setting up of equipment. Typical examples would
be found in service industries specializing in the repair of machinery, plant
equipment- The most widely practiced application of oxyacetylene welding to
Jobbing operations is in the trade of automobile repair.
Questions
1.33 Produce a simple sketch to show the operating circuit of an electric arc welder.
1.34 Sketch an oxy-acetylene flame and identify the various areas.
1.35 Describe the features of the oxyacetylene flame which distinguish between
carburizing, neutral and oxidizing.
1.36 Explain how it is possible that a relatively neat cut can be made through quite thick
pieces of red-hot ferrous metal by a high-pressure oxygen jet.
1.37 Produce a detailed sketch to show the operation of the electric arc process and the
contribution made by the filler metal and the flux-
55
1.38 Briefly list the procedure for starting up oxyacetylene welding equipment.
1.39 Distinguish between leftward and rightward welding by briefly describing the
aspects, which characterize these two techniques.
1.40 Give the reasons why leftward welding should be limited to metal thickness of less
than 4.5mm.
1-41 Compare the relative merits of a.c. and d.c. power sources for metal arc welding.
1.42 Contrast the advantages and disadvantages of oxyacetylene welding.
1.43 Describe, using sketches as necessary, the principles of the oxyacetylene welding
process.
1.44 Describe the principle of oxyacetylene cutting, using a neatly produced sketch of
the cutting torch to aid your description.
1.45 With the aid of sketches, distinguish between leftward and rightward welding
techniques.
1.46 Describe, with the aid of simple line diagrams, the principles of the manual
metal arc-welding process.
1.47 Using sketches, distinguish between the three types of oxyacetylene flame,
1.48 List the advantages and disadvantages of a-c. and d.c. power sources for metal arc
welders.
1.49 State the type and purpose of filler metals and fluxes used in fusion welding
processes.
1.50 Describe three visually identifiable defects that can occur in welds produced by
fusion welding processes.
1.51 State six main sources of danger associated with electric welding, mentioning the
necessary precautions and treatment.
1.52 State six main sources of danger, specifying the necessary precautions and
treatment, associated with gas welding.
1.53 The danger of electrocution exists for operators of arc-welding equipment. Write a
report on the correct procedure to be followed upon witnessing someone being
electrocuted. Your report should contain the details of how you would protect
yourself should it not prove possible to isolate the electricity supply, and the first
56
aid treatment you would administer (including that for cardiac arrest) while
waiting for professional help.
1.54 Carry out a bend test on a simple butt-welded specimen. Prepare the surfaces as
prescribed and ensure all machining marks have been removed. Obtain a former
whose diameter is four times the metal thickness and check that it is positioned
exactly on the weld.
1.55 In view of the difficulties, which may be encountered in setting up the bend test,
design and build a suitable rig to overcome these. It need only be very simple (the
simplest equipment usually functions the best) providing it satisfies the criteria laid
down.
2.1 What purpose is served by the copper coating on the electrode wire used
for submerged arc welding?
Ans: The copper coating improves electrical pick-up from the guide tube and
helps prevent corrosion during storage.
2.2 State the reason why, and how it is possible that, submerged arc welding employs
currents of up to 4000 A.
Ans: By employing such heavy welding currents the process can weld plate up to 35 mm
thick in a single pass and at speeds which would otherwise be impossible. By
smothering the arc in a heavy blanket of flux, the problems associated with such a
powerful arc (e.g. radiation and spatter) are eliminated.
2.3 Explain how the flow of gases is controlled in the MIG and TIG processes.
Ans: In the TIG process the gas flow is controlled by an electro-mechanical device which
has a built-in time delay. This allows the gas to continue flowing for a few seconds
after the arc is extinguished. In the M1G process the gas flow, like the wire feed, is
controlled by the trigger on the torch.
57
2.4 List the factors, which make TIG welding the most suitable process for non-ferrous
metals such as aluminum and its alloys.
Ans: (a) Inert gas shrouding results in a very clean weld with none of the
corrosion or contamination associated with fluxes.
(b) The ii-c, arc has a scavenging effect on the surface oxide films.
(c) The non-consumable tungsten electrode gives a fine, controlled arc,
which keeps the heat absorbed by the metal to a minimum, so reducing
distortion and other heat-associated defects.
(d) The operator has a clear view of the weld at all limes, and thus can produce
better joints.
2.5 Why is an arc-ignition device only necessary on TIG welding equipment?

Ans: It is only in the TIG system that the electrode must not contact the work in order to
strike the arc.
2.6 State three disadvantages that can occur when using flux-coated electrodes.
Ans: (a) Any moisture present in the flux coating may result in porosity of
the weld metal.
(b) Slag inclusion can occur, particularly when the procedure is
interrupted to renew the electrode
(c) The slag coating must be removed after completing the weld.
2.7 Explain why overhead welding can be carried out more easily with MIG welders
than with other equipment.
Ans: A strong directional magnetic field with a pinch effect enables the fine droplets,
resulting from the heat concentration in the electrode wire, to be transferred
upwards as easily as they are downwards.
2.8 Explain why a depression on the outside of the plates must result if a sound spot
weld is to be achieved.
Ans: The contraction of the cooling metal would otherwise result in a shrinkage cavity
within the joint.
58
2.9 Why is it necessary to use welding currents up to 50 000 A on resistance-welding
applications?
Ans: The current has to overcome the contact resistance between the two plates and
between the electrodes and plates, as well as the resistance of the plate;, themselves.
2.10 What single factor accounts for the high strength of flash-butt-welded joints?
Ans: Any oxides present on the mating faces are forced out during flashing and
the close contact of the faces during forging prevents further oxidation occurring.
2.11 State the two advantages, which arise from the use of friction welding.
Ans: All oxides and other impurities arc expelled during the heat generation stage and,
as this heating is due entirely to friction, distortion is minimal.
2.12 Explain why columnar crystals are always formed tangentially to the heat-affected
zone.
Ans: As the metal cools, it does so from the outside towards the centre of the weld area.
Crystallization occurs as the metal solidifies from the molten state. As this is a
continuous process, the crystals which form initially around the outer layer of the
molten zone continue lo grow inwards in the same way. This results in their
characteristic column shape.
2.13 Explain the main functions of the flux coating on coated electrodes.
Ans: There are three main functions served by the flux coating. It gives off a gaseous
shield to protect the arc and molten pool. It provides a slag coating on the weld
metal to prevent oxidation until it has cooled. It can be used to impart refining
elements to the molten metal in order to improve its structure,
2.14 Explain the difference between solid state welding and fusion welding.
Ans: Solid state welding relies solely on pressure to create the weld after the mating faces
have been plasticized. Fusion welding actually melts the metal of the two parts in
the joint area.
2.15 Explain why certain spot-welding operations necessitate water-cooled electrodes.

Ans: For heavy-current or rapid-cycle spot-welding operations, it is possible for [he
copper alloy electrodes to become so overheated that they would deform.
59
2.16 Explain why the high-frequency spark oscillator operates continuously on
a.c. TIG welders but only with a single pulse on d.c. TIG welders,
Ans: With d.c. operation the spark oscillator has only to provide ignition at the
commencement of welding. With a.c. operation it also has to re-ignite the spark
after each negative half cycle.
2.17 Derive the expression for the heat generated during a resistance welding
operation.
Ans: The heal generated is a product of the square of the current, the total resistance and
the time that the current is flowing. Hence the heat generated is given by the
expression: H = I2RT joules
2.18 By means of sketches show why twin-head automatic welding machines can
minimize distortion in fillet hull welds.
Ans: When a single fillet is welded, contraction of the cooling weld metal can cause the
distortion shown in Figure 2-19, By welding both fillets simultaneously, the
contractional force in each fillet balances the other.
2.19 Car brake shoes (the metal component to which the friction material is
attached) are fabricated from two pre-shaped metal plates resulting in a radiused
T-shaped section. Choose the most suitable welding process for this. giving
reasons to justify the choice.
Ans: The brake shoes are manufactured in very large quantities which would
render fillet welding too costly. This eliminates all possible processes other than
projection welding. The quantities involved would easily justify the cost of specially
shaped electrodes to carry out the process.
2.20 Sketch or describe the detailed differences in design that would be needed to
convert the submerged arc welder illustrated in Figure 2.2 into one suitable for
welding ships deck plates.
60
Ans: The welder would require mounting on wheels to enable it to he driven
along, the deck, the drive being transmitted to the wheels- To ensure linear
movement, some form of guidance rail would be needed, or the entire welder could
be driven along rails.
2.21 Thin-walled tubing K made by rolling from a flat strip and joining the edges by
bull-seam welding. Produce a simple sketch to illustrate how this would be
carried out.
Ans: The welding operation could be carried out using either a single wheel or the
second electrode contact below the tube, of a pair of wheels running each side of the
seam, as shown in Figure 2.20.
2.22 A spot welder set to the correct conditions produced perfect spot welds when these
were fairly widely spaced. When the spacing were very close together, however,
the first spot weld was perfect, hut the second one was very poor. Comment on the
probable explanation for the problem.
Ans: When a second spot is positioned close to the first, the current will follow the line of
least resistance, which would be through the solid metal formed by the first spot as
shown in Figure 2-21. This would considerably reduce the power available for the
second weld.
Questions:
2.23 Using the knowledge gained, sketch the edge preparation necessary to enable thin-
gauge aluminum sheet to be TIG welded without the need for a filler metal.
2.24 Describe the changes made to a seam welder to enable it to carry out a stitch-
welding operation.
2.25 Describe the general theory of resistance welding, using sketches which could be
common to any of the individual techniques.
2.26 State the reason why d.c. TIG welding is not used for aluminum and its alloys.
2.27 Flash-bull welding is unique among the resistance welding techniques.' Explain
why this statement can be made.
61
2.28 Gas-shielded welding is a technique, which is being adopted to a greater
extent in current welding practice. Discuss the reasons for the adoption of this
particular process.
2.29 When materials are joined by welding, consideration has to be given to the
technique used, the type of joint, the type of metal and its thickness. List and
comment on the problems which can arise when these factors have been ignored,
2.30 List the variables which determine the success of a resistance-welded joint and
consider each one in turn lo show how a change may affect the others.
2.31 Produce a sketch of a suitable jig to facilitate the lap seam welding of sheet metal
circular dueling. The jig is required to accommodate a range of duel sizes varying
from 150 mm to 1 m in diameter and up to 2 m in length.
Ans: The sketch should incorporate two pairs of rollers to support the dueling as
it passes between the welding rollers. The latter would be on extension arms to
accommodate the 2 m dueling length
2.32 Determine whether a spot welder rated at 500 kVA has the capacity to spot weld
aluminum which requires 42 000 A at 10 V. The power factor of the machine is 0.75.
Ans: With a power factor of 0.75 the machine can produce only 375 kW of power, which
is less than the 420 kW required for spot welds.
2.33 After improving an inefficient radiator system in a small factory by installing warm
air blowers, it was found that TIG-welded aluminum joints were showing signs of
oxygen absorption. The machine, an automatic system with permanent settings
used for repetitive work had previously produced consistent results. Suggest the
probable reason for the problem and a suitable remedy.
Ans: The blowers are deflecting the gas covering the arc and the joints are absorbing
oxygen from the atmosphere.
62
2-34 Drawing on (he information given in section 2.6. describe the result that would
indicate a satisfactory spot weld. when two plates that had been welded by a single
spot were pulled apart, the separation being such that one plate is lifted off the
other without any sliding taking place.
Ans: The metal should fracture around the spot weld, leaving a plug from one sheet
firmly attached to the other.
2.35 A welder using MIG equipment is overcome by fumes when working in the
bottom of an open-top galvanized water tank. The tank was 5 m square and 2 m
deep. Which allowed adequate area for the fumes to escape from the open top?
Comment on the likely reason for the accident.
Ans: Fumes which were heavier than air have become trapped in the tank. This
illustrates the danger in assuming that all fumes rise in the atmosphere.
Questions
2.36 Explain in simple terms the processes of MIG and TIG welding using diagrammatic
sketches to illustrate the salient features.
2.37 Discuss the advantages of gas-shielded welding in comparison with metal arc
welding.
2.38 Analyse and compare three types of welding technique that could be used in the
manufacture of a domestic appliance cabinet, e.g. washing machine, refrigerator,
etc.
2.39 Use sketches to explain the principles of submerged arc welding.
2.40 Consider flash-butt welding and friction welding to compare their similarities and
contrast their differences.
2.41 MIG welding is considered a suitable alternative to oxy-acetylene welding.
Compare the various aspects of these two processes in order to test the validity of
this.
2.42 Sketch the cross-section of a typical welded joint to indicate the crystal structure
and briefly explain the existence of the different types shown.
63
2.43 Choose three examples of projection-welded components. Give the reasons why
this technique was adopted in preference to the others which could have been used,
including non-welding processes-
2.44 Describe the spot and seam methods of resistance welding by first considering the
points which are common to all resistance welding methods, and then the points
which characterize these particular methods. Your sketches should complement this
approach to the question.
2.45 Analyse all the cost aspects of installing and running a M1G welder as opposed to a
comparable metal arc welder,
2.46 Select the most appropriate welding process for the following components, stating
the reasons for the choice.
(a) The cracked block of a cast-iron internal combustion engine.
(b) The repair of a nickel alloy pipe in a chemical plant.
(c) The titanium casing of a jet engine.
(d) The end plates of the containers for petrol tanker lorries.
(e) A fillet weld in thick aluminum plate.
(f) The high-speed steel end of a carbon steel shank lathe tool.
(g) The skeleton wire frame for a lamp shade,
(h) The rain water channel on a car roof-
(i) The flange on the end of a car half shaft.
2.47 Fractures can occur in a welded joint while the process is being carried out or after
it has been completed. Explain the differences between these two types of fracture
and describe in detail how they occur.
2.48 Select a suitable component which has been made by casting, or fabricated by
fastening, and devise a scheme for producing it is an all-welded construction- Use
sketches to show its construction both before and after your proposal.
64
2.49 Make a study of a welding shop, or a major working project, to establish the extent
of safe working practice.
2.50 The TIG welding process is often automated using a specially designed bench, for
welding runs up to about 3 in long. Using your knowledge of automatic submerged
arc welding, sketch a design for the TIG process, bearing in mind that this is on a
much smaller scale than the submerged arc process.
3.1 Name the oldest and the most recent solidification techniques.
Ans: Investment casting is the oldest and shell moulding is the most recent process.
3.2 What metal would normally be used for gravity die-casting dies?
Ans: Cast iron.
3.3 How is the problem of complex core removal overcome?
Ans: By making the core collapsible.
3.4 What technique is adopted to overcome the main limitations of gravity die-casting?
Ans: Preheating the die to avoid the chilling effect of the cast iron.
3.5 Identify the two basic pressure die-casting techniques.

Ans: The hot-chamber process and the cold-chamber process.
3.6 What type of alloy steel is normally used for pressure die-casting dies?
Ans: Chrome-tungsten or chrome-molybdenum steel.
3.7 State the magnitude of the pressure range associated with pressure die-casting.
Ans: 1 bar to 3500 bar.
3.8 What single characteristic is required of ail casting metals?
Ans: Fluidity
3.9 State the limiting liquidus temperature for a die-casting metal.
65
Ans: 1000 °C.
3.10 List the materials that can be used to make the pattern for an investment Casting.
Ans: Wax, thermoplastic polymer and frozen mercury.
3.11 State the temperature necessary to fire the ceramic mould of an investment casting.
Ans: 1000 °C.
3.12 State the operating temperature needed in order to make sand shell moulds.
Ans: 2500C.
3.13 Identify the unusual ingredient that goes into the sand used for shell moulding.
Ans: Thermo setting polymer resin.
3.14 Name the two basic techniques of centrifugal casting.
Ans: Semi-centrifuged casting and centrifuged casting.
3.15 One of the major considerations when designing a mould for a cast component is
to decide on a parting line. Describe what this entails and comment on its
importance.
Ans: The parting line is the plane which divides the two halves of the mould or die and.
for the majority of shapes, it can exist in only one position. Its position must be such
that the component (or pattern in the case of sand casting) can be extracted from
each half of the die or mould.
3.16 Silicon added to a die-casting alloy can greatly increase its fluidity index. Explain
how it achieves this.
Ans: Silicon can break down the oxide film, which forms on the surface of many molten
alloys. These acts like the skin of a toy balloon filled with water and greatly impede
the fluidity of the metal.
3.17 A small jobbing foundry decided to produce a small run of large steel castings
because the shape involved was quite simple. The shell mould was made in the
usual way but a few minutes after pouring had been completed, the shell broke
apart and the still molten metal poured out. Subsequent tests proved that the
thickness of the shell was sufficient and that the polymer resin in the sand was of
66
the required quantity, correctly dispersed and freshly formulated- Suggest the
reason why the shell failed.
Ans: The size of the casting was probably too great for shell moulding- even though the
sand shell had been correctly made and was sufficiently thick. The heat from the
casting decomposed the polymer binder before the solidifying skin of the casting
was strong enough to support the mass of molten metal inside and this broke free
and flowed out.
3.18 A 90° cylindrical bend with flanged ends is required in bronze. The outside
diameter is 100 mm and the total radial length is 600 mm. and it is required in
quantities of 100. Decide on a suitable casting process for producing the
component, giving reasons for your choice.
Ans: Sand casing is the most suitable, mainly because the quantity required would not
justify the cost of making a permanent mould. The shape could easily be formed in
the sand and a core could be incorporated to form the bore. Bronze is ideally suited
to the sand-casting Process.
3.19 The component illustrated in Figure 3.16 is the cross-section of a simple pulley
wheel to be manufactured by sand casting. The shape illustrated is the finished
profile required for the pulley. Re-draw the profile to indicate the shape as it
would be cast and briefly state the reasons for the shape chosen.
Ans: The component would he cast into the shape shown in Figure 3.19. The outer
periphery is tapered to enable the pattern to be removed from the sand and the
internal corners have been radiused as the corresponding external corners cannot
be maintained in the sand during pouring.
3.20 Some of the general terms used to describe casting processes are: expendable
mould, permanent mould, expendable pattern and permanent pattern- Group
67
each of the casting processes under Hie respective headings. Some of the
processes will appear more than once.
Ans: Expendable mould: sand casting, shell moulding and investment casting.
Permanent mould: gravity and pressure die casting,
Expendable pattern: investment casting.
Permanent pattern: sand casting and shell moulding.
3 21 If the 90° bend of question 3.18 has an inside diameter of 70 mm and flanges of 150
mm diameter and 10 mm thick, calculate the volume of molten metal needed for its
production if the shrinkage factor for this is 4 per cent by volume.
p p
Ans: Total volume of bend =
4
(1002 - 702 ) x 600 + (150 2 - 1002 ) x10 x 2
4
p p
= x3060000 + x 250000
4 4
p
= x3310000
4
p
\ Total volume of metal = x3310000 x1.04
4
= 2703655mm3
3 22 The investment-casting process tends to be limited to component sizes in the
region of 10 kg due to the cost involved in making the wax pattern. Give an
example of a much larger component produced by this process and explain why
the limiting cost factor does not apply.
Ans: Although a number of specialized examples may exist, the most common one
would be when this process is used by sculptors (o produce figures in bronze or
light alloys. These could run to several hundred kilograms but the process is the
most convenient one 10 enable artists to reproduce their original sculptures in
metal.
3 23 A number of metallurgical terms have been used in this chapter although the
student should be familiar with their meaning from the study of Materials
Technology II. Produce a theoretical equilibrium diagram and indicate on this the
eutectic. liquidus and solidus.
68
Ans: Figure 3.20
3 24 Figure 3.17 illustrates three different methods of accommodating threaded

Inserts around the rim of a die-cast aluminum-alloy gearbox, to enable the cover
plate to be attached. Choose the most suitable design, giving the reasons for your
choice and also giving the reasons for rejecting the other designs.
Ans: The third design is the most suitable as it results in the least expensive die
requirements. The first design would necessitate; a collapsible core which would he
unnecessarily expensive. The second design incorporates sidewall, which arc too
thick in relation to the base.
3.25 A company capable of die casting the gearbox illustrated in Figure 3.17 is
given the chance of producing 100 000 of these in batches of 5000 per month. The
die will cost £80 000 to produce and will require refurbishment every six months al
a cost of £5000. The aluminum alloy costs £1200 per tonne and the gearbox mass is
5 kg. Production costs for each gearbox produced, including all overheads and
indirect costs, will be £12. Calculate the unit cost price of the gearbox.
100000
Ans: Total production period = = 20months
5000
= 3 xe 5000 = e 15000
= e 95000
e1200 x5
Material costs per gearbox = = e6
1000
Production costs per gearbox = e 12
69
95000
Die costs per gear box = = e 0.95
100000
\ Total unit cost price per gear box = e 18.95
3.26 Study Figure 3.18, which illustrates a piston that has been produced by die casting,
and then sketch the detail of the collapsible core that would have been used.
Ans: Figure 3.21
3.27 List some of the problems associated with gravity die-casting dies made from cast
iron.
Ans: (a) Dies have a chilling effect on the molten metal and may need pre-
heating.
(b) Large dies may need to be cooled.
(c) Small dies may need pre-heating
3.28 List [he advantages of cast iron when used for gravity die-casting dies.
Ans: (a) Resistant to erosive action of molten alloy.
(b) Can be made by casting.
70
(c) The metal is cheap.
3.29 List (he advantages and limitations of sand cores in relation to collapsible metal
cores.
Ans: (a) Sand cores are cheap and easy lo produce.
(b) They are simple and easy [o remove,
(c) The finish they can produce is restricted.
3.30 Explain why pressure die-casting dies have to be made from alloy steels such as
chrome-tungsten or chrome-molybdenum.
Ans: To accommodate the rapid heating; and cooling cycles \\ilhoul cracking.
3.31 What characteristics are required of the polymer resin used in shell moulding
sand?
Ans: It is required to cure out in a few seconds after coming into contact with (he heated
pattern but degrade when subjected to the higher temperatures of the molten metal.
3.32 List the factors, which govern the degree of fluidity, or fluidity index, of a die-
casting metal.
Ans: (a) The temperature of the metal.
(b) The temperature of the mould.
(c) The composition of the metal.
(d) The strength of the oxide film.
3.33 List the main characteristics which make aluminum alloys the most popular of the
die-casting metals.
Ans: Light weight, high strength, corrosion resistance, low cost and good fluidity
3.34 How can the strength of zinc alloys be improved?
Ans: By the addition of aluminum or copper
3.35 Explain why the eutectic composition of magnesium-aluminum alloys is not used
for die-casting.
Ans: Because the alloy. at this composition, is far too brittle
71
3.36 Explain why the eutectic composition is an important consideration in die-casting
alloys.
Ans: At this composition the metal solidifies quickly without passing through a wide
solidification phase.
3.37 List (he constraints generally imposed on die-casting processes, which limit their
use to some extent.
Ans: (a) Large numbers have to be produced.
(b) The range of metals is limited,
(c) The size of the castings is limited.
3.38 State the reason, which could result in a metal capable of being cast by other
means being cast by the lost wax process Graded un-worked examples
Ans: Extreme complexity of shape in a component required as a ‘one off’ or in a very
small quantity.
Questions
3.39 Describe the two techniques of centrifugal casting.
3.40 Describe the method or technique that is adopted for large gravity-die-casting dies
to reduce turbulence when pouring.
3.41 Explain why investment casting is the most expensive of the solidification
processes.
3.42 Give [he reason why investment casting and shell moulding are sometimes referred
to as precision casting techniques.
3.43 Describe the method used (o assess the fluidity index of a die casting.
3.44 Describe the main role played by silicon in die-casting alloys.
3.45 Identify the groups of alloys that are suitable for all casting processes.
3.46 State why the hot-chamber pressure-die-casting process is unsuitable for
aluminum-based alloys.
3.47 Describe the three ways of making the wax pattern for the injection-moulding
process.
72
3.48 Identify the main groups of metals used to produce components by the investment-
casting process.
3.49 Describe the method sometimes used (o support the investment when this is large
or is comprised of varying section thicknesses.
3.50 List the advantages to be gained with die casting over sand casting.
3.51 List the types of finishes that can be applied lo die-cast components.
3.52 Describe, with the aid of sketches, the basic principles of gravity die casting and
give three examples of the types of metals that can be used with this process.
3.53 Briefly describe, with the aid of sketches, high- and low-pressure die casting, clearly
showing the difference between the processes- Give an example of the most suitable
metal for each process.
3.54 List the advantages and (imitations of die-casting.
3.55 Give the reasons why inserts are used in die-cast components, and describe some
typical examples, using sketches to illustrate your answer.
3.56 Select the appropriate casting process for each of the following components- clearly
explaining the reasons for your choice: (a) an aluminum combustion engine piston;
(b) magnesium alloy car wheels; (c) a zinc alloy toy pistol; (d) a bronze
doorknocker.
3.57 Describe, with the aid of sketches, the principles of investment casting and
list the steps involved in the construction of the mould,
3.58 Describe, with the aid of sketches, the principles of shell moulding and identify the
areas in the process where it differs from sand casting.
3.59 Describe the types of metals that would be suitable for investment casting, clearly
explaining their unsuitability for other processes.
3.60 Draw up a table to compare the various factors of die casting, sand casting and
precision casting, using the heading-,: maximum size of component, type of finish
attainable, quality of finished casting, mould co-;t and minimum economic
quantity.
73
3.61 Examine a few items of domestic equipment in your home (e.g. cooker, washing
machine, electric or gas fire, etc.) and identify the components in their construction
that have been produced by casting processes. Draw up a table listing these, the
metal, used in their construction, the probable process used and any finishing
technique. Try to ascertain the position of the mould parting line and make an
assessment of why this was chosen.
3.62 Produce a simple split die in the workshop for the purpose of investigating the
gravity die-casting process. The shape of the cavity is unimportant, although a
simple bottle shape would be "the most suitable. Try to ensure that the inside face
of the cavity has a very rough machined area as well as a very smooth one, so that
an assessment can be made of surface detail reproduction. It may prove easier, in
the making of the die, if the cavity is machined from a rectangular block and then
the block carefully slit along its centre line to produce the two die halve-;. The
mating faces will require grinding 10 ensure a liquid-tight seal. A pair of holes
drilled on either side of the cavity, prior to splitting the block, will provide a
register for the two halves when location pins are inserted in the holes.
Use scrap pieces of aluminum or aluminum alloy for the die-casting metal as this is
easily melted by means of a gas-fired blowtorch. Clamp the die halves firmly in a
vice before pouring the molten metal, and be sure to observe the precautions
mentioned in Chapter 1 and wear the recommended protective clothing. After
retrieving the casting, write a report on the observations made while carrying out
the process, and on the finished component.
74
75

Oxy-Acetylene Welding

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Oxy-Acetylene Welding

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Oxy-Acetylene Welding

Oxy-Acetylene Welding Techniques

There are two techniques used to weld flat joints:

The Oxy-Acetylene Flame

Fig. 6 The Oxy-Acetylene flame

Chemical reactions are as follows:-

Acetylene + Oxygen = Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen

Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water

This produces a flame temperature of approximately 32000°C.

Oxy-Acetylene Flame Types

Gas Shielded Tungsten Arc Welding

TIG Tungsten Inert Gas

Description of the Process

Used widely in the aerospace, chemical and nuclear industries.

Requires a controllable supply of AC/DC current, any where between 1 amp

The two main functions of this unit are :-

 To initiate the arc without the electrode touching the workpiece by

Torches  Air cooled

Control of the Process

The main controls are :-

Features of the Process

Precautions in Use of Inert Gas for Welding

Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding [MIG/GMAW]

GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding

Description of the Process

The basic equipment consists of :

Welding Current and Wire Feed Speed

Open circuit voltages can be either varied or stepped.

Metal Transference Across the Arc

Applications and Advantages of Spray Transfer

Pulsed Arc (Controlled Spray Transfer)

 Soldering, where the melting temperature is less than 450°C.

Bronze welding resembles brazing up to a point, the application of brazing is generally

The types of flame which can be used are :-

PART A – Short Questions

2. What is Plastic welding? Give some examples.

3. What is fusion welding? Give some examples.

4. Name few gases used in welding.

5. What is the function of regulator in gas welding?

6. What is carburizing flame?

8. List out the advantages of gas welding.

10. What is torch brazing?

 aluminium (pure aluminum)

Pulse-Arc welding with MIG is an interesting technology in the context of aluminium

Generally speaking, aluminium and non-heat-treatable alloys should be welded with a

Description of the Process

Gases Used in Welding and Cutting Processes

Selection of the appropriate gas depends on :-

 The compatibility of the gas with the material being welded

Name Contents Colour Application

MAINTAINING THE EQUIPMENT For welding equipment to operate at peak efficiency

Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT) may be defined as the application of an inspection method

Figure 1. Penetrant Inspection

There are six major NDT methods used in engineering.

Visual Surface inspection method

 NDT Operator Training, Certification and Approval

Surveillance of Testing Activities

Weldments (Welded Joints)

Nondestructive testing methods for Welds

APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS:

Figure 1. Major steps of fluorescent penetrant inspection

Figure 2. Disruption of magnetic field by weld-metal defect