Chapter 7 Full

Chapter 7: Scalar and The Vectors Geometry 1
CHAPTER NO 7
Scalar and the vector geometry
portion 1 portion 2 portion 3 portion 4

Vector or cross
Position vector Scalar or dot product Work and moment
product
exercise 7.1 exercise 7.3 exercise 7.4 exercise 7.6
exercise 7.2 exercise 7.5

2 Advance Calculus with Analytical Geometry Mathematics (New 2nd addition) class xii
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In physics, mathematics and engineering, we encounter with two important quantities, known
as “vector and scalars”
Vector quantity
A quantity, which possess both magnitude and direction, called vector quantity. In physics we
have many examples such that
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, weight, force, momentum and electric fields.
In this section we introduce vectors and their operations we begin with a geometric
interpretation of vector in the plane and space.
Scalar quantity
A quantity, which possess only magnitude but not direction, called scalar quantity. In physics we
have many examples such that
Mass, density, temperature, length, volume, speed and work.
7.1.1 geometric interpretation of vector
Geometrically, A vector is represented by a directed line segment AB with A its initial point
and B its terminal point. It is often found convenient to denote a vector by an arrow and written
either as AB or a boldface symbol like v or in underline form v.
Magnitude of a vector
The magnitude or length or norm of a vector AB or v , is its absolute value.
It is denoted by AB or v and simply AB or v.
Properties of magnitude of a vector
 v  0 , and v =0 if and only if v  0

 cv  c v
 v  v
 v  x2y2
Unit vector
A vector whose magnitude is unity is called a unit vector. Unit vector of a vector v is written as
v
v̂ (read as v hat) and is denoted by vˆ 
v
Zero or Null vector
BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC Mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

Bahauddin zakariya university, Multan (Pakistan)
If the terminal point B of a vector AB coincide with its initial point A, then magnitude AB  0
and AB  0 , which is called zero or null vector.
Negative of a vector
Two vector are said to be negative of each other if they have same magnitude but opposite
direction.
If AB  v then BA   AB  v and BA   AB
7.1.2 Multiplication of vector by a scalar
We use the word scalar to mean a real number. Multiplication of a vector v by a scalar " k "
is a vector whose magnitude is k time of that vector v . B
D
It is denoted by kv.
AB
CD
 If k is positive, then v and kv are in the same direction. A
 If k is negative, then v and kv are in the opposite direction. C
 If AB  v ,then BA   AB  v. Figure 7.1.2(a)
(a) Equal vectors
Two vectors AB and CD are said to be equal vector, if
They have same direction and magnitude such that AB = CD B
(b) Parallel vector B
Two vectors are parallel if and only if they are on AB
Zero scalar multiple of each other.  AB 3
AB
2
7.1.3 Addition and Subtraction of two vectors A
A
Addition of two vectors is explain by the following two laws.
(a) Triangle Law of addition Figure 7.1.2(b)
If two vectors u and v are represented by the two sides AB and BC of a triangle such that
the terminal point of u coincide with the initial point of v , then the third side AC of the triangle
gives vector sum u  v , that is
AB  BC  AC
u  v  AC C
u
v
(b) Parallelogram Law of Addition A v
If two vectors u and v are represented by the two adjacent u

sides AB and BC of a parallelogram as shown in the figure, B
then diagonal AD give the sum or resultant of AB and AC Figure 7.1.3(a)

that is,
AD  AB  AC B
AD  u  v u
AB AC
AB  D
AD 
A
AC  v
C
Figure 7.1.3(b)
Important note: this law was used by Aristotle to describe the combined action of two
forces.
Subtraction of two vectors
The difference of two vectors AB and AC is define by
AB  AC  AB  (  AC )
u  v  u  ( v )
B CB  AB  AC
B
AB
C
(
A
C)
AB
A AC
C
 AC AC A
In figure, this difference is interpreted as the main diagonal of the parallelogram with sides
AB and  AC . We can also interpret the same vector difference as the third side of a triangle
with sides AB and AC . In this second interpretation, the vector difference AB  AC  CB
points the terminal point of the vector from which we are subtracting the second vector.
7.1.4 Position vector

y -axis
The vector, whose initial point is the origin O and whose terminal
point is P, called the position vector of the point P and is written P
as OP , as shown in the [Figure 7.1.4(a)]
OP
The position vectors of the points A and B relative to the origin O
are defined by OA  a and OB  b respectively. x-axis
O
In the Figure 7.1.4(b) by the triangle law of addition, Figure 7.1.4(a)
OA  AB  OB
a  AB  b  AB  b  a

7.1.5 Vector in a plane
Let R be the set of real numbers. The Cartesian plane is defining

to be R2  ( x, y) : x, y  R. an element ( x, y )  R 2 represents a B
point P( x, y ) which is uniquely determined by its coordinate x b
and y . Given a vector u in the plane, there exist a unique point a

O b
P( x, y ) in the plane such that the vector OP is equal to u . a
A
(See Figure 7.1.5)
Figure 7.1.4(b)
Therefore, we can use rectangular coordinate ( x, y ) for p to
associate a unique ordered pair [ x, y ] to the vector u .
y -axis
2
We define addition and scalar multiplication in R by:
P( x, y)
(a) Addition: For any two vectors
If u  [u1 , u2 ] and v  [v1 , v2 ] , we have u
u  v  [u1 , u2 ] +[v1 , v2 ]
x-axis
u  v  [u1  v1 , u2  v2 ] O
Figure 7.1.5
Example 1: if u  2i  7 j and v  (i  6 j) then Find u  v.
Solution :
u  v  (2i  7 j ) +(i  6 j )
u  v  2i  7 j +i  6 j
u  v  3i  13 j
(b) Scalar Multiplication:

u  [u1 , u2 ] and   R , we have
 u   [u1 , u2 ]
 u  [ u1 ,  u2 ]
Example 2: if u  2i  7 j and v  (i  6 j) then Find 2u  3v.

Solution :
2u  3v  2(2i  7 j )  3(i  6 j )
2u  3v  4i  14 j  3i  18 j
2u  3v  i  4 j
Definition: The set of all ordered pair [ x, y ] of real numbers, together with the rules of addition
and scalar multiplication, called the set of vectors in R 2 .
For the vector u  [u1 , u2 ] , u1 , u2 called the components of u .

Important note: the vector u  [u1 , u2 ] is an ordered pair of real numbers, not a point in the
plane.
(a) Negative of a vector

In the scalar multiplication (ii), if   1 and u  [u1 , u2 ] , then
 u  ( 1)[u1, u2 ]
 u  [u1 , u2 ]
Which is denoted by u and is called the additive inverse of u or negative vector of u.
(b) Difference of two vectors
We define u  v as u  (v)
If u  [u1 , u2 ] and v  [v1 , v2 ] , we have
u  v  u  ( v )
u  v  [u1 , u2 ]  [v1 , v2 ]
u  v  [u1  v1 , u2  v2 ]
(c) Zero vector
Clearly, If u  [u1 , u2 ] , then we have
u  u  u  ( u )
u  u  [u1 , u2 ] +[u1 , u2 ]  [u1  u1 , u2  u2 ]
0  [0,0]
is called the zero or null vector.
(d) Equal vector
Two vector If u  [u1 , u2 ] and v  [v1 , v2 ] of R 2 are said to be equal if and only if they
have same components. That is,
[u1 , u2 ]  [v1 , v2 ]  u1  v1 and u2  v2
In addition, we can write u  v
(e) Position vector
For any point P (u1 , u2 ) in R 2 ,a vector u  [u1 , u2 ] is represented by a directed line
segment OP ,whose initial point is at origin.
y -axis
Such vectors called position vectors because they
provided a unique correspondence between the point
(positions) and vectors.
j (0,1)
(f) Magnitude of a vector
For any point P (u1 , u2 ) in R 2 ,a vector u  [u1 , u2 ] ,we
define the magnitude or norm or length of the vector as
x-axis
the distance of the point P (u1 , u2 ) from the origin O O
i (1,0)
.Magnitude of OP  u  u12  u22
7.1.6 Properties of Magnitude of a Vector
Let v be a vector in the plane or space and let c be a real number, then

(i) v  0 , and v =0 if and only if v  0

y -axis
(ii) cv  c v
P (u1 , u2 )
We will proof these properties 2
u
2
2
u1 u2
Proof :(i) v  0 , and v =0 if and only if v  0
y -axis
O u1
We write a vector v in component form as v  [v1 , v2 ]
v  v12  v22  0 for all v1 and v2
Now v  v12  v22  0 if and only if v1  0 and v2  0.
In this case, we have v  [0,0]  0
Proof :(ii) cv  c v
cv  cv1 , cv2
cv  (cv1 ) 2  (cv2 ) 2  c 2 (v12  v2 2 )  c v12  v2 2
cv  cv v  v12  v2 2
1 3
Example 1: Find the magnitude of the vector v  i j.
2 2
Solution :
we know that v  v12  v2 2
2
1  3 1 3
2
1 3
v          1
2  2  4 4 4
1
Example 2: Find the magnitude of the vector v  i  3 j.
2
Solution :
we know that v  v12  v2 2
2
1
v      3
2
2
1 1  36 37
v  9  
4 4 2
7.1.7 Another Notation for Representing Vectors in the Plane
We introduce two special vectors
i  [1,0] , j  [0,1]
Magnitude of i  (1) 2  (0) 2  1
Magnitude of j  (0)2  (1)2  1
So i and j are called the unit vectors along x-axis and y-axis respectively. using the
Definition of addition and scalar multiplication, the vectors can be written as
u  [u1 , u2 ]
y -axis
u  [u1 ,0]  [0, u2 ]
u  u1[1,0]  u2 [0,1] P (u1 , u2 )
u  u1 i  u2 j i  [1,0] , j  [0,1] u
u2 j
2
Thus, each vector [u1, u2 ] in R y -axis
O u1 i
Can be uniquely represented by u1 i  u2 j.
In the term of unit vectors i and j , the sum u  v of two vectors
u  v  [u1 , u2 ] +[v1 , v2 ]
u  v  [u1  v1 , u2  v2 ]
u  v  (u1  v1 )i  (u2  v2 ) j
7.1.8 Distance between Two Points in the Plane
If we have two points P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) in the plane. Where,
OP1 is position vector of the point P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and y -axis
P1 ( x1 , y1 ) P P
OP2 is position vector of the point P2 ( x2 , y2 ) 1 2 P2 ( x
,y )
2
2
OP1
1 2  OP2  OP1 is define as
The vector PP
OP2
O y -axis
1 2  OP2  OP1
PP
1 2  [ x2  x1 , y2  y1 ]
PP Figure 7.1.8

The distance between two points P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 )  P1P2
P1P2  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2
P1P2  ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y2 ) 2
This is called distance formula between two points P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) in R 2 .
Example 5: if A  (2,5), B  (1,1) and C  (2,  6) then find the vector 2 AB  CB.
Solution :
PQ  ( x2  x1 )i  ( y2  y1 ) j
2 AB  CB  2[(1  2)i  (1  5) j ]  [(1  2)i  (1  6) j ]
2 AB  CB  2[3i  4 j ]  [3i  7 j ]
2 AB  CB  6i  8 j  3i  7 j
2 AB  CB  3i  15 j
Example 6: if A  (2,5), B  (1,1) and C  (2,  6) then find the vector AB  CB.
Solution :
PQ  ( x2  x1 )i  ( y2  y1 ) j
AB  CB  [(1  2)i  (1  5) j ]  [(1  2)i  (1  6) j ]
AB  CB  [3i  4 j ]  [3i  7 j ]
AB  CB  3i  4 j  3i  7 j
AB  CB  6i  3 j
7.1.9 A Unit Vector in the Direction of another given Vector
A vector u is called unit vector, if u  1
Now we will find a unit vector u in the direction of any other given vector v . we can do by the
using of property (ii) of magnitude of a vector, as follows.
1 1
v  v 1
v v
1
The vector v  v is the required unit vector.
v
It points in the same direction as v , because it is a positive scalar multiple of v .

1 3
Example 7: Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector v   i  j.
2 2
Solution :
1 3
v i j
2 2
2
 1  3
2
v        
 2   2 
1 3
v   1
4 4
v
we know that vˆ 
v
1 3
 i j
vˆ  2 2 1i 3 j 1i 3 j
1 2 2 2 2
Example 8: Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector v  [3, 4].
Solution :
v  3i  4 j
v  (3) 2  (4) 2  9  16  5
v
v
3i  4 j 3 4  3 4 
vˆ   i j   , 
5 5 5 5 5 
7.1.9 The Ratio Formula
Let A and B be the two points whose position vectors are a and b respectively w.r.t origin O .
if a point P divides AB in the ration p : q , then the position vectors of P is given by
pb  qa
r
pq
Proof:
Given A and B be the two points whose position vectors are a and b respectively w.r.t origin O .
let r is the position vector of the point P which divides the line segment AB in the ratio p : q
,that is

AP : PB  p : q
A
p
and also,
P
a
AP p r q
  p PB  q AP
PB q
B
q AP  p( PB)  q(OP  OA)  p(OB  OP) O
b
q(r  a )  p (b  r )
qr  qa  pb  pr
pr  qr  pb  qa
r ( p  q )  pb  qa
pb  qa
r
pq
Corollary:
If P is the mid pion of AB , then p : q  1:1 or p  q
ab
So, Position vector of P  r 
2
Example 9: Find the position vectors of the point of division of the of the line segments joining
the following pair of points, in the given ratio.
Point E with position vector 3i  5 j point F with position vector 4i  j in the ration 2:5 .
Solution :
Given, OE  a  3i  5 j , OF  b  4i  j and p  2, q  5
E
Suppose, OP  r 2
P
Let, P be the point which divides EF in ratio 2:5 a
r
we know that ,ratio formula 5
pb  qa
r O F
pq b
2(4i  j )  5(3i  5 j ) 8i  2 j  15i  25 j

r 
25 7
23i  27 j 23 27
r  i j
7 7 7
7.1.10 Vector Geometry
Let us now use the concept of vectors discussed so far in proving geometrical theorems. A few
examples are beings solved her to illustrate the method.
Example 10: if a and b be the position vector of A and B respectively w.r.t. origin, and C be a
ab
point on AB such that OC  , then show that C is the mid-point of AB.
2
Solution:
A
Given A and B be the two points whose position vectors are
a and b respectively w.r.t origin O . and C be a point on a C
ab
AB such that OC  .
2
O B
We will show AC  CB now b
ab
OC 
2
2OC  a  b
OC  OC  OA  OB
OC  OA  OB  OC AO  OA, CO  OC
OC  AO  OB  CO
AO  OC  CO  OB
AC  CB
So, C is equidistance from A and B , but A ,B and C are collinear.
Hence, C is the mid-point of AB.
Example 11: use vectors, to prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Solution: let the vertices of the parallelogram be A ,B ,C and D (see the Figure).
Since AC  AB  AD , the vector from A to the mid-point of the diagonal AC is
1
u  ( AB  AD)
2
Since DB  AB  AD , the vector from A to the mid-point of the

D
diagonal DB is
C
1 1 1 1 1
v  AD  ( AB  AD)  AD  AB  AD  AB  AD
2 2 2 2 2 A
1
v  ( AB  AD) B
2
vu

Since v  u these mid points of the diagonal AC and DB are the same.
Thus the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Example 12: if A, B and C are respectively the points (2, 4),(4,0) and (1,6). use vector method
to find the coordinated of the point D if ADBC is a parallelogram.
Solution :
C(1,6) B(4,0)
Given points: A(2, 4), B(4, 0) and C (1, 6)
Suppose, D( x, y ) is required point
Since, ABCD is parallelogram,so AB parallele to CD and
A(2, 4) D( x, y )
AB  CD
(4  2)i  (0  4) j  (1  x)i  (6  y ) j
2i  4 j  (1  x )i  (6  y ) j
compairing coefficient of i compairing coefficient of j
2  1 x 4  6 y
x  1 y2
Hence, D ( x, y )  D (1, 2)
Example 13: Find the vector from A to the origin where AB  4i  2 j and B is the point
(2,5).
Solution :
Given that: AB  4i  2 j and B(  2,5)
Find = AO
we know that
AB  OB  OA
AB  OB  AO AO   AO
AO  AB  OB OB  2i  5 j
AO  (4i  2 j )  (2i  5 j )
AO  4i  2 j  2i  5 j
AO  6i  7 j
EXERCISE 7.1
QUESTION 1: if u  2i  7 j , v  i  6 j and w  i  j Find the following vectors

1 1 1
(i) u  v  w (ii) 2u  3v  4w (iii) u v w
2 2 2
Answers: (i) 4i  14 j (ii) 3i  8 j (iii) i  6 j
QUESTION 2: Find the magnitude of the vector u.

(i) u  2i  7 j (ii) u  i  j (iii) u  [3,4]
Answers: (i) 53 (ii) 2 (iii)5
QUESTION 3: Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector given below.
1 3 3 1
(i) v  2i  j (ii) v  i  j (iii) v   i j (iv) v  2i  6 j (v) v  [2, 4]
2 2 2 2
(vi) v  [3, 4]
Answers:
2 1 1 3 3 1 1 3  1 2 
(i) i j (ii) i  j (iii)  i j (iv) i j (v)  , 
5 5 2 2 2 2 10 10  5 5
 3 4 
(vi)  , 
5 5 
QUESTION 4:
Find the position vectors of the point of division of the of the line segments joining the following
pair of points, in the given ratio.
(i) Point C with position vector 2i  3 j point D with position vector 3i  2 j in the ration 4:3
(ii) Point E with position vector 5 j point F with position vector 4i  j in the ration 2:5
18 1 8 27
Answers: (i) i j (ii) i j
7 7 7 7
QUESTION 5:
(i) If A, B and C are respectively the points (2, 4),(4,0) and (1,6). use vector method to find
the coordinated of the point D if. ABCD is a parallelogram.
D C
A B

(ii) if A, B and C are respectively the points (2, 4),(4,0) and (1,6). use vector method to find
the coordinated of the point D if. ADBC is a parallelogram. D C
Answers: (i) D(5,10) (ii) D(  1,2)
QUESTION 6: A B
(i) if A, B and C are respectively the points (4,1),( 2,3) and (  8,0). use vector method to find
the coordinated of the point A if . ABCD is parallelogram. D C
A B
(ii) if A, B and C are respectively the points (4,1),( 2,3) and (  8,0). use vector method to find
the coordinated of the point E if . AEBD is a parallelogram. D D
Answers: (i) A(  2,  2) (ii) E(10,  1)
A E
QUESTION 7: if AB  CD Find the coordinates of the point A when B, C and D are

(1,2),( 2,5),(4,11) respectively.
Answer: (i) A(  5,  4)
QUESTION 8: Use the vector method to show that ABCD is a parallelogram, when the points
A, B, C and D are respectively (0,0),(a,0),(b, c) and (b  a,c).
D E
QUESTION 9: Write the vector PQ in the form xi  y j :

i : P  (2,3) , Q(6, 2) ii : P  (0,5) , Q(1, 6)
A D
Answers: (i)4i  5 j (ii)  i  11 j
QUESTION 10:
(i) Find the vector from A to the origin where AB  4i  2 j and B is the point ( 2,5).
(ii) If O is the origin and OP  AB. find the point P when A and B are (  3, 7) and (1, 0)
respectively.
(iii) The position vector of the points A, B, C and D are 2i  j  k , 3i  j , 2i  4 j  2k

and  i  2 j  k respectively. Show that AB is parallel to CD .
Answers: (i) OA  6i  7 j (ii) P(4, 7)

QUESTION 11:
Theorem 1: Prove that the segment joining the mid points of two
A(a)
sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half aslong.
D
E
B(b) C (c)
Theorem 2: Prove that the segment joining the mid points of D( d ) G C (c)
the sides of a quadrilateral taken in order form a parallelogram.
H F
A(a) E B(b)
Theorem 3: Prove and state the ratio formula.
A
p
P
a
r q
O B
b
A
Theorem 4: if a and b be the position vector of A and B
respectively w.r.t. origin, and C be a point on AB such that a C
ab
OC  , then show that C is the mid-point of AB.
2
O B
b
Theorem 5: Use vectors, to prove that the diagonals of a

parallelogram bisect each other. D

7.2. INTRODUCTION OF VECTOR IN SPACE

y -axis
In the space, a rectangular coordinate system is constructed
using three mutual perpendicular or orthogonal axis, which have
origin as their common point of intersection. when
O y -axis
Sketching the figures, we follow the convention that the positive

x-axis points toward the reader, the positive y-axis to the right z - axis Figure 7.2(a)
and the positive z -axis points upwards.
These axes called label in according with the right hand rule. If fingers of the right hand,
pointing in the direction of positive x-axis , are curled toward the positive y-axis then the thumb
will the point in the direction of positive z-axis , perpendicular to the xy -plane. . The broken lines
in the figure represent the negative axes.
A point P in the space has three coordinates, one along

z - axis
x-axis , the second along y-axis and the third along z-axis P(a, b, c)
.if the distance along x-axis , y-axis and z-axis respectively
c
a, b and c , and then the point P is written with a unique
triple of real numbers as P  (a, b, c) [see Figure 7.2(b)]. O y -axis
a
7.2.1. Vector in a Space b
x-axis
Let R be the set of real numbers. The three-dimension space is Figure 7.2(b)
defining to be the R3  ( x, y, z ) : x, y  R. an element
( x, y , z )  R 3 represents a point P( x, y, z ) which is uniquely determined by its coordinate x, y
and z . Given a vector u in the apace, there exist a unique point P( x, y, z ) in the apace such
that the vector OP is equal to u . (see figure) so, we
Can use three-dimension space ( x, y, z ) for P to associate a

z - axis
unique ordered triple [ x, y, z] to the vector u . P( x, y, z)
We define addition and scalar multiplication in R 3 by: u z

(i) Addition: For any two vectors O y -axis
If u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] and v  [v1 , v2 , v3 ] , we have x
u  v  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] +[v1 , v2 , v3 ] x-axis
y
u  v  [u1  v1 , u2  v2 , u3  v3 ] Figure 7.2.1

(ii) Scalar Multiplication
u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] and   R , we have
 u   [u1 , u2 , u3 ]
 u  [ u1 ,  u2 ,  u3 ]
Definition: the set of all ordered triple [ x, y, z] of real numbers, together with the rules of
addition and scalar multiplication, called the set of vectors in R 3 .
For the vector u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] , u1 , u2 , u3 called the components of u .
Important note: the vector u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] is an ordered pair of real numbers, not a
point in the plane.
(g) Negative of a vector

In the scalar multiplication (ii), if   1 and u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] , then
 u  ( 1)[u1 , u2 , u3 ]
 u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ]
Which is denoted by u and is called the additive inverse of u or negative vector of u.
(h) Difference of two vectors

We define u  v as u  ( v )
If u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] and v  [v1 , v2 , v3 ] , we have
u  v  u  ( v )
u  v  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] +[ v1 , v2 , v3 ]
u  v  [u1  v1 , u2  v2 , u3  v3 ]
(i) Zero vector

Clearly, If u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] , then we have
u  u  u  ( u )
u  u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] +[u1 , u2 , u3 ]
u  u  [u1  u1 , u2  u2 , u3  u3 ]
0  [0,0,0]
is called the zero or null vector.
(j) Equal vector

Two vector If u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] and v  [v1 , v2 , v3 ] of R 3 are said to be equal if and only if
they have same components. That is,
[u1 , u2 , u3 ]  [v1 , v2 , v3 ]  u1  v1 , u2  v2 and u3  v3 In addition, we can write u  v
(k) Position vector

For any point P( x, y, z ) in R 3 , a vector u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] is represented by a directed line

segment OP , whose initial point is at origin. Such vectors are called position vectors
because they provided a unique correspondence between the point (positions) and
vectors.
(l) Magnitude of a vector
for any point P( x, y, z ) in R 3 ,a vector u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] ,we define the magnitude or norm or
length of the vector as the distance of the point P( x, y, z ) from the origin O .
Magnitude of OP  OP  u  u12  u2 2  u32
Example 1: Find the magnitude of the vector v  2i  3 j  4k

Solution :
v  2i  3 j  4k
v  (2) 2  (3) 2  (4) 2  4  9  16  29
properties of magnitude of a vector
Let v be a vector in the plane or space and let c be a real number, then
(i) v  0 , and v =0 if and only if v  0

(ii) cv  c v
We will proof these properties
Proof :(i) v  0 , and v =0 if and only if v  0
We write a vector v in component form as v  [v1 , v2 , v3 ] ,now
v  v12  v22  v32  0 For all v1 , v2 and v3
v  v12  v22  v32  0 If and only if v1  0 , v2  0 and v3  0
in this case we have v  [0,0,0]  0
Proof :( ii) cv  c v
cv  cv1 , cv2 , cv3

cv  (cv1 ) 2  (cv2 ) 2  (cv3 )3  c 2 (v12  v2 2  v32 )
cv  c v12  v2 2  v32
cv  cv v  v12  v2 2  v32
7.2.2 Properties of Vector
Vectors, both in the plane and in space, have the following properties:
Let u, v and w be the vectors in the plane or space and let a, b  R ,then they have the
following properties.
(i) uv vu (Commutative property)

(ii) (u  v )  w  u  (v  w) (Associative property)
(iii) u  ( 1)u  u  u  0
(iv) a(u  v )  au  av (Distributive property)
(v) a(bu)  ( ab)u (Scalar multiplication)
7.2.3 Another Notation for Representing Vectors in the Space
We introduce three special vectors y -axis
i  [1,0,0] , j  [0,1,0] ,k  [0,0,1]

j (0,1, 0)
Magnitude of i  (1)  (0)  (0)  1
2 2 2
O x-axis
Magnitude of j  (0)2  (1)2  (0)2  1 k (0,0,1) i (1,0,0)
Magnitude of k  (0) 2  (0) 2  (1) 2  1 z-axis Figure 7.2.3
So i , j and k are called the unit vectors along x-axis , y-axis and z-axis respectively. Using
the definition of addition and scalar multiplication, the vectors can be written as
u  [u1 , u2 , u3 ]
u  [u1 ,0,0]  [0, u2 ,0]  [0,,0, u2 ]
u  u1[1,0,0]  u2 [0,1,0]  u3[0,0,1]
u  u1 i  u2 j  u3 k i  [1,0,0] , j  [0,1,0], k  [0,0,1]
Thus, each vector [u1, u2 , u3 ] in R3 can be uniquely represented by u1i  u2 j  u3 k .
In the term of unit vectors i , j and k ,the sum u  v of two vectors
u  v  [u1 , u2 , u3 ] +[v1 , v2 , v3 ]
u  v  [u1  v1 , u2  v2 , u3  v3 ]
u  v  (u1  v1 )i  (u2  v2 ) j  (u3  v3 )k

7.2.4 Distance Between Two Points in the Space
If we have two points P1 ( x1 , y1 , z 1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) in the space. Where,
OP1 is position vector of the point P1 ( x1 , y1 , z 1 ) and y -axis
P1 ( x1 , y1 , z 1 )
OP2 is position vector of the point P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) P1P2
P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 )
P1P2
1 2  OP2  OP1 is define as
The vector PP
OP2
x-axis
1 2  OP2  OP1
O
PP
1 2  [ x2  x1 , y2  y1 , z2  z1 ]
PP Figure 7.2.4
The distance between two points P1 ( x1 , y1 , z 1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 )  P1P2
P1P2  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z2  z1 ) 2
P1P2  ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y2 ) 2  ( z1  z2 ) 2
This called distance formula between two points P1 ( x1 , y1 , z 1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) in R 3 .
Example 2: if A  (2,5,1), B  ( 1,1,1) and C  (2,  6,1) then find the vector 2 AB  CB.
Solution :
PQ  ( x2  x1 )i  ( y2  y1 ) j  ( z2  z1 )k
2 AB  CB  2[(1  2)i  (1  5) j  (1  1)k ]  [(1  2)i  (1  6) j  (1  1) k ]
2 AB  CB  2[3i  4 j  0k ]  [3i  7 j  0k ]
2 AB  CB  6i  8 j  3i  7 j  0k
2 AB  CB  3i  15 j  0k
Example 3: Find a vector whose magnitude is two and is parallel to i  j  k .

Solution :
Suppose required vector  u
u 2
let v  i  j  k
if u is paralel to v then, we have
v v
u  u vˆ  u  u  (1) vˆ 
v v
v  (1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  1  1  1  3
(1) becomes
 i  jk 
u  2 
 3 
2 2 2
u i j k
3 3 3
Example 4: Find two vector of length 2 parallel to the v  2i  4 j  4k .

Solution :
Suppose required vector  u
u 2
v  2i  4 j  4k
if u is paralel to v then, we have
v v
u  u vˆ  u  u  (1) vˆ 
v v
v  (2) 2  (4) 2  (4) 2  4  16  16  36  6
(1) becomes
 2i  4 j  4k 
u  2 
 6 
For same direction:
2 4 4
u  i j k
3 3 3
For opposit direction:
2 4 4 
u   i  j  k  Multiply by (  ve) sign
3 3 3 
Example 5: Find the constants a and b so that the vectors 3i  j  4k and ai  b j  2k are
parallel.
Solution :
Suppose that, v  3i  j  4k and w  ai  b j  2k
if v and w are parallel ,then we have a condition
Such that v  cw , where c is any constant
3i  j  4k  c(ai  b j  2k )
3i  j  4k  aci  bc j  2ck
Here,

3  ac  (1) 1  bc
4  2c
3  a(2) from (3) 1  b( 2) from (3)
c  2  (3)
3 1
a b   (2)
2 2
7.2.5 Direction Angle, Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios
Let r  OP  xi  y j  zk be a non-zero vector, let  ,  and  donate the angles formed

between r and the unit coordinates vector i, j and k respectively.
Such that 0     , 0     , and 0    
Direction Angles: The angles  ,  and  are called the direction cosines.
Direction Cosines: The numbers cos  ,cos  and cos are called the direction cosines.
Important identity:
y -axis
Proof that cos   cos   cos   1
2 2 2
Proof : L P( x, y, z)
Suppose that, r
r  xi  y j  zk 
O  x-axis

r  r  x2  y2  z 2 M
r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2  (1) N
r
Then the unit vector rˆ  z-axis Figure 7.2.5
r
xi  y j  zk x y z
rˆ   i 2 j 2 k
x y z
2 2 2
x y z
2
2 2
x y z
2 2
x  y2  z2
 x y z 
rˆ   2 , 2 , 2 2 
x  y  z x  y  z x  y  z 
2 2 2 2 2
x
From the right triangle OMP cos    (i)
r
y z
Similarly, cos    (ii) , cos    (iii)
r r
Since, the numbers cos  , cos  and cos are direction cosines
By Squaring and Adding (i),(ii) and (iii),we get
2 2 2
x  y  z
cos 2   cos 2   cos 2          
r r r
x2 y 2 z 2
cos   cos   cos 
2 2 2
 2 2  2
r r r
x  y  z2
2 2
cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   r 2  x2  y 2  z 2
r2
r2
cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   2
r
cos 2   cos 2   cos 2  1
Hence, proved
Here, we can see
x y z
cos   , cos   , cos  
r r r
x y z
cos   2 , cos   2 , cos   2
x y z2 2
x y z
2 2
x  y2  z2
But they are the components of the unit vector. Hence we can say the components of the unit
vector are called direction cosines.
x y z
Direction Ratios: if the components , 2 and 2 are direction
x y z x y z
2 2 2 2 2
x  y2  z2
cosines then their reciprocal called direction Ratios.
Such that,
x2  y 2  z2 x2  y2  z2 x2  y2  z2
, and are direction ratios.
x y z
In simple, the components of a given vector are called direction Ratios.
Deduction: Proof that sin 2   sin 2   sin 2   2.

Proof
As we know that from the above result
cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1
(1  sin 2  )  (1  sin 2  )  (1  sin 2  )  1
we know from trigonometric identity
sin 2   cos 2   1 , sin 2   cos 2   1 , sin 2   cos 2   1
cos 2   1  sin 2  , cos 2   1  sin 2  , cos 2   1  sin 2 
So now,
3  sin 2   sin 2   sin 2   1
3  (sin 2   sin 2   sin 2  )  1

sin 2   sin 2   sin 2   3  1

sin 2   sin 2   sin 2   2
Hence, proved the result.
Example 1: Find the direction cosines for the given vector v  3i  j  2k.
Solution :
v  3i  j  2k
v  (3) 2  (1) 2  (2) 2  9  1  4  14

v
v
3i  j  2k
3 1 2
vˆ  i j k
3 14 14 14
The components of the unit vector are called direction cosines.
 3 1 2 
So,  14 , 14 , 14  are direction cosines.
 
Example 2: Find the direction cosines for the given vector v  3i  3 j  k.

Solution :
v  3i  3 j  k
v  (3) 2  (3) 2  (1) 2  9  9  1  19

v
v
3i  3 j  k
3 3 1
vˆ  i j k
19 19 19 19
The components of the unit vector are called direction cosines.
 3 3 1 
So,  , ,  are direction cosines.
 19 19 19 
Example 3: Show that the triple 45 0 ,60 0 ,60 0 can be the direction angles of a single vector.
Solution :
Suppose that   45 ,   60 ,   60 then
cos  2  cos  2  cos  2  1
L.H .S  cos  2  cos  2  cos  2
L.H .S  (cos 45 ) 2  (cos 60 ) 2  (cos 60 ) 2
2 2 2
 1  1 1
L.H .S       
 2  2 2
2 1 1
L.H .S   
2 4 4
2 11
L.H .S 
4
L.H .S  1
L.H .S  R.H .S
Hence  ,  and  are the direction angles of a single vector.

EXERCISE 7.2
QUESTION 1: if u  i  2 j  k , v  3i  2 j  2k and w  5i  j  3k then Find.

(i) u  2v  w (ii) v  3w
Answers: (i) 12i  3 j  6k (ii) 12i  j  7k

QUESTION 2: Let A  (2,5), B  (1,1) and C  (2,  6) Find.
(i) AB (ii)2 AB  CB (iii)2CB  2CA
Answers: (i)  3i  4 j (ii)  3i 15 j (iii)  6i  8 j
QUESTION 3: Find the magnitude of the vector v.

(i) v  2i  3 j  4k (ii) v  i  j  k (iii) v  4i  5 j
(iv)if v  3i  2 j  2k , w  5i  j  3k then find 3v  w (v)find  , so that  i  (  1) j  2k  3
Answers: (i) 29 (ii) 3 (iii) 41 (iv) 326 (v) =1, =  2
QUESTION 4:
(i) if a  3i  j  4k , b  2i  4 j  3k and c  i  2 j  k Find a unit vector parallel to

3a  2b  4c .
(ii) Find a vector whose magnitude is four and is parallel to 2i  3 j  6k .
(iii) Find a vector whose magnitude is two and is parallel to i  j  k .
(iv) Find a vector of length 5 in the direction same that of the v  i  2 j  3k .
(v) Find a vector of length 5 in the direction opposite that of the v  i  2 j  3k .
(vi) Find two vector of length 2 parallel to the v  2i  4 j  4k .
Answers:
17 13 10 8 12 24 2 2 2
(i) i j k (ii) i j k i (iii) 
j k
558 558 558 7 7 7 3 3 3
5 10 15  5 10 15  2 4 4 2 4 4 
(iv) i j k (v)   i j k  (vi) i  j  k ,   i  j  k 
14 14 14  14 14 14  3 3 3 3 3 3 
QUESTION 5: Show that the vectors u, v and w are parallel.

(i) u  2i  3 j  k , v  4i  6 j  2k (ii) u  2i  3 j  k , w  6i  9 j  3k
Answers:
(i) v  2u So, that v and u are parallel vectors and have the same direction.
(ii) w  3u So, that w and u are parallel vectors and have the opposite direction.
QUESTION 6:
(i) Find the constant  so that the vectors v  i  3 j  4k and w   i  9 j  12k are parallel.
(ii) Find the constants a and b so that the vectors 3i  j  4k and ai  b j  2k are parallel.
3 1
Answers: (iii)   3 (iv) a  ,b 
2 2
QUESTION 7: Find the direction cosines for the given vector.
(i) v  2i  3 j  4k (ii) v  i  j  k (iii) v  4i  5 j (iv) v  3i  j  2k

(v) v  6i  2 j  k (vi) PQ, where P  2, 1, 5 and Q 1, 3, 1 .
Answers:
 2 3 4   1 1 1   4 5 0 
(i)  , , (ii)  , ,  (iii)  , ,
 29 29 29   3 3 3  41 41 41 
 3 1 2   6 2 1   1 2 4 
(iv)  , , (v)  , , (vi)  , ,
 14 14 14   41 41 41 

 21 21 21 
QUESTION 8: Which of the following triple can be the direction angles of a single vector?
(i)45 0 ,45 0 ,60 0 (ii)30 0 ,45 0 ,60 0 (iii)45 0 ,60 0 ,60 0
Answers: (i) no vector (ii) no vector (iii) a vector
Portion 2:
7.3 THE SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTOR
We shall now consider products of two vectors that originated in the study of physics and
engineering. the concept of angle between two vectors is explained in term of a scalar products
of two vectors.
Definition 1:
Let two vectors u and v , in the plane or space, have same initial point. The dot product of
u and v , written as u.v , is define by
u.v  u v cos , 0   u u
 

Where  is angle between u and v v v u v
A B C
Definition 2:
(i) If u  u1i  u2 j and v  v1i  v2 j are two non-zero vectors in the plane. then the dot
product u.v is define as

u.v  (u1 i  u2 j ).(v1 i  v2 j )

u.v  u1v1  u2v2
(ii) If u  u1i  u2 j  u3 k and v  v1i  v2 j  v3 k are two non-zero vectors in the space .
then the dot product u.v is define as
u.v  (u1 i  u2 j  u3 k ).( v1 i  v2 j  v3 k )
u.v  u1v1  u2v2  u3v3
Important note: The dot product is also called the scalar product or the inner product.
7.3.1 Derivation of Useful Results of Scalar Products
By applying the definition of dot product to unit vectors i , j and k , then we have
(1) i.i  i i cos 0 (1) i. j  i j cos 90
i.i  (1).(1)(1) i. j  (1)(1)(0)

i.i  1 i. j  0
(2) j. j  j j cos 0 (2) j.k  j k cos 90
j. j  (1)(1)(1) j.k  (1)(1)(0)
j. j  1 j.k  0
(3) k .k  k k cos 0 (3) k .i  k i cos 90
k .k  (1)(1)(1) k .i  (1)(1)(0)
k .k  1 k .i  0
Important note: Scalar or Dot product of two vectors is commutative.
u.v  u v cos 
u.v  v u cos(  )
u.v  v u cos 
u.v  v.u
7.3.2 Perpendicular or Orthogonal Vectors
Two non-zero vectors u and v are said to be perpendicular or orthogonal if and only if
 
u .v  0. since angle between u and v us and we know cos  0 so,
2 2

u.v  u v cos  u v (0)  u.v  0
2
Example 1: Show that the vectors u  i  2 j  k , v  i  j  3k are perpendicular

Solution :
u i2jk , v  i  j  3k
u.v  (i  2 j  k ).(i  j  3k )
u.v  1  2  3  3  3  0
Hence, given vectors are perpendicular.
3 3
Example 2: Show that the vectors u   i  3 j  k , v i j  3k are perpendicular
2 2
Solution :
u   i  2 j  k , v  i   j  3k
3 3
u.v  ( i  3 j  k ).(i  j  3k )
2 2
3 9
u.v     3
2 2
3  9  6
u.v 
2
99
u.v  0
2
Hence, given vectors are perpendicular.
Example 3: Find the real number  so, that the vectors u   i  2 j  k and v  i   j  3k
are perpendicular.
Solution :
u   i  2 j  k , v  i   j  3k
Since, u and v are perpendicular.
u.v  0
( i  2 j  k ).(i   j  3k )  0
  2 2  3  0
2 2    3  0
(2  3)(  1)  0
(2  3)  0 ; (  1)  0
3
 ;  1
2
Important note: As 0.u  0 , for every vector u .so the zero is regard to be perpendicular to
every vector.

7.3.3 Properties of Scalar Product
Suppose u.v and w be the vectors and let c be an any real number, then
(i) u.v  0  u  0 or v  0
(ii) u.v  v.u (commutative property)
(iii) u.(v  w)  u.v  u.w (distributive property)
u.u  u
2
(iv)
(v) (cu ).v  c(u.v ) (c is scalar)
The proofs of the properties are left as an exercise for the students.
7.3.4 Analytical Expression of Dot Product u and v
(Dot Product of Vector in Their Component Form)
Let u  u1i  u2 j  u3 k , v  v1i  v2 j  v3 k be the two non-zero vectors.
From distribution law we can write

u.v  (u1 i  u2 j  u3 k ).(v1 i  v2 j  v3 k )
 u1v1 (i.i )  u1v2 (i. j )  u1v3 (i.k )  u2v1 ( j.i )  u2v2 ( j. j )  u2v3 ( j.k )  u3v1 (k .i )  u3v2 (k . j )  u3v3 (k .k )
u.v  u1v1  u2v2  u3v3
i.i  j. j  k .k  1
i. j  j.k  k .i  0
Hence, the dot product of two vectors is the sum of the product of their corresponding
components. Equivalent of two definitions of dot product of two vectors has been proved in the
following Example.
 if u  u1i  u2 j , v  v1i  v2 j are two vector in the plane, then u.v  u1v1  u2v2
 if u  u1i  u2 j , v  v1i  v2 j are two vector in the plane, then u.v  u v cos 
Where is the angle between u and v and 0    
Proof:
Let u and v determine the sides of a triangle then the third side, opposite to the angle  , has
length u  v (By the triangle law of addition of vectors)
Law of Cosines,
u  v  u  v  2 u v cos 
u
 (1)
2 2 2
v v

if u  [u1 , u2 ] and v  [v1 , v2 ] ,then u
u  v  [u1 , u2 ]  [v1 , v2 ]
u  v  [u1  v1 , u2  v2 ] where,
u  u12  u2 2  u  u12  u2 2
2
v  v12  v2 2  v  v12  v2 2
2
u  v  (u1  v1 ) 2  (u2  v2 ) 2  u  v  (u1  v1 ) 2  (u2  v2 ) 2

2
(1) becomes,
(u1  v1 ) 2  (u2  v2 ) 2  u12  u2 2  v12  v2 2  2 u v cos 
u12  v12  2u1v1  u2 2  v2 2  2u2v2  u12  u2 2  v12  v2 2  2 u v cos 
 2u1v1  2u2v2  2 u v cos 
2(u1v1  u2v2 )  2 u v cos 
u1v1  u2v2  u v cos 
u.v  u v cos u.v  u1v1  u2v2
7.3.5 The Angle Between Two Vectors
The angles between two vectors u and v is determined from the definition of the dot product,
that is
(1) u.v  u v cos  where 0    

u.v
cos  
u v
(2) if u  u1 i  u2 j  u3 k and v  v1 i  v2 j  v3 k ,then
u.v  (u1 i  u2 j  u3 k ).(v1 i  v2 j  v3 k )
u.v  u1v1  u2v2  u3v3
u  u12  u2 2  u32 and v  v12  v2 2  v32
as we know that
u.v
cos  
u v
u1v1  u2v2  u3v3
cos  
u  u2 2  u32 v12  v2 2  v32
1
2
Corollary 1: if   0 o or  , the vectors u and v are collinear.
 3
Corollary 2: if   ,or , the vectors u and v are perpendicular or orthogonal.
2 2

Example 1: Find the angle  between u  2i  j  k and v  i  j.
Solution :
u  2i  j  k and v  i  j  0k
u.v  (2i  j  k ).(  i  j  0k )
u.v  2  1  3
u  (2) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  4  1  1  6
v  (1) 2  (1) 2  (0) 2  1  1  0  2
we know that
u.v
cos  
u v
3 3
cos   
6 2 2
 3  5
  cos 1   
 2  6
Example 2: Find the cosine of the angle  between u  i  3 j  4k and v  4i  j  3k

Solution :
u  i  3 j  4k , v  4i  j  3k
u.v  (i  3 j  4k ).(4i  j  3k )
u.v  4  3  12  19
u  (1) 2  (3) 2  (4) 2  1  9  16  26
v  (4) 2  (1) 2  (3) 2  16  1  9  26
we know that
u.v 19 19
cos    
u v 26 26 26
 19 
  cos 1    43.04
 26 
Example 3: Show that the vectors 3i  2 j  k , i  3 j  5k and 2i  j  4k form a Right angle.

3i  2 j  k , i  3 j  5k and 2i  j  4k
Solution :
Suppose that,
w  3i  2 j  k , u  i  3 j  5k , v  2i  j  4k
Now, uv  w
(i  3 j  5k )  (2i  j  4k )  3i  2 j  k
3i  2 j  k  3i  2 j  k
w.v  0
w.v  (3i  2 j  k ).(2i  j  4k )
w.v  6  2  4
w.v  0
Here, w and v are perpendicular and u , v, w are sides of a triangle
Hence, given vectors form right angle.
Example 4: Show that the set of points P(1, 3, 2) , Q(4, 1, 4) and R(6, 5, 5) form a right
triangle.
Solution :
P(1, 3, 2) , Q(4, 1, 4) and R(6, 5, 5)
PQ  (4  1)i  (1  3)i  (4  2)i  3i  2 j  2k
QR  (6  4)i  (5  1)i  (5  4)i  2i  4 j  k
PR  (6  1)i  (5  3)i  (5  2)i  5i  2 j  3k
PR  PQ  QR
5i  2 j  3k  (3i  2 j  2k )  (2i  4 j  k )
5i  2 j  3k  5i  2 j  3k
Now,we will see
PQ.QR  0
(3i  2 j  2k ).(2i  4 j  k )  0
6 8  2  0
00
Hence, given points form a right triangle.
Example 5: Show that the vectors 2i  3 j  4k , i  3 j  k and 4i  6 j  zk form the sides of

a triangle, Find value of z.
C
2i  3 j  4k , i  3 j  k and 4i  6 j  zk B
C
B (i) wuv
Solution : A
AC (ii) u.v  0
v
u
Suppose that, v

w
u  2i  3 j  4k , v  i  3 j  k , w  4i  6 j  zk 
A B
Now, uv  w u
(2i  3 j  4k )  (i  3 j  k )  4i  6 j  z k

i  6 j  3k  4i  6 j  zk
Here, on compairing,we have
z 3
7.3.6 Projection of One Vector Upon Another Vector
In many physical applications, it is required to know “how much” of a vector is applied along a
given direction. For this purpose, we find the projection of one vector along the other vector.
Let u  OA and v  OB
Let  be the angle between them, such that 0    
Draw BM  OA.
OM
The projection of v along u  OM ,now cos   , that is
OB
OM  OB cos 
OM  v cos 
then by definition,
u.v
cos  
u v
Multiply on both sides by,we get
u.v
v cos   v
u v
u.v
OM 
u
u.v
The projection of v along u  OM 
u
u.v
Similarly, we can proof the projection of u along v 
v
Example 1: Calculate the projection of u along v and projection of v along u when.

u  3i  j  k , v  2i  j  k
Solution :
u  3i  j  k , v  2i  j  k
u  (3)2  (1)2  (1)2  9  1  1  11

v  (2) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  4  1  1  6

u.v u.v
projection of u along v  projection of v along u 
v u
(3i  j  k ).(2i  j  k ) (3i  j  k ).(2i  j  k )
projection of u along v  projection of v along u 
6 11
 6  1  1 8  6  1  1 8
projection of u along v   projection of v along u  
6 6 11 11
Example 2: Show that the component of a vector are projections of that vector along i, j and k
respectively.
Solution:
Suppose u  u1i  u2 j  u3 k , then
u.i (u1 i  u2 j  u3 k ).i

The projection of u along i    u1
i 1
u. j (u1 i  u2 j  u3 k ). j
The projection of u along j    u2
j 1
u.k (u1 i  u2 j  u3 k ).k

The projection of u along k    u3
k 1
Hence, components u1 , u2 and u3 of a vector are projections of vector u  u1i  u2 j  u3 k along

i, j and k respectively.
Example 3: Proof that the cosine Law b2  c 2 a 2 2ca cos B in any triangle ABC.
proof:
Suppose the vectors a , b and c are along the sides BC , CA and AB respectively of the triangle
ABC.
We know that C
 C
a +b + c0
b  c  a A a
b  (c + a )  B
A
Squaring on both sides c B
A
(b) 2  [ (c + a )]2

b.b  (c + a ).(c + a )
b 2  c.c  c.a  a.c  a.a b.b  b 2 , c.a  a.c
b 2  c 2  c.a  c.a  a 2
b 2  c 2  a 2  2c.a
b 2  c 2  a 2  2ca cos(  B )
b 2  c 2  a 2  2ca ( cos B ) cos(  B )   cos B
b  c  a  2ca cos B
2 2 2
Example 4: Proof that the projection Law b  c cos A  a cos C in any triangle ABC.
proof:
Suppose the vectors a , b and c are along the sides BC , CA and AB respectively of the
triangle ABC.
We know that C
 C
a + b + c0
b  c  a A a
take dot product with b  B

b.b  (c  a).b A
c B
b 2  c.b  a.b b.b  b 2 A
b 2  cb cos(  A)  ab cos(  C )

b 2  cb( cos A)  ab( cos C ) cos(  A)   cos A
b  cb cos A  ab cos C
2
cos(  C )   cos C
b  b(c cos A  a cos C )
2
b  c cos A  a cos C
Example 5: Proof that cos(   )  cos  cos   sin  sin 
Proof :
Suppose, OA and OB be the two unit vector in the xy - plane making angle  and   with the
positive x - axis respectively,as shown in the Figuer.
y -axis
so that AOB    
Here, OA  cos  i  sin  j
A
and, OB  cos(  )i  sin(  ) j
 
OB  cos  i  sin  j x-axis
O 
take dot product of OA and OB that is,
B
OA.OB  (cos  i  sin  j ).(cos  i  sin  j )
OA.OB  (cos  i  sin  j ).(cos  i  sin  j )

OA OB cos(   )  cos  cos   sin  sin 
(1)(1) cos(   )  cos  cos   sin  sin  OA  OB  1

cos(   )  cos  cos   sin  sin 
Theorem 1: Prove that the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.

Proof :
Take any point P( x, y ) on semi-circle of radius r.
also, A(a, 0) and B(a, 0) are ends of diameter P( x, y)
now, we have
AP.BP  ( x  (a ))i  ( y  0) j  . ( x  a )i  ( y  0) j  r
AP.BP  ( x  a )i  y j  . ( x  a )i  y j  B(a,0) a O(0,0) a A(a,0)
AP.BP  x 2  a 2  y 2
AP.BP  x 2  y 2  a 2  (1)
we know that equation of circle
x2  y 2  r 2 r  a  a
x2  y 2  a2
(1) becomes
AP.BP  a 2  a 2  0
Hence, angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
Theorem 2: Prove that perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
Proof:
Suppose a triangle ABC,
Position vector of A  OA  a ; position vector of B  OB  b ; position vector of C  OC  c
Let D, E and F are the mid-points of the sides AB , BC and AC respectively.
ab bc
Position vector of D  OD  ; position vector of E  OE 
2 2
ac
Position vector of F  OF 
2
we can see from the Figure:

OD  AB and OE  BC Be the right bisectors, which meet at " O " now,

C (c)
AB  OB  OA  b  a
BC  OC  OB  c  b
F O E
CA  OA  OC  a  c
since,OD  AB, then OD. AB  0
A(a) D B(b)
by adding (1) and (2)

OD. AB  0 OE.BC  0 b2  a 2  c2  b2  0  0
 ab bc c2  a2  0
  .(b  a)  0   .(c  b)  0
 2   2  (c  a).(c  a)  0
b2  a 2 c2  b2
0 0 ca
2 2   .(c  a)  0
 2 
b 2  a 2  0  (1) c 2  b 2  0  (2)
OF . AC  0
Hence,OF is also right bisector of AC
EXERCISE 7.3
QUESTION 1: Find the cosine of the angle  between u and v.

(i) u  3i  j  k , v  2i  j  k (ii) u  i  3 j  4k , v  4i  j  3k
(iii) u  [3,5] , v  [6, 2] (iv) u  [2, 3,1] , v  [2,4,1]
4 19 7 1
Answers: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
66 26 85 6
QUESTION 2: Calculate the projection of a along b and projection of b along a when.

(i) a  i  k , b  j  k (ii) a  3i  j  k , b  2i  j  k
1 1 8 8
Answers: (i) , (ii) ,
2 2 6 11
QUESTION 3: Find the real number  so that the vectors u and v are perpendicular.
(i) u  2 i  j  k , v  i   j  4k (ii) u   i  2 j  k , v  i   j  3k
(iii) u  2i   j  5k , v  3i  j   k
4 3
Answers: (i)   (ii)   1, (iii)   1
3 2
QUESTION 4:
(i) Show that the vectors 2i  j  k , i  3 j  5 j and 3i  4 j  4k form the sides of a right
triangle.
(ii) Show that the vectors 2i  3 j  4k , i  3 j  k and 4i  6 j  zk form the sides of a
Triangle. Find value of z. Answer z  3
(iii) Show that the vectors 3i  2 j  k , i  3 j  5k and 2i  j  4k form a right angle.
QUESTION 5:
(i) Show that the set of points P(1, 3, 2) , Q(4, 1, 4) and R(6, 5, 5) form a right triangle.
(ii) Find the number z so that the triangle with vertices A(1, 1, 0) , B( 2, 2, 1) and C(0, 2, z)
is a right triangle with right angle at C.
Answers: (ii) z  2, 1

QUESTION 6:
y -axis
Theorem 1: Show that mod point of hypotenuse a right
triangle is equidistant from its vertices. B(0, b)
a b
M , 
 2 2
x-axis
O(0,0) A(a,0)
Theorem 2: Prove that perpendicular bisectors of the

C (c )
sides of a triangle are concurrent.
F O E
A(a) D B(b)
C (c )
Theorem 3: Prove that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
N M
O
A(a) L B(b)
Theorem 4: Prove that the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.

P( x, y)
B(a,0) a O(0,0) a A(a,0)
QUESTION 7: Prove that the cosine law in any triangle ABC.
(i) a 2  b 2 c 2 2bc cos A (ii) b 2  c 2  a 2 2ca cos B (iii) c 2  a 2 b 2 2ab cos C
QUESTION 8: Prove that the projection law in any triangle ABC.

(i) a  b cos C  c cos B (ii) b  c cos A  a cos C (iii) c  a cos B  b cos A
QUESTION 9: Prove that

(i) cos(   )  cos  cos   sin  sin  (ii)cos(   )  cos  cos   sin  sin 
Portion 3:
7.4 THE VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTOR
The vector product of two vectors is widely used in physics, particular mechanics and electricity.
It is only defined for vectors in the space.
Let u and v be the two non-zero vectors. The vector or cross product of u and v , written as
u  v , is define by u  v  u v sin  nˆ , 0  
Where  is angle between u and v and n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane u and v
with direction given by the right hand rule.
uv
v
u
n̂ n̂
 v
u v u
Figure (a) Figure (b)
Right hand rule:
(i) if the fingers of the right hand rule point along the vector u then curl towards the
vector v , then the thumb will give the direction of n̂ which is u  v it is show in the
figure (a).
(ii) in the figure (b), the right rule shows the direction of v  u.
Example 1: if a  i  j  k and b  2i  3 j  4k then, Find sine of the angle between a and b.

Solution :
a  i  j  k , b  2i  3 j  4k
i j k
a  b  1 1 1  (4  3)i  (4  2) j  (3  2) k
2 3 4
a  b  7i  2 j  5k
a  b  (7) 2  (2) 2  (5) 2  49  4  25  78

a  (1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  3

b  (2) 2  (3) 2  (4) 2  4  9  16  29
we know that
ab 78 26
sin    
a b 3 29 29
Example 2: if a  2i  6 j  3k and b  4i  3 j  k then, Find a unit vector perpendicular to the

plane contain a and b.
Solution :
a  2i  6 j  3k , b  4i  3 j  k
i j k
a  b  2 6 3
4 3 1
a  b  (6  3)i  (2  12) j  (6  24) k
a  b  9i  10 j  30k
a  b  (9) 2  (10) 2  (300) 2  81  100  90  1225  35

we know that
a  b 9i  10 j  30k 9 10 30 3 2 6
unit vector nˆ    i j k  i j k
ab 35 35 35 35 5 7 7
7.4.1 Derivation of Useful Results of Cross Products
By applying the definition of cross product to unit vectors i , j and k , then we have
(1) i  i  i i sin 0 nˆ (1) i  j  i  j sin 90 k

i  i  (1)(1)(0)nˆ i  j  (1)(1)(1)k
i i  0 i j k
(2) j  j  j j sin 0 nˆ (2) j  k  j k sin 90 i
j  j  (1)(1)(0)nˆ j  k  (1)(1)(1)i
j j 0 jk  i
(3) k  k  k k sin 0 nˆ (3) k  i  k k sin 90 j
k  k  (1)(1)(0)nˆ k  i  (1)(1)(1) j
k k  0 k i  j
Important note: vector or cross product of two vectors is not commutative.

u  v  u v sin  nˆ
u  v  v u sin(  )nˆ   v u sin  nˆ
u  v  v  u
Important note: The cross product of i , j and k are written in the cyclic pattern. The given
Figure is helpful in remembering this pattern.
7.4.2 Properties of Cross Product

i
Suppose u.v and w be the vectors and let c be an any real number, then
(i) u  v  0  u  0 or v  0 j k
(ii) u  v  v  u
(iii) u  (v  w)  u  v  u  w (distributive property)
(iv) u  u  0
(v) (cu )  v  c(u  v ) (c is scalar)
The proofs of the properties are left as an exercise for the students.
Example 1: Prove that a  (b  c)  b  (c  a )  c  (a  b)  0

Solution :
L.H .S  a  (b  c)  b  (c  a)  c  (a  b)
L.H .S  (a  b)  (a  c)  (b  c)  (b  a )  (c  a )  (c  b) by using distributive property
L.H .S  (a  b)  (a  c)  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c)  (b  c)
L.H .S  0 (b  a)  ( a  b) , ( c  a)  ( a  c ) , (c  b)  (b  c )
L.H .S  R.H .S
Example 2: If a  b  0 and a.b  0 , what conclusion can be draw about a or b ?

Solution :
a.b  0
a b cos   0
cos   0
  cos 1 (0)
  90
Hence a , b are perpendicular.
ab  0
a b sin   0
sin  0

  sin 1 (0)
  0 ,
Hence a , b are parallel.
At the same time parallel and perpendicular not possible,so one vector should be zero.
that is, a  0 or b  0
7.3.4 Analytical Expression of Cross Product u and v (Determinant Formula for u  v )
(Cross Product of Vector in Their Component Form)
Let u  u1i  u2 j  u3 k , v  v1i  v2 j  v3 k be the two non-zero vectors.
From distribution law we can write

u  v  (u1 i  u2 j  u3 k )  (v1 i  v2 j  v3 k )
 u1v1 (i  i)  u1v2 (i  j )  u1v3 (i  k )  u2v1 ( j  i )  u2v2 ( j  j )  u2v3 ( j  k )
 u3v1 ( k .i)  u3v2 ( k  j )  u3v3 ( k  k )
u  v  (u2 v3  u3v2 )i  (u1v3  u3v1 ) j  (u1v2  u2 v1 )k  (1)
and also,the expansion of 3  3 determinent.
i j k
u1 u2 u3  (u2 v3  u3v2 )i  (u1v3  u3v1 ) j  (u1v2  u2 v1 )k
v1 v2 v3
So, (1) becomes
i j k ii  j  j  k k  0
u  v  u1 u2 u3  (2) i  j  k ,  j  k  i, k  i  j
v1 v2 v3 j  i  k ,  k  j  i, i  k   j
(2) is known as determinant formula for u  v .
The expansion on R.H.S of (2) is not an actual determinant, since its entries are not all scalar. It
is simply a way of remembering the complicated expression on R.H.S of (1).
Example 1: if u  2i  j  k , v  4i  2 j  k then, find by the formula u  v.

Solution :
u  2i  j  k , v  4i  2 j  k
i j k
u  v  2 1 1  (1  2)i  (2  4) j  (4  4) k
4 2 1
u  v  i  6 j  8k
7.4.4 The Angle Between Two Vectors
The angles between two vectors u and v is determined from the definition of the cross product,
that is u  v  u v sin  nˆ where 0    
When vectors are parallel: When vectors are anti-parallel:
u  v  u v sin  nˆ where   0 u  v  u v sin  nˆ where   180

u  v  u v sin(0 )nˆ sin(0 )  0 u  v  u v sin(180 )nˆ sin(180 )  0
uv  0 uv  0
When vectors are perpendicular: When vectors are anti-perpendicular:
u  v  u v sin  nˆ where   90 u  v  u v sin  nˆ where   270

u  v  u v sin(90 )nˆ sin(90 )  1 u  v  u v sin(270 )nˆ sin(270 )  1
uv 1 u  v  1
 
Example 1: Check the vectors u  i  2 j  k ; v  i  j  k ; w   i  j  k are either
2 2
parallel or perpendicular.
Solution :
 
u  i  2 j  k ; v  i  j  k ; w   i  j  k
2 2
u.v  (i  2 j  k ).(  i  j  k )  1  2  1  0
u and v are perpendicular.
      4  
u.w  (i  2 j  k ).(  i  j  k)    2   0
2 2 2 2 2
u and w are not perpendicular.
      2  
v.w  (i  j  k ).(  i  j  k)     0
2 2 2 2 2
v and w are perpendicular.
   
w i  j  k  (i  2 j  k )  
u
2 2 2 2
w and u are parallel but opposit in direction.
Example 2: Compute the cross product a  b and b  a of the vectors a  3i  2 j  k and

b  i  j . Check your answers by showing that each a and b is perpendicular to
a  b and b  a.
Solution :
a  3i  2 j  k , b  i  j  0k

i j k i j k
a  b  3 2 1  (0  1)i  (0  1) j  (3  2)k b a  1 1 0  (1  0)i  (1  0) j  (2  3)k
1 1 0 3 2 1
a  b  i  j  5k b  a  i  j  5k
a.a  b  (3i  2 j  k ).(i  j  5k ) a.b  a  (3i  2 j  k ).(i  j  5k )
a.a  b  3  2  5  0 a.b  a  3  2  5  0
hence, a  a  b hence, a  b  a
b.a  b  (i  j  0k ).(i  j  5k ) b.b  a  (i  j  0k ).(i  j  5k )
b.a  b  1  1  0  0 b.b  a  1  1  0  0
hence, b  a  b hence, a  b  a
Important note: zero vector is both parallel and perpendicular to every vector. This apparent
contradiction will cause no trouble, since the angle between two vectors is never applied when
one of them is zero vector.
7.4.5 Area of Parallelogram
If u and v are two vectors and u and v is the angle between u and v ,then u and v represent
the length of the adjacent sides of parallelogram.
(See the Figure 7.6.5)

D C
We know that u
u h  u sin 
Area of parallelogram  (base)  (height)

 (base)  (h) A
v
B
u cos  v
 u v sin 
Figure 7.6.5
Area of parallelogram  u  v (in vector form).
Where u and v are vector along two adjacent sides of the triangle.
Area of parallelogram  AB  AD (in points form). Where AB  u , AD  v
Example 1: Find the area of a parallelogram, determined by the points A(1,1,1) ,B( 1,2,2),
, C (3, 4, 5) and D( 3,5, 4).
Solution :
A(1,1,1) ; B( 1, 2, 2) ; C ( 3, 4, 5) ; D( 3,5, 4)
AB  (1  1)i  (2  1) j  (2  1) k  0i  j  k
AD  (3  1)i  (5  1) j  (4  1) k  2i  4 j  5k

i j k
AB  AD  0 1 1  (5  4)i  (0  2) j  (0  2) k
2 4 5
AB  AD  9i  2 j  2k
AB  AD  (9) 2  (2) 2  (2) 2  81  4  4  89

we know that
Area of parallelogram ABCD  AB  AD square unit
Area of parallelogram ABCD  89 square unit
Example 2: Find the area of a parallelogram, determined by the vectors AB  3i  2 j  2k

and AD  2i  4 j  5k .
Solution :
AB  3i  2 j  2k , AD  2i  4 j  5k
i j k
AB  AD  3 2 2  (10  8)i  (15  4) j  (12  4)k
2 4 5
AB  AD  2i  11 j  8k
AB  AD  (2) 2  (11) 2  (8) 2
AB  AD  2  121  64  187
we know that
Area of parallelogram ABCD  AB  AD square unit
Area of parallelogram ABCD  187 square unit
7.4.6 Area of Triangle

R
From the (Figure 7.6.6) it is clear
We know that v
1
Area of triangle  (Area of parallelogram) P
2 u
Q
1
Area of triangle  u  v square unit (in vector form). Figure 7.6.6
2

Where u and v are vector along two adjacent sides of the triangle.
1
Area of triangle  PQ  PR square unit (in points form). Where PQ  u , PR  v
2
Example 1: Find the area of a triangle, determined by the points P(1, 1, 1),Q(2,0, 1)
and R(0, 2,1).

Solution :
P (1, 1, 1) ; Q(2, 0, 1) ; R(0, 2,1)
PQ  (2  1)i  (0  1) j  ( 1  1) k  i  j  0k
PR  (0  1)i  (2  1) j  (1  1) k  i  3 j  2k
i j k
PQ  PR  1 1 0  (2  0)i  (2  0) j  (3  1) k
1 3 2
PQ  PR  2i  2 j  4k
PQ  PR  (2) 2  (2) 2  (6) 2
PQ  PR  4  4  16  24  2 6
we know that
1
Area of triangle ABC= PQ  PR square unit
2
1
Area of triangle ABC= ( 2 6)  6 square unit
2
Proof that: sin( x  y )  sin x cos y  cos x sin y.
proof :
suppose, OA and OB be the two unit vector in the xy - plane making angle  and   with the
positive x - axis respectively,as shown in the Figuer.
so that AOB     y -axis
Here, OA  cos  i  sin  j A
and, OB  cos  i  sin  j

 
take cross product of OB and OA that is, B

OB  OA  (cos  i  sin  j )  (cos  i  sin  j ) 
x-axis
O
i j k
OB OA sin(   )  cos  sin  0
cos  sin  0
(1)(1)sin(   )k  (0  0)i  (0  0) j  (sin  cos   sin  cos  )k OA  OB  1

sin(   ) k  (sin  cos   cos  sin  ) k
sin(   )  (sin  cos   cos  sin  )
Proof that: Sine Law in any triangle ABC.

C
 C
a b c
 
sin A sin B sin C
A a
Proof:
 B
abc  0
A
b  c  a c B
A
taking cross product with c
(b  c )  c   ( a  c ) by using distributive property
(b  c)  (c  c)  c  a (c  c)  0 , ( a  c)  (c  a)
b c sin(  A)  0  c a sin(  B)
bc sin A  ca sin B
b sin A  a sin B
b a
  (1)
sin B sin A
Now, b  c  a
taking cross product with b
( b  c )  b   ( a  b)
(b  b)  (c  b)  b  a by using distributive property
0  c b sin(  A)  b a sin(  C ) (b  b)  0 , ( a  b)  (b  c)
cb sin A  ba sin C
c sin A  a sin C
a c
  (2)
sin A sin C
from (1) and (2),we have
a b c
 
sin A sin B sin C

EXERCISE 7.4
QUESTION 1: if u  2i  j  k , v  4i  2 j  k then find by the formula.

(i) u  u (ii) u  v (iii) v  u
Answers: (i) zero or null vector (ii)  i  6 j  8k (iii) i  6 j  8k
QUESTION 2: Compute the cross product a  b and b  a. check your answers by showing that
each a and b is perpendicular to a  b and b  a.
(i) a  2i  j  k , bi jk (ii) a  i  j , bi j

(iii) a  3i  2 j  k , b  i  j (iv) a  4i  j  2k , b  2i  j  k
Answers:
(i)  3 j  3k ; 3 j  3k (ii)  2k ; 2k (iii)  i  j  5k ; i  j  5k (iv) 3i  6k ;  3i  6k
QUESTION 3: Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane contain a and b.
(i) a  2i  6 j  3k , b  4i  3 j  k (ii) a  i  j  k , b  2i  3 j  4k
(iii) a  2i  2 j  4k , b  i  j  2k (iv) a  i  j , bi j
Answers:
3 2 6 7 2 5
(i) i  j  k (ii) i j k (iii)zero or null vector (iv)0i  0 j  k
7 7 7 78 78 78
QUESTION 4: Find sine of the angle between a and b.
(i) a  2i  6 j  3k , b  4i  3 j  k (ii) a  i  j  k , b  2i  3 j  4k
(iii) a  2i  2 j  4k , b  i  j  2k (iv) a  i  j , bi j
5 26
Answers: (i) (ii) (iii) 0 (iv) 1
26 29
QUESTION 5: Check the vectors are either parallel or perpendicular.
(i) u  5i  j  k ; v  j  5k ; w  15i  3 j  3k
 
(ii) u  i  2 j  k ; v  i  j  k ; w   i  j  k
2 2
(iii) The position vectors of the points A , B , C and D are 2i  j  k , 3i  j , 2i  4 j  2k

and  i  2 j  k respectively. Show that AB is parallel to CD.
Answers: (i) w and u are parallel (ii) (u.v  0) (v.w  0) w and u are parallel
QUESTION 6: Find the area of a triangle, determined by the points P, Q and R.
(i) P(0,0,0) ; Q(2,3,2) ; R( 1,1,4). (ii) P(1, 1, 1) ; Q(2,0, 1) ; R(0,2,1).
15
Answers: (i) square unit (ii) 6 square unit
2
QUESTION 7: Find the area of a parallelogram, determined by the points A, B, C and D.
(i) A(0,0,0) ; B(1,2,3) ; C(2, 1,1) ; D(3,1,4).

(ii) A(1,2, 1) ; B(4,2, 3) ; C (6, 5,2) ; D(9, 5,0).
(iii) A( 1,1,1) ; B( 1,2,2) ; C( 3,4, 5) ; D( 3,5, 4).
Answers: (i)5 3 (ii) 998 (iii) 89

QUESTION 8: proof that.
(i)sin( x  y )  sin x cos y  cos x sin y (ii)sin( x  y )  sin x cos y  cos x sin y
a b c
QUESTION 9: In any triangle ABC, prove that  
sin A sin B sin C
QUESTION 10:
(i) Prove that a  (b  c)  b  (c  a )  c  (a  b)  0

(ii) If a  b  c  0 , then prove that a  b  b  c  c  a
(iii) If a  b  0 and a.b  0 , what conclusion can be draw about a or b ?
(iv) If v is a vector for which v.i  0 , v. j  0 , v.k  0 find v.
Answer:
(iii) Either a  0 or b  0 but opposite in direction. (iv) zero vector or null vector
Portion 4:
7.5 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT OF VECTORS
The are two types of scalar triple product
(i) Scalar Triple Product: u.(v  w)  (u  v ).w
(ii) Vector Triple Product: (u  v )  w
In this section we shall study the scalar triple product only.
Let u  u1i  u2 j  u3 k , v  v1i  v2 j  v3 k and w  w1i  w2 j  w3 k be the three non-zero

vectors.

The scalar triple product of the vectors u, v and w is define by
u.(v  w)  v.( w  u)  w.(u  v )
The scalar triple product u.(v  w) is written as
u.(v  w)  (u  v ).w  [u v w]  [u v w]
7.5.1 Analytical Expression of u.(v  w)
Let u  u1i  u2 j  u3 k , v  v1i  v2 j  v3 k and w  w1i  w2 j  w3 k be the three non-zero

vectors. Now,
i j k
v  w  v1 v2 v3  (v2 w3  v3w2 )i  (v1w3  v3w1 ) j  (v1w2  v2 w1 )k
w1 w2 w3
v  w  (v2 w3  v3w2 )i  (v1w3  v3w1 ) j  (v1w2  v2 w1 )k
u.(v  w)  [u1 i  u2 j  u3 k ].[(v2 w3  v3w2 )i  (v1w3  v3w1 ) j  (v1w2  v2 w1 )k ]
u.(v  w)  u1 (v2 w3  v3w2 )  u2 (v1w3  v3w1 )  u3 (v1w2  v2 w1 )
u1 u2 u3 u1 u2 u3
u.(v  w)  v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3  u1 (v2 w3  v3w2 )  u2 (v1w3  v3w1 )  u3 (v1w2  v2 w1 )
w1 w2 w3 w1 w2 w3
Which called the determinant formula for scalar triple product of u, v and w in component form.
Now,
u1 u2 u3
u.(v  w)  v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3
v1 v2 v3
u.(v  w)   u1 u2 u3 interchanging R 1 and R 2
w1 w2 w3
v1 v2 v3
u.(v  w)  ( )( ) w1 w2 w3 interchanging R 2 and R 3
u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3
u.(v  w)  v.( w  u ) v.( w  u)  w1 w2 w3
u1 u2 u3
Important note: (i) The value of scalar triple product depends upon the cyclic order of the
vectors, but is independent of the position of the dot or cross. So the dot and cross, may be
interchanged without altering the value that is,
(ii) u.(v  w)  (u  v ).w  [u v w]

v.( w  u )  (v  w).u  [v w u ]
w.(u  v )  ( w  u ).v  [ w u v ]
(iii) The value of the product changes if the order is noncyclic.
(iv) u .v .w and u  (v .w) Are meaningless.
Example 1: Find the value of 3 j.k  i.

Solution :
0 3 0
3 j.k  i  0 0 1  0(0  0)  3(0  1)  0  3
1 0 0
7.5.2 Volume of the Parallelepiped
The scalar triple product (u  v ).w represent the volume of the parallelepiped having u, v and w
as its conterminous edges.
uv
As it is seen from the formula that
(u  v).w  u  v w cos
M
h  w cos  
v A  uv
O u
Figure 7.5.2
Here,
(i) u  v  Area of the parallelogram with two adjacent sides u and v .
(ii) w cos   Height of the parallelepiped.
volume of parallelepiped  (Area of the parallelogram with u and v as adjacent sides)(height)

volume of parallelepiped   u  v  w cos  
volume of parallelepiped  (u  v).w (u  v).w  u  v w cos 

Similarly,
By taking the base plane formed by v and w ,we have
volume of parallelepiped  ( v  w).u
And By taking the base plane formed by v and w ,we have
volume of parallelepiped  ( w  u).v
Hence, (u  v ).w  (v  w).u  ( w  u ).v
Example 1: Find the volume of the parallelepiped for which the vectors are three edges.
u  i  2 j  3k ; v  2i  j  k ; w  j  k.
Solution :
u  i  2 j  3k ; v  2i  j  k ; w jk
we know that
u1 u2 u3
volume of parallelepiped  u.(v  w)  v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3
1 2 3
volume of parallelepiped  2 1 1
0 1 1
volume of parallelepiped  1(1  1)  2(2  0)  3(2  0)
volume of parallelepiped  0  4  6  10 cubic unit
Example 2: Prove that the vectors i  2 j  3k ,  2i  3 j  4k and i  3 j  5k are coplaner.

Solution :
Suppose that
u  i  2 j  3k , v  2i  3 j  4k and w  i  3 j  5k
we know that
if volume of parallelepiped  u.(v  w)  0 then vectors are coplanar.
1 2 3
volume of parallelepiped  2 3 4
1 3 5
volume of parallelepiped  1(15  12)  2(10  4)  3(6  3)
volume of parallelepiped  3  12  9  0
Hence, given vectors are coplanar.
Example 3: Find the constant "  " such that the vectors i  2 j  k , i  j  2k and
 i  2 j  k are coplanar.
Solution :
Suppose that
u  i  2 j  k , v  i  j  2k and w  i  2 j  k
since, vectors are coplanar then volume of parallelepiped  u.(v  w)  0
1 2 1
1 1 2 0
 2 1
1(1  4)  2 (1  2 )  1( 2   )  0
3  2  4 2  2    0
4 2    5  0
(  1)(4  5)  0
(  1)  0 ; (4  5)  0
5
  1 ; 
4
Example 4: Prove that the points whose position vectors are A(6i  3 j  2k ) , B(3i  2 j  4k )
,C(5i  7 j  3k ) and D(13i  17 j  k ) coplaner.
Solution :
Given that
position vector of A  OA  (6i  3 j  2k ) ; position vector of B  OB  (3i  2 j  4k )
position vector of C  OC  (5i  7 j  3k ) ; position vector of D  OD  (13i  17 j  k )
AB  OB  OA  (3i  2 j  4k )  (6i  3 j  2k )  9i  5 j  2k
AC  OC  OA  (5i  7 j  3k )  (6i  3 j  2k )  11i  4 j  k
AD  OD  OA  (13i  17 j  k )  (6i  3 j  2k )  7i  14 j  3k
we know that
if volume of parallelepiped  u.(v  w)   AB. AC  AD   0 then vectors are coplanar.
9 5 2
volume of parallelepiped  11 4 1  9( 12  14)  5( 33  7)  2(154  28) 
7 14 3
volume of parallelepiped  364  364  0
Hence, given vectors are coplanar.

7.5.3 Volume of the Tetrahedron

1
volume of tetrahedron ABCD  ( ABC )(height of D above the plane ABC)
3
1 1
volume of tetrahedron ABCD  . u  v ( h)
3 2
1
volume of tetrahedron ABCD  (Area of the parallelogram with AB and AC as adjacent sides)(h)
6
1 D
volume of tetrahedron ABCD  (Volume of the parallelogram with u, v, w edges
6
1
volume of tetrahedron ABCD  ( u  v ).w v
6 A C
1
volume of tetrahedron ABCD  [ u v w]
6 u
B
Properties of scalar triple product Figure 7.5.3
(i) If u ,v and w are coplaner, then the volume of the parallelepiped so formed is zero that is,
The vectors u ,v ,w are coplaner  (u  v ).w  0
(ii) if any two vectors of scalar triple product are equal, then its value is zero that is,
[u u w]  [u v v ]  0
Example 1: Find the volume of the tetrahedron with the vertices (0,1,2);(3,2,1);(1,2,1);(5,5,6).
Solution :
Suppose that
A(0,1, 2) ; B(3, 2,1) ; C(1, 2,1) ; D(5,5,6)
AB  (3  0)i  (2  1) j  (1  2)k  3i  j  k
AC  (1  0)i  (2  1) j  (1  2)k  i  j  k
AD  (5  0)i  (5  1) j  (6  2)k  5i  4 j  4k
we know that
1 1
volume of tetrahedron   AB. AC  AD   u.v  w
6   6
3 1 1
1 1
volume of tetrahedron  1 1 1  3(4  4)  1(4  5)  1(4  5) 
6 6
5 4 4
1 8
volume of tetrahedron   24  9  1  cubic units
6 3
Example 2: Find the volume of the tetrahedron with the vertices (0,1,2);(3,2,1);(1,2,1);(4,2,3).
Solution :
Suppose that
A(0,1, 2) ; B(3, 2,1) ; C(1, 2,1) ; D(4,2,3)
AB  (3  0)i  (2  1) j  (1  2)k  3i  j  k
AC  (1  0)i  (2  1) j  (1  2)k  i  j  k
AD  (4  0)i  (2  1) j  (3  2)k  4i  j  k
we know that
1 1
volume of tetrahedron   AB. AC  AD   u.v  w
6   6
3 1 1
1 1
volume of tetrahedron  1 1 1  3(1  1)  1(1  4)  1(1  4) 
6 6
4 1 1
1
volume of tetrahedron   0  3  3
6
volume of tetrahedron  one cubic units

EXERCISE 7.5
QUESTION 1: Find the volume of the parallelepiped for which the vectors are three edges.
(i) u  3i  2k ; v i2 jk ; w   j  4k

(ii) u  i  4 j  k ; v  i  j  2k ; w  2i  3 j  k
(iii) u  i  2 j  3k ; v  2i  j  k ; w jk
(iv) u  i  2 j  k ; v  i  2 j  3k ; w  i  7 j  4k
Answers:
(i)25 cubic unit (ii)14 cubic unit (iii)10 cubic unit (iv)48 cubic unit
QUESTION 2:
(i) Prove that the vectors i  2 j  3k ,  2i  3 j  4k and i  3 j  5k are coplaner.

(ii) Prove that the four points A(3,5, 4) , B( 1,1,1) , C( 1,2,2) and D( 3,4, 5) are
coplaner.
(iii) Prove that the points whose position vectors are A(6i  3 j  2k ) , B(3i  2 j  4k )
,C(5i  7 j  3k ) and D(13i  17 j  k ) coplaner.
QUESTION 5: Find the constant "  " such that the vectors are coplanar.
(i) i jk , i  2 j  3k and 3i   j  5k

(ii) i  2 j  k , i  j  2k and i  2 j  k
(iii)  i  j , i  j  3k and 2i  j  2k
5 5 8
Answers: (i) α = (ii)   1, (iii) α =
2 4 5
QUESTION 6: Find the volume of the tetrahedron with the vertices.
(i) (0,1,2) ; (3,2,1) ; (1,2,1) ; (5,5,6)

(ii) (2,1,8) ; (3,2,9) ; (2,1,4) ; (3,3,10)
(iii) (2,1,8) ; (3, 2,9) ; (2,1,4) ; (3,3,0)
8 2 2
Answers: (i) cubic units (ii) cubic units (iii) cubic units
3 3 3
QUESTION 7: Find the value of.
(i) 2i  2 j.k (ii) 3 j.k  i (iii) [k i j] (iv) [i i k ]
Answers: (i)4 (ii)3 (iii)1 (iv)0

7.6 APPLICATIN OF VECTORS IN PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING
7.6.1 Work Done
If a constant force F , applied to a body, acts at an angle to the direction of motion, then the
work done by F is defined to be the product of the component of F in the direction of the
displacement and the distance that the body moves.
In the figure, a constant force F acting on a body displaces it from A to B.
work done = (component of F along AB )(displacement)

work done = ( F cos  ) ( AB)
work done = F . AB F
F sin 
work done = F .d AB  d 
F is measured in Newton and d in meters. F cos 
A d B
Figure 7.6.1
Example 1: Find the work done, when a force of magnitude 6 units acting parallel to 2i  2 j  k
displaces, the point of application from (1,2,3) to (5,3,7).
Solution :
displacement  d  AB  (5  1)i  (3  2) j  (7  3) k  4i  j  4k
given vector  v  2i  2 j  k
Suppose required force = F and F  6
Since F parallel to v
F  F vˆ
v  2i  2 j  k 
F F  6  =4i  4 j  2k v 3
v  3 
we know that
work  force. displacement
W  F .d
W  (4i  4 j  2k ).(4i  j  4k )
W  16  4  8
W  20 Nm

Example 2: A particle is displaced from A(5, 5, 7) to B(6,2, 2). Under the action of constant
forces defined by 10i  6 j  11k , 4i  5 j  9k and  2i  j  9k . Show that the total work done
by the forces is 67 units.
Solution :
Total force  F  F 1  F 2  F 3  (10i  6 j  11k )  (4i  5 j  9k )  (2i  j  9k )  12i  0 j  11k
displacement  d  AB  (6  5)i  (2  5) j  ( 2  7) k  i  7 j  5k
we know that
work  force. displacement
W  F .d
W  (12i  0 j  11k ).(i  7 j  5k )
W  12  0  55
W  67 Nm
7.6.2 Moment of Force

rF
Let a force F ( PQ) acts at a point P as shown in the figure, then
O
Moment of a force about O = (force F )(perpendicular ON .nˆ ) r
Moment of a force about O  ( PQ)( ON .nˆ )
 Q
Moment of a force about O  ( PQ)( ON ) sin  .nˆ
N P  F
Moment of a force about O  PQ  ON
Moment of a force about O  r  F Figure 7.6.2
Example 1: Given a force F  2i  j  3k at the point A(1, 2,1) .Find the moment of the force
about the point B(2,0, 2).
Solution :
Force  F  2i  j  3k
r  BA  (1  2)i  (2  0) j  (1  2)k  i  2 j  3k
we know that
Moment of a force about B  r  F
Moment of a force about B  ( i  2 j  3k )  (2i  j  3k )
i j k
Moment of a force about B  1 2 3  (6  3)i  (3  6) j  (1  4) k
2 1 3
Moment of a force about B  3i  3 j  3k
Example 2: Find the moment about A(1,1,1) of each of the concurrent forces i  2 j , 3i  2 j  k
and 5 j  2k , where P(2,0,1) is their point of concurrency.
Solution :
Force  F  F 1  F 2  F 3  (i  2 j  0k )  (3i  2 j  k )  (0i  5 j  2k )  4i  5 j  k
r  AP  (2  1)i  (0  1) j  (1  1) k  i  j  0k
we know that
Moment of a force about B  r  F
Moment of a force about B  (i  j  0k )  (4i  5 j  k )
i j k
Moment of a force about B  1 1 0  (1  0)i  (1  0) j  (5  4)k
4 5 1
Moment of a force about B  i  j  9k
Example 3: A force F  3i  2 j  4k is applied at the point (1,1,1) . Find the moment of the
force about the point (2,  1, 3).
Solution :
Force  F  3i  2 j  4k
Suppose A(2, 1,3), B(1,1,1)
r  AB  (1  2)i  (1  1) j  (1  3) k  i +0 j  2k
we know that
Moment of a force about A= r  F
Moment of a force about A= (  i +0 j  2k )  (3i  2 j  4k )
i j k
Moment of a force about A= 1 0 2  (0  4)i  (4  6) j  ( 2  0) k
3 2 4
Moment of a force about A  4i  10 j  2k

EXERCISE 7.6
QUESTION 1:
(i) Find the work done, if the point at which the constant force F  4i  3 j  5k is applied to
an object, moves from P1 (3,1, 2) to P2 (2, 4,6)....
(ii) Find the work done, when a particle is acted by the constant forces 4i  j  3k and
3i  j  k , is displaced from A(1,2,3) to B(5,4,1).
(iii) Find the work done, when a force of magnitude 6 units acting parallel to 2i  2 j  k
displaces, the point of application from (1,2,3) to (5,3,7).
(iv) Find the work done, by the constant force F  2i  4 j if its points application to a body,
moves from P1 (1,1) to P2 (4, 6)....
(v) The constant forces 2i  5 j  6k and  i  2 j  k , act on a body, which is displaced from
position A(4, 3, 2) to B(6,1, 3).
(vi) A particle is displaced from A(5, 5, 7) to B(6,2, 2). Under the action of constant forces
defined by 10i  6 j  11k , 4i  5 j  9k and  2i  j  9k . Show that the total work done by the
forces is 67 units.
Answers:
(i) 45Nm (ii) 36Nm (iii) 20Nm (iv)26Nm (v)9Nm (vi) 67Nm
QUESTION 2:
(i) A force F  3i  2 j  4k is applied at the point (1,  1,2) . Find the moment of the force
about the point (2,  1, 3).
(ii) A force F  4i  3k passes the point A(2, 2,5) .Find the moment of the force about the
point B(1, 3,1).
(iii) Given a force F  2i  j  3k at the point A(1, 2,1) .Find the moment of the force about
the point B(2,0, 2).
(iv) Find the moment about A(1,1,1) of each of the concurrent forces i  2 j , 3i  2 j  k
and 5 j  2k , where P(2,0,1) is their point of concurrency.
(v) A force F  7i  4 j  3k is applied at the point P(1, 2,3) .Find the moment of the force
about the point Q(2,1,1).
(vi) Find the moment of the force about the point M (2,4, 6). of the force represented by
AB , where coordinates of points A and B are (1, 2, 3) and (3, 4, 2).
Answers:
(i) 2i  7 j  2k (ii)  3i  19 j  4k (iii) 3i  3 j  3k (iv)  i  j  9k (v) i  11 j  17k

(vi) 8i  9 j  14k

Bahauddin
zakariya
university, Multan
(Pakistan)

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Chapter 7: Scalar and The Vectors Geometry 1

Scalar and the vector geometry

portion 1 portion 2 portion 3 portion 4

exercise 7.1 exercise 7.3 exercise 7.4 exercise 7.6

exercise 7.2 exercise 7.5

Displacement, velocity, acceleration, weight, force, momentum and electric fields.

Mass, density, temperature, length, volume, speed and work.

7.1.1 geometric interpretation of vector

The magnitude or length or norm of a vector AB or v , is its absolute value.

It is denoted by AB or v and simply AB or v.

Properties of magnitude of a vector

 v  0 , and v =0 if and only if v  0

Zero or Null vector

BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC Mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

7.1.2 Multiplication of vector by a scalar

(a) Triangle Law of addition Figure 7.1.2(b)

(b) Parallelogram Law of Addition A v

If two vectors u and v are represented by the two adjacent u

then diagonal AD give the sum or resultant of AB and AC Figure 7.1.3(a)

Subtraction of two vectors

The difference of two vectors AB and AC is define by

7.1.4 Position vector

In the Figure 7.1.4(b) by the triangle law of addition, Figure 7.1.4(a)

BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC Mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

7.1.5 Vector in a plane

Let R be the set of real numbers. The Cartesian plane is defining

point P( x, y ) which is uniquely determined by its coordinate x b

and y . Given a vector u in the plane, there exist a unique point a

(b) Scalar Multiplication:

Example 2: if u  2i  7 j and v  (i  6 j) then Find 2u  3v.

For the vector u  [u1 , u2 ] , u1 , u2 called the components of u .

(a) Negative of a vector

.Magnitude of OP  u  u12  u22

7.1.6 Properties of Magnitude of a Vector

BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC Mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

(i) v  0 , and v =0 if and only if v  0

v  v12  v22  0 for all v1 and v2

Now v  v12  v22  0 if and only if v1  0 and v2  0.

In this case, we have v  [0,0]  0

We introduce two special vectors

Magnitude of i  (1) 2  (0) 2  1

Magnitude of j  (0)2  (1)2  1

Definition of addition and scalar multiplication, the vectors can be written as

Can be uniquely represented by u1 i  u2 j.

In the term of unit vectors i and j , the sum u  v of two vectors

If u  [u1 , u2 ] and v  [v1 , v2 ] , we have

7.1.8 Distance between Two Points in the Plane

If we have two points P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) in the plane. Where,

OP1 is position vector of the point P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and y -axis

BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC Mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

The distance between two points P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 )  P1P2

This is called distance formula between two points P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) in R 2 .

7.1.9 A Unit Vector in the Direction of another given Vector

A vector u is called unit vector, if u  1

It points in the same direction as v , because it is a positive scalar multiple of v .

7.1.9 The Ratio Formula

BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC Mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

If P is the mid pion of AB , then p : q  1:1 or p  q

2(4i  j )  5(3i  5 j ) 8i  2 j  15i  25 j

Hence, C is the mid-point of AB.

Since AC  AB  AD , the vector from A to the mid-point of the diagonal AC is

Since DB  AB  AD , the vector from A to the mid-point of the

BY ABDUL WAQAS (MSC Mathematics) CONTACT NO: 03030787037

Thus the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.