PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

FOR STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A

BUILDING
Contents
1 Task 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Problem statement ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statutory requirements to ensure safety in structural designs .......................................... 2
1.3 Valid factors of safety applicable to the structure according to euro codes ..................... 3
1.4 Bending moment and shear force diagrams for beam B5 ................................................ 3
1.5 The moment capacity of the beam section ....................................................................... 5
1.6 Deflection of the beam with respect to point load and the area load ............................... 6
1.7 The way deflection affects structural stability ................................................................. 6
1.8 Different support methods and their effect on deflection in fixed structures................... 7
1.9 Concept of slenderness and effective length. ................................................................... 7
1.10 Determine the axial load carrying capacity of steel columns and reinforced concrete
columns for following scenarios of the above building. ............................................................. 9
1.10.1 Axial load carrying capacity of steel column C4 ...................................................... 9
1.10.2 Load carrying capacity of concrete column C1 ...................................................... 10
1.11 Analyze the load carrying capacity, size, weight and corrosion resistance properties
of different materials used for beams and columns in fixed structures .................................... 11
1.12 Assess the most effective support method for the above given scenario, in terms of
ease and speed of construction, economics, safety and environmental factors. ....................... 13
1.13 Design of chosen beams and columns of the structure. .............................................. 13
1.13.1 Design of R/F beam -B2 ......................................................................................... 13
1.13.2 Design of C2 reinforced concrete column .............................................................. 15
1.14 Evaluate the use of an alternative material in achieving a design solution, discussing
the benefits and challenges associated. ..................................................................................... 16
1.15 Assess the use of Building Information Modelling in the production of accurate
structural design information and the collaborative environment of structural design. ........... 17

Table 1 Partial factors of safety complying EC2 ............................................................................ 3

Table 2 Maximum BM and SF values ............................................................................................ 5
Table 3 Maximum bending moment and shear force for point load at mid span ........................... 5
Table 4 Moment resistance of Steel beam ...................................................................................... 5
Table 5 Maximum deflection for different loading cases ............................................................... 6
Table 6 variation of deflections for various support conditons ...................................................... 7
Table 7 compression capacity of C4 steel column.......................................................................... 9
Table 8 Axial loading capacity of concrete column C1 ................................................................ 10
Table 9 Comparison of load carrying capacity of concrete and steel sections ............................. 11
Table 10 Flexural capacity of a typical concrete beam................................................................. 11
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Table 11 Flexural Reinforcement design for Concrete members ................................................. 13

Figure 1-1 Plan view ....................................................................................................................... 1

Figure 1-2 Elevation ....................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 1-3 Area separation of two-way slab ................................................................................... 3
Figure 1-4 Dead load distribution ................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1-5 Live load distribution .................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1-6 Bending moment diagram at ULS (simply support condition) ..................................... 4
Figure 1-7 Shear force diagram at ULS .......................................................................................... 5
Figure 1-8 simply supported beam ................................................................................................. 7
Figure 1-9 Effective lengths for various end conditions ................................................................. 8
Figure 1-10 Bending moment diagram for building frame ........................................................... 10
Figure 1-11 Concrete column section ........................................................................................... 10
Figure 1-12 bending Moment diagram for B2 beam .................................................................... 14

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1 Task 1
1.1 Problem statement
Suppose you are the structural design engineer assigned for the proposed shopping complex
project located at Colombo suburb. The proposed shopping complex is a two-storey building.
Depending on a requirement from the client party, a part of the structure is to be built using
reinforced concrete and the other part is to be built using structural steel. The plan view and the
front elevation view of the building are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively.

Figure 1-1 Plan view

Figure 1-2 Elevation

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1.2 Statutory requirements to ensure safety in structural designs
The codes of practices introduce various types of partial factors of safety to account for material
strength variations and possible variations of actions, depending on the type of the construction
and the behavior of the actions. As an example, euro codes provides factors of safety against the
following load conditions.

1. Transient design situation- design situation that the time period is much smaller
compared to the design working life of the structure (short term).
2. Persistent design situation- design situation that the period is almost the design working
life of the structure (long term).
3. Accidental design situation- design situation involves exceptional situations; or exposure
to fire, explosions, impacts or local failure.
4. Seismic design situation- design situation involves exceptional conditions when subjected
to seismic events.

Nevertheless, there are still some factors which should control to ensure the safety of a structure.

1. Adequate supervision and quality control is provided in factories, in plants, and on site.
2. Construction is carried out by personnel having the appropriate skill and experience.
3. The construction materials and products are used as specified in this Eurocode or in the
4. relevant material or product specifications.
5. The structure will be adequately maintained.
6. The structure will be used in accordance with the design brief.
7. The requirements for execution and workmanship given in ENV 13670 are complied
with.

Therefore, design of any kind of a structure should be carried out after studying the magnitude of
actions that the structure is supposed to withstand during its intended life and once the
construction is progressing; proper quality control of works and the materials should be
monitored. Finally, proper maintenance of the structure is very much important to identify any
possible event of failure of the functioning of the structure. Furthermore, any structure has to be
designed to have adequate structural resistance, serviceability and durability.

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1.3 Valid factors of safety applicable to the structure according to euro codes
Table 1 Partial factors of safety complying EC2

Reference Persistent and transient design situations

BS EN 1990: 2002 Permanent action Leading Accompanying variable
Appendix A, table variable action actions
A1.2(A) Unfavorable Favorable Main (if any) others
Eq. 6.10 𝛾𝑗,𝑠𝑢𝑝 𝛾𝑗,𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝛾𝑄,1 - 𝛾𝑄,𝑖 𝜓0,𝑖
Eq. 6.10(a) 𝛾𝑗,𝑠𝑢𝑝 𝛾𝑗,𝑖𝑛𝑓 - 𝛾𝑄,1 𝜓0,1 𝛾𝑄,𝑖 𝜓0,𝑖
Eq. 6.10(b) 𝜉𝛾𝑗,𝑠𝑢𝑝 𝛾𝑗,𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝛾𝑄,1 - 𝛾𝑄,𝑖 𝜓0,𝑖
𝛾𝑗,𝑠𝑢𝑝 – 1.35
𝛾𝑗,𝑖𝑛𝑓 - 1.5

𝜉 – 0.85

𝛾𝑄,1 & 𝛾𝑄,𝑖 -1.5 (for both favorable and unfavorable)

𝜓0,1 – combination factor (1.5 for imposed load, 1.2 for wind loads)

1.4 Bending moment and shear force diagrams for beam B5

Dead load – 5.5kN/m2
Live load – 4.0kN/m2
Design dead load = 5.5×1.35 = 7.425 kN/m2 (maximum trapezoidal intensity – 7.425*2.75 =
20.41 kN/m2
Design live load = 4.0×1.5 = 6.0 kN/m2 (maximum trapezoidal intensity – 6*2.75 = 11 kN/m2)

Figure 1-3 Area separation of two-way slab

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The analysis was done using SAP 2000 software for easiness. The beam section was UB
406×178×85 section using 275 N/mm2 structural steel. Support conditions are pinned and roller.

Figure 1-4 Dead load distribution

Figure 1-5 Live load distribution

The resultant bending moment and shear force diagram are as follows.

Figure 1-6 Bending moment diagram at ULS (simply support condition)

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 Figure 1-7 Shear force diagram at ULS

Table 2 Maximum BM and SF values

Maximum BM (at mid span) -119.23 kNm (sagging)

Maximum shear force (at supports) 59.79kN (clockwise positive)

If the beam was loaded with a point load of 5 kN, the maximum bending moment and shear force
is as follows.
Table 3 Maximum bending moment and shear force for point load at mid span

Maximum Bending moment Maximum Shear force

𝑃𝐿 𝑃
Simply supported beam 𝑀= 𝐹=
4 2
7.5 kNm 2.5 kN

1.5 The moment capacity of the beam section

Table 4 Moment resistance of Steel beam

Reference Calculations Output

Code of EN 1993-1-1
practice

Design data 406×178×85 UB in S275 steel

Assumptions
 No axial forces on any part of the beam
Section
classification Fy = 275 N/mm2

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 Table 5.2 ε = 0.92; 72ε = 66.24
part subjected to bending: c/t = 355.4/10.9 = 326

therefore, c/t ≤ 72ε hence the section is a class 1 section Section is class
𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦 1 (fully plastic
hence, 𝑀𝐶,𝑅𝑑 = 𝛾𝑚0
moment
𝛾𝑚0 = 1.00
capacity is
𝑊𝑝𝑙 = 1730 𝑐𝑚3
reached)

1730 × 275 × 10−3

Eq 6.13 𝑀𝐶,𝑅𝑑 = = 475.75 𝑘𝑁𝑚
1

𝑀𝐶,𝑅𝑑
𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 119.23 𝑘𝑁𝑚
= 475.75 𝑘𝑁𝑚

Hence the beam is safe

1.6 Deflection of the beam with respect to point load and the area load
The uniform load was taken as the summation of maximum dead load (factored) and live load
(factored).

Hence the uniform load = (20 + 11) = 31 kN/m

Table 5 Maximum deflection for different loading cases

Case Equation Deflection

Due to point load 𝑃𝐿3 5000 × 63
𝑠= 𝑠= = 0.33 𝑚𝑚
48𝐸𝐼 48 × 210,000 × 3.1874 × 10−2
Due to uniform 5𝑊𝐿4 5 × 31000 × 64
load 𝑠= 𝑠= = 7.8 𝑚𝑚
384𝐸𝐼 384 × 210,000 × 3.1874 × 10−2

1.7 The way deflection affects structural stability

When the deflection gets more than tolerable limits (as specified in the code; usually w.r.t the
length of beam), the functionality of the beam losses. Excessive deflection can cause the bottom

6
surface cracks of beams (and slabs) leading to expose of the reinforcement and expose to
extreme environmental conditions.

Other than that, excessive deflection of a beam causes the elements resting above it (slab/
column/ walls) to crack and sometimes failure. Therefore, control of the deflection is very much
important and it is considered as a limit state when designing.

1.8 Different support methods and their effect on deflection in fixed structures
Different support conditions were modeled using SAP 2000 software for the selected beam and
the results are as follows.

Figure 1-8 simply supported beam

Table 6 variation of deflections for various support conditons

Support condition A Support condition B Maximum deflection

Pinned Roller 4.51 mm
Fixed Roller 1.93 mm
Fixed Pinned 1.93 mm
Fixed Fixed 0.96 mm

It is obvious that when the support conditions are more or less has a fixity (moment transferring),
the maximum deflections reduce.

1.9 Concept of slenderness and effective length.

Slenderness is referred to the propensity of a column to buckle. It basically depends on the
effective length and the lest width of the section.

Slenderness ration is defined as;

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 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙
𝜆= =
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘

𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The effective length is the length usually between contra-flexure points (i.e. zero moment points)
which is susceptible to buckling action.

When the support conditions of a column vary from pinned to fixed, the effective length is
reduced.

Figure 1-9 Effective lengths for various end conditions

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1.10 Determine the axial load carrying capacity of steel columns and reinforced concrete
columns for following scenarios of the above building.
1.10.1 Axial load carrying capacity of steel column C4
Table 7 compression capacity of C4 steel column

Reference Calculations Output

Code of EN 1993-1-1
practice
UC section 254×254×167; fy = 275 N/mm2

Section classification
Table 5.2
ε = 0.92
(sheet 1 of
internal compression part
3)
c/t = 185.7/19.2 = 9.67 ≤ 33ε hence class 1
out-stand fange in compression
c/t = (b – tw- 2r)/2/tf = (265.2-19.2 – 2*20)/2/31.7 = 3.24
Section is class 1
3.24 ≤ 9ε hence class 1

Cross section capacity check

cl. 6.2.4
A= 21300 mm2
𝛾𝑀0 = 1.00
cl. 6.1(1)
Cross section
𝐴𝑓𝑦 21300 × 275 × 10−3
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = = = 5857 𝑘𝑁 capacity
eq 6.10 𝛾𝑀0 1.0 𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 5857 𝑘𝑁

cl 6.3.1 Buckling resistance

𝐿𝑐𝑟
𝜆′ =
𝑖𝜆
𝐿𝑐𝑟 = 1.0𝐿 = 3.4 𝑚
𝜆 = 40
𝑖 = 6.78 𝑐𝑚 (𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 − 𝑦)
From the data given; slenderness ratio λ’ = 1.25
table 6.2 Bucking curve;
h/b = 289.1/265.2 = 1.09 and tf = 31.7 mm ≤ 100 mm

fig. 6.4 About Y-Y Curve b χ = 0.4

buckling About Z-Z Curve c χ = 0.4
curves
Bucking capacity:
𝐴𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝜒 𝛾 = 0.4 × 5857 = 2342 𝑘𝑁 (𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑌 −
𝑀1
Buckling capacity
𝑌)
= 2342 kN
y-y is the least second moment of area axis.

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1.10.2 Load carrying capacity of concrete column C1
The full structure was analyzed using sap 2000 for the ultimate limit case. The moment acting on
column C1 was 26.53 kNm from the analysis.

Figure 1-10 Bending moment diagram for building frame

For the same moment, we can calculate what would be the maximum axial force that can be
withstand by the column.

Table 8 Axial loading capacity of concrete column C1

Reference Calculations Output

IStruct E 𝑀 26.53 × 106
manual = = 0.02
𝑏ℎ2 𝑓𝑐𝑘 300 × 3002 × 40

𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 40𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 −
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠

Figure 1-11 Concrete column section

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 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝜋(82 ) × 4 × 500
= = 0.11
𝑏ℎ𝑓𝑐𝑘 300 × 300 × 40

𝑓𝑐𝑘 − 𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 500 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

Axial load
From d/h = 0.2 chart carrying
Appendix D 𝑁 capacity =
= 0.6 2160 kN
𝑏ℎ2 𝑓𝑐𝑘

Solving for N gives; N = 2160 kN

Axial force on the column = 103.23 kN hence the column

C1 is safe

1.11 Analyze the load carrying capacity, size, weight and corrosion resistance properties of
different materials used for beams and columns in fixed structures

Table 9 Comparison of load carrying capacity of concrete and steel sections

Material Load carrying capacity Weight Size (depth & Corrosion

Axial (kN) Flexural (kN/m) width) resistance
(kNm)
Concrete 2160 - 2.25 300×300 Re-bars are safe
column
Steel beam - 475.75 0.83 406×178×85 Susceptible
Steel column 2342 - 1.63 254×254×167 Susceptible
Concrete beam - 37.91 3.375 450×300 Re-bars are safe
Flexural capacity of concrete beam

Table 10 Flexural capacity of a typical concrete beam

Reference Calculation Output

450 mm

300 mm

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 Concrete grade 40, clear cover is 30 mm and shear links
are φ8.
Assume that the concrete beam has the above dimensions
with 2T12 high yield steel with fyk = 500 N/mm2
Area of steel = 226 mm2
𝑓𝑦𝑘
𝑓𝑦𝑑 =
EN 1993-1-1 𝛾𝑠

3.2.7(2) 𝛾𝑠 = 1.15
Hence fyd = 0.87fyk
𝑓𝑐𝑘
𝑓𝑐𝑑 =
𝛾𝑐
𝛾𝑐 = 1.5
2.4.2.4(1)
Hence fcd = 0.567fck
Assuming that the steel has yielded;
𝑇 = 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠 = 0.87 × 500 × 226 = 983.1 𝑘𝑁
Compressive
Hence balancing compressive force;
force = tension
3.1.7(3) 𝐶 = 0.567𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏(0.8𝑥) force = 983.1
By solving for x; we get x= 18.1 mm kN
Since x/d = 18.1/406 = 0.04 ≤ 0.64 steel has yielded and
the assumption is correct
Z= d – 0.4x
Z/d = 1-0.4*18.1/406 = 0.98 hence take Z = 0.95d
Hence z= 385.7 mm Z = 385.7 mm
Moment capacity = T×Z = 37.91 kNm 𝑀𝑅𝑑
= 37.91 𝑘𝑁𝑚

According to the above comparison, steel construction is easy and speed compared to the
concrete construction and the load carrying capacities are also higher than that of concrete beams
as well as columns for flexural and compressive resistance respectively.

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However, steel is very much susceptible to corrosion and acid attacks if not protected well. Other
serious case is that steel is very much vulnerable for fire. Usually, cost of fire protection can
vary from 50% to 85% of construction cost alone, depending on the construction. This is the
main drawback of steel construction.

1.12 Assess the most effective support method for the above given scenario, in terms of
ease and speed of construction, economics, safety and environmental factors.

Usually the construction of concrete structure is done starting concreting columns first upto
beam bottom level and then the slab and beam at once. Therefore, the support condition is
actually in-between fixed and simply supported conditions. But designing for fully fixed
conditions make the structure unsafe due to possible capacity reduction due to construction
practice. Therefore, designing the structure assuming pinned conditions or simply support
conditions and making some allowance for hogging moment at the supports makes the structure
safe.

But in case, the columns, beams and slab cast at one stage, then full fixity can be assumed and
the supports should be well designed to transfer the moments. This makes the construction fast,
but skilled design ability is essential.

When it comes to steel, a similar condition can be assumed because most of the steel to steel
sections are welded connections, hence making them partially fixed. Designing assuming full
moment transferring behavior is safe when considering the resistance of the welding joints, but
not acceptable for flexural capacity decision. Hence, designing for simply support or pinned end
conditions makes the structure safe.

But when it comes to bolted joints of beam and columns, full fixity can be assumed and the bolts
should be designed to withstand the forces acting on them.

1.13 Design of chosen beams and columns of the structure.

Table 11 Flexural Reinforcement design for Concrete members

Reference Calculation Output

1.13.1 Design of R/F beam -B2
The bending moment diagram is as follows

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 Figure 1-12 bending Moment diagram for B2 beam

Design for hogging

Grade of concrete = 40N/mm2, grade of steel= 500 N/mm2 for
all the calculations of beams and columns.
Assume 30mm cover and use T12 bars) Design
hogging 42.92
Effective depth of beam = 450- 30- 12/2
kNm

𝑀 42.92 × 106
𝑘= = = 0.02 < 0.156
𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓𝑐𝑢 300 × 4162 × (0.67 × 40) K= 0.02 singly
Hence single R/F. r/f

BS 8110 Cl 𝑧 = 𝑑 (0.5 + √0.25 − 𝑘⁄0.9 ) = 0.97𝑑

3.4.4.2
Choose Z= 0.95d = 395.2mm Z= 395.2 mm
𝑀 42.92×106
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 0.95𝑧𝑓 = 0.95×500×395.2 = 228 𝑚𝑚2
𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞
provide 3T12 (339.29 mm2) = 228 𝑚𝑚2
provide 3T12
Design for sagging (339.29 mm2)
Effective flange width
EC 2 part 1;
cl 5.3.2.1(3) 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ∑ 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑖 + 𝑏𝑤 ≤ 𝑏

𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑖 = 0.2𝑏𝑖 + 0.1𝑙0 ≤ 0.2𝑙0

(5.5 − 0.3)⁄
𝑏1 = 𝑏2 = 2 = 2.6𝑚

𝑙0 = 0.85 × 6 = 5.1𝑚

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 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑖 = 0.2 × 2.6 + 0.1 × 5.1 = 1.03𝑚 > 0.2 × 5.1(=
1.02𝑚)
Choose 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑖 = 1.02𝑚
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2 × 1.02 + 0.3 = 2.34𝑚 < 𝑏 = 2.75𝑚 = 2340𝑚𝑚
(Assuming T16 bars)

𝑀 76.92×106
BS 8110 Cl 𝑘 = 𝑏𝑑2 𝑓 = 2340×4142 ×(0.67×40) = 0.007 < 0.156
𝑐𝑢
3.4.4.2
Hence single R/F.

𝑧 = 𝑑 (0.5 + √0.25 − 𝑘⁄0.9 ) = 0.99𝑑

Choose z= 0.95d = 391.4 mm Z= 391.4mm

𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑀 76.92 × 106 = 410 𝑚𝑚2
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞 = = 3T16 bars
0.95𝑧𝑓𝑦𝑘 0.95 × 500 × 391.4
(603.2 mm2)
= 410 𝑚𝑚2
provide 3T16 bars (603.2 mm2)
1.13.2 Design of C2 reinforced concrete column
Design axial force N= 340kN (sap 2000 analysis)
Design moment (major) – 42.92 kNm
Design moment (minor) – 2.17 kNm
Cover to column = 40mm
Lex= 3.4-0.2 mm =3.2 m (assuming slab thickness to be
200mm)
BS 8110 cl;
3.8.1.3 Ley= 3.4-0.45 = 2.95 m
Lex/0.3 = 10.67 and Ley/0.3 = 9.83
Since the structure is braced, the column is slender. Because;
Lex/0.3, Ley/0.3 ≤ 15
Since the major axis moment is significant and minor axis
bending is not significant, design is carried out for major axis
bending only.
𝑁 340 × 103
IStruct E = = 0.095
𝑏ℎ𝑓𝑐𝑘 300 × 300 × 40
manual
Appendix C

15
 𝑀 42.92 × 106
= 0.04
𝑏ℎ2 𝑓𝑐𝑘 300 × 3002 × 40

Assuming T16 main bars and T8 links,

d/h = (300-40-8-16/2)/300 = 0.81
choose chart d/h=0.8
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦𝑘
=0
𝑏ℎ𝑓𝑐𝑘
Hence provide the minimum reinforcement
EC 2
0.1𝑁𝐸𝑑 103
9.5.2.2 = 0.1 × 340 × = 78.2𝑚𝑚2
(SLNA) 𝑓𝑦𝑑 500
1.15
Or, 0.004𝐴𝑐 = 0.004 × 300 × 300 = 360𝑚𝑚2
Provide 4T16
Provide 4T16

The steel beam B4 and steel column C4 has already been checked for the ultimate design
resistance.

1.14 Evaluate the use of an alternative material in achieving a design solution, discussing
the benefits and challenges associated.
Timber as a construction material

Timber is a conventional construction material used since early ages having good qualities as
flexural and compression members. Timber can last for 100 of years if well preserved and
protected against environmental degradation.

Timber species have a wide range of material strength properties hence (tensile and compressive
strengths) allowing someone to choose a species depending on the requirement.

The most important thing of timber that it is a natural material. If timber is available to use, it is
very much better than concrete and the embodied energy is very lower.

The challenging point is that the possible environmental effects due uncontrolled wood cutting
and the space available to regrow the plants which are usable as a construction material.

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1.15 Assess the use of Building Information Modelling in the production of accurate
structural design information and the collaborative environment of structural design.
BIM creates efficiency and users will get several benefits. Its potential to cut down on rework,
such as re-keying information into models or making changes in the field make projects more
systematic.

When it comes structural design and architecture, BIM is a very helpful concept since it integrate
all the necessary parameters including safety, reliability and sustainability. Nearly half of all
users recognized, that structural engineers can garner a high level of value from BIM. Such
elements as steel columns, beams and trusses are frequently modeled by users. Contractors are
the most likely (47%) to see structural engineers realizing significant benefits. Money is largely
spent and saved during construction. Reducing rework can help keep budgets in line. Owners are
the most likely (57%) to see a CM or GC gaining high value on a project, most likely because
that savings could be passed on. Most importantly, this concept reduces the conflicts and changes
during construction which is directly related to the structural safety and reliability.

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