Familism in Confucianism

Nai-Hua, Ko
Shu-Te University, Taiwan

Confucianism, a great humanistic Chinese philosophy, is rooted in Chinese society as

one of the fundamental of culture. Although 2500 years after Confucius established his virtue
teachings and rules for social reform, the beliefs and customs that he advocated are still alive
today in Asian countries, such as Japan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam in addition to Chinese
areas (Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong). Confucianism has deep influences and
tremendous impact on how the Chinese live their lives, and how the Chinese teach their
younger generation to live their lives. In Chinese society, Confucianism is regarded as a code
of conduct, a set of virtue that should be obeyed and delivered as a part of Chinese traditions.
In other words, Confucianism is composed of moral, social, political and religious teachings
built up by Confucius and the ancient Chinese traditions. It is extremely important and also a
definite duty for Chinese people to behave.
In Taiwan school education, Chinese classic philosophy is taught and discussed from
junior high school education. The students were mostly anxious for understanding the literal
meanings than the thoughts in the ancient articles because of the entrance examines. After the
innovation of education system, there are more emphasis on idea inspiration than meaning
memorizing in Chinese courses at school. The Chinese classics are continuously taught until
the university level. However, it is a question that how much the young generation can really
understand the spirit of Confucianism and follow the teachings as beliefs by school education
since the environment and the way young generation value things is changing.
In the study of Yang and Cheng (1987), four groups of Confucian values preserved in
Taiwan were pointed out as below:
(1) Family: family and clan responsibilities, obedience to one’s elders
(2) Group: acceptance of the hierarchical structure of society, trust in and
obedience to authority, commitment to the solidarity, harmony, norms of
the group
(3) Job-orientation: education, skills, hard work, frugality
(4) Disposition: austerity, calmness, humility, self-control
Either in the family teaching or school education, having concern towards the others, towards
the entire group is usually emphasized in Chinese society. Each person doesn’t exist as an
individual, but a part/a member of the family or group. Therefore, a person has to behave by
following the ethics with the responsibilities that concern to the group he belongs and the
position he stands on. It is a duty for Chinese people to live in this way, and the value of life
presents its splendour after morality accomplished.
According to the Hofstede’s (1980) measure of individualism, Taiwan is ranked as the
position 44 of 53, which means it is a highly collectivistic society. Individualism and
collectivism are cultural “syndromes”. They reflect attitudes, beliefs, norms, roles, self-
definitions, and values. Collectivism reflects the relative emphasis on the collective, such as
the union of family, work group, tribe, and nation. The major difference between collectivists
and individualists is that what they pay attention to (Triandis, 1990). Collectivists define
themselves by using group attributes, see behaviour as reflecting group influences, see
success as due to the help received from others, and failure due to internal factors. Thus,
collectivists are context-dependent (Cohen, 1991). Collectivists focus on ascribed attributes
of the other, such as family background, age, sex, and so on. The other person’s group
identity is crucial to the collectivist. Groups are perceived as homogeneous, and in-groups are
more homogeneous than out-groups. Furthermore, for collectivists, behaviour must be
“appropriate” and whether attitudes are or are not consistent is trivial matter for them.

Emphases on Family
Confucian philosophy has been the most powerful influence shaping the Chinese
culture, the conceptions of Chinese for thousands of years. Undoubtedly, it is composed of
the dominant value system in Chinese societies. In Confucianism, nothing is more important
for good government and peace than proper family relationships. In Confucianism, the family
is the framework for establishing graceful interactions with others. It is still the single most
important social institution in imparting ways of learning to be human. Therefore, family
education is importantly attached as a component for the children’s growth.

The Five Cardinal Relationships

The ethical arrangements for interpersonal relationships established with the concepts
of benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), and propriety (li) in Confucianism. Behaviour that
favours people with whom has a close relationship can be termed benevolence; respecting
those for whom respect is required by the relationship is called righteousness; and acting
according to previously established rite or social norms is called propriety. Confucius advised
that social interaction should begin with an assessment of the role relationship between
oneself and others along two social dimensions: intimacy/distance and superiority/inferiority
(Hwang, 1999).
In Confucianism, how to make harmony in dealing with relationship issues is
emphasized. The component of hierarchy is certainly important. To demonstrate this
hierarchy are the five cardinal relationships as below (Kim, 1979):
1. Parent-Child
The parent-child relationship is considered life’s most stable, unchanging, lasting
relationship. Filial piety is the main emphasis symbolizing the ethics in this
relationship. In Chinese traditional concepts, only a son can make efforts to the family, and a
daughter is worthless because she will be one of the other family’s belongings anyway.
Therefore, sons won almost all the parents’ love, and stand on a higher position than
daughters in the family. Thus, a daughter’s filial piety to her parents was less critical than a
son’s. In fact, in the original wording of this relationship was father-son. This relationship
could expand to the relationship between elder generation and young generation. The
younger generation should show his/her respect to the elders in the society.
2. Ruler-Subject
This relationship symbolizes loyalty. The ruler-subject relationship can be seen as an
extension of the parents- child relationship, just as parents care for their children. In the same
way, it is an obligation for the ruler to take care for his subjects. To put loyalty into practice,
one as a subject or a child ought to respect and obey the ruler or parents because it is morally
right and obligatory to do so.
3. Elder Brother-Younger Brother
The elder brother-younger brother relationship represents the inherent higher status of
someone who is senior in age, experience, and therefore, presumably, wisdom. Furthermore,
this kind of relationship is not restricted only to blood brothers. It can be extended to any
senior-junior relationship in the group, organization, and society.
4. Husband-Wife
In stark contrast to American culture, the Confucian husband-wife relationship has been
marked by segregation. This relationship is standing on the status of man and woman in
Chinese society. In ancient Chinese society, marriage did not signify the formation of a new
family. Instead, marriage signified the extension of an existing family, namely, of course the
husband’s. More succinctly, it is the one singular purpose for marriage to provide male
children to perpetuate the husband’s family line. Even in modern society, this traditional
thought is still rooted in old generation, and it brought the conflicts between generations.
Under this kind of circumstance, there are only absolute obligations waiting for a wife to
practice, such as obedience towards her husband, towards the parents-in-law.
5. Friend-Friend
The friend-friend relationship is based on mutual trust and faithfulness. The
relationship between two friends most closely resembles the American ideal of equality.
We can find that three of the five cardinal relationships (Parent-Child, Elder Brother-Younger
Brother, Husband-Wife) are concerned with familial relationships, and the other two are
consanguineous relationships. The conjugal relationship is considered as the least important
familial relationship. This can partially explains why a man cannot stand on his wife’s side
while there is a conflict between his wife and parents. This illustrates the situation clearly that
in a Confucian society, blood is indeed thicker than water as Chinese people usually say. In
addition, it should be noted that, except for the relationship between friends, the relationships
are vertical between superiors and inferiors.

Ideal Confucian Family System

In a Confucian-based society, we can find that it is plain to emphasize, not only
hierarchy, but also the family. Referring to the relationships and interaction between family
members, there were five characteristics for the ideal Confucian family system as below:
• Only the paternal line relatives were regarded as relatives.
• Social class and rights were transmitted only from fathers to sons.
• The sole authority in the family rested with the father who held control over the
children.
• Marriages were allowed only with those outside the blood clan.
• First-born males held the right to lineal succession.

The Family as One Body

The Confucian concept of filial piety is constructed on the simple fact that each
individual’s body exists solely because of his parents. Therefore, each individual should
never forget that he won’t be in this world if his parents didn’t exist. In Confucians saying,
there was a description about the family members:
Father and son are one body; husband and wife, brothers, are all one body. The relationship
between father and son is like that between head and feet. Husband and wife are a
combination of two separate parts of one body; brothers are the four limbs. (Confucian Rites:
Chapter on Mourning Dress)
Confucians conceptualized the family by analogy to the human body. Each role in the
family represents a distinct part of the human body, and together they constitute an
inseparable entity. The Confucian configuration of ethical arrangements within a family also
corresponds to the body structure. The up-and-down relationship between head and feet
refers to the superior and inferior positions of father and son. Children’s bodies originate
from their parents’, and continually children will have their own families. The young
generation will be oriented towards the old one. Relationships between senior and junior
maintain a rank order (Hwang, 1999). In addition, the Confucian ethical system is based not
only on the principle of respecting the superior, but also on favoring the intimate.

Filial Piety
As a foundation for the life or perfect goodness, Confucius insisted mainly on the four
virtues of sincerity, benevolence, filial piety, and propriety. Of all other virtues, filial piety is
the root value on which many others are built (Wing 1995). In the “Hiao-king”, Confucius is
recorded as saying: “Filial piety is the root of all virtue.” “Of all the actions of man there are
none greater than those of filial piety.” In Chinese people’s mind, the notion of filial piety
prompts sons to love and respect their parents, contribute to their comfort and bring
happiness and honour to their name by honourable success in life. Moreover, by developing
respect and love for parents and siblings, and learning respect for other people from them, the
child develops both self-respect and respect for others.

Our body, with hair and skin, is derived from our parents. One should
not hurt one’s own body in any situation. This is the starting point of filial piety.
(Hsiao Ching, Chapter 1: The Starting Point and the Principles)

Filial piety included the obligation of sons to live after marriage under the same roof
with the father and to give him obedience as long as he lived. The will of the parents was
declared to be supreme even to the extent that if the son’s wife failed to please them, he was
obliged to divorce her. If a dutiful son found himself compelled to scold a wayward father, he
was taught to give the correction with the utmost meekness. The father does not forfeit his
right to filial respect, no matter how great his wickedness.
In traditional Asian culture, a son, usually the first born, and his wife were expected to
provide for his parents in their old age. According to Lin (1993), the greatest regret a Chinese
man could have is to lose the opportunity of being with and serving his parents on their
deathbed. Thus, the value of filial piety is as important as the very foundation of developing
one’s self and becoming a fully developed human being. Even in current Chinese society,
this is still regarded as an obligation for the son, especially the first son. This could affect
female’s choices while they are searching for an appropriate marriage partner. To be the first
son of a family could be considered as a disadvantage for marriage because the wife of the
son is expected to take care of the parents-in-law on daily life and finance. Therefore, when
the parents lost the ability to take care of themselves, it is an obligation for the wife to do the
caregiving. Sometimes, living with the parents becomes the reason of the discord between the
couples.
In a study of immigration culture about caregiving (Patricia, Xinwei, Karen & Afaf,
2002), the results led to the finding that through personal growth and finding meaning, the
caregivers integrated the caregiver role into their lives and became more connected with their
families and within themselves from the interviews of Chinese American women. Although
the women were moderately acculturated and influenced by two sets of standards and
worldviews, the primary strategies used to manage the caregiving challenges were connecting
and calibrating. They reflected what they were educated in childhood to the behaviours. The
teaching of values in the original country continually plays an absolute role to managing the
behaviours in their lives.

Ideal Role for Woman in Chinese Tradition

Confucianism delineates proper conduct for everyone, especially women. Fighting
women’s rampant “loose morals” in a concerted effort to produce “virtuous women”,
Confucianism governed women’s conduct with the so-called three obediences: (1) a young
girl should obey her father; (2) a married woman should obey her husband; (3) a widow
should obey her oldest son. We can find that two of these obedience directly match two of the
five cardinal relationships (parent-child, husband-wife). The third obedience seems to be a
paradox. In theory, a widow was expected to obey her son. However, in practice, the son
usually obeyed and paid respect to his mother (Kim, 1979).
 In order to investigate the world of women and men in Chinese society, we can begin
with Chinese characters. As well known, Chinese ancient words were pictograph. They
presented the ideas and images of Chinese people had towards the concepts and meaning of
that word. The Chinese character for “woman” shows a female figure sitting at home. On the
other hand, the Chinese character for “man” is a combination of “field” and “labor”.
Therefore, by interpretation, a woman should work inside the home while a man should work
outside on the farm (Park, 1986). It is fair to say that the entire social structure was
characterized by sexual segregation. Even after marriage, the physical structure of the house
facilitated this separated lifestyle, with the husband and wife staying in separate quarters most
of the time. The women’s quarter was called the “inner room” and it was in the inner wing.
The men’s quarter was called the “outer room” and it was in the outer wing. The inherent
symbolism of the language is impossible not to notice (Park, 1986; Kendall, & Peterson,
1983).
Traditional Chinese society was male-centered. Sons were preferred over
daughters, and women were expected to be subordinate to fathers, husband, and sons. When
married, it was a woman who left her natal family and community, and went to live in a
family and community of strangers where she was subordinate to her mother-in-law. Far
fewer women were educated than men, and sketchy but consistent demographic evidence
would seem to show that female infants and children had higher death rates and less chance
of surviving to adulthood than male. In extreme cases, female infants were the victims of
infanticide, and daughters were sold, as chattels, to brothels or to wealthy families. Bound
feet, which were customary even for peasant women, symbolized the painful constraints of
the female role. In current Chinese society, the destiny of female would not be so miserable
as in the ancient environment, however, female would be the prefer choice when someone
has to sacrifice for the family or group.
According to the Confucian structure of society, women at every level were to occupy
a position lower than men. Most Confucians accepted the subservience of women to men as
natural and proper. At the same time they accorded women’s honour and power as mother
and mother-in-law within their family. Some examples of “Confucian inspired sayings” as
bellow could still be a shackle against women’s growth and self-actualization in modern
Chinese society:
“A woman’s duty is not to control or take charge.”
“Woman’s greatest duty is to produce a son.”
“A woman ruler is like a hen crowing.”
“Women are to be led and to follow others.”
“A woman should look o her husband as if he were Heaven itself, and
never weary of thinking how she may yield to him.”
Through the years, a whole body of literature was written, educating women on self-
discipline, etiquette, relationships with in-laws, household management, humility, and
chastity. Biographies written about admirable women emphasized their unselfish loyal and
self-sacrificing willingness to do anything to help their husband and his family. Although
ideology is one thing and the reality of the lives of women often another, the log shadow of
basic beliefs about the nature and role of women had far-reaching effects.

Conclusion
Human beings live in their own webs of significance, which are woven with reference
to their own cultural traditions (Geertz, 1973). From the perspective of cultural psychology,
social discourse on actions in one’s own culture necessarily has one’s cultural structure of
meaning (Shweder, 1991; Shweder & Sullivan, 1993). In addition, the core cultural ideas
that profoundly influence people’s ways of thinking also have that culture’s structure of
meaning. If we compare cultures by reducing them to a few dimensions, the major webs of
significance in each culture are torn to pieces (Hwang, 1999).
Confucianism is primarily an ethical system to which rituals at important times during
one’s lifetime have been added. Partly, we have examined some of the major ideas of
Confucianism as it relates to the family and woman issues. We have also discussed how the
Confucian transformation of Chinese affected every aspect in the society. The Confucianism
deep inside the culture became great influences on the behaviors and thoughts of Chinese
people. Although the environment changed, the pervasive influence of Confucianism cannot
be ignored. Whether good or bad, it is not possible for a society to forget centuries of
tradition and custom. Therefore, after the young generation educated within a western way
and the environment was globalized, the conflicts occurred because the earlier teachings from
the traditions and the new thoughts. When an individual began to think in his own way, the
traditional expectation of obedience will face the failure more or less. While we encourage
our children to think, we cannot teach and satisfy them just simply saying “It is our tradition
and custom. My father did this to me, and my grandfather did this to my father too. So, it is
certain for you to accept this.” The old generation said this to us with pride, sometimes
wistfully, and sometimes even apologetically. However, it will not work if we treat the next
generation within the same way.

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