energies

Article
Study on Effects of Common Rail Injector Drive
Circuitry with Different Freewheeling Circuits on
Control Performance and Cycle-by-Cycle Variations
Erxi Liu 1,2, * and Wanhua Su 1, *
1 State Key Laboratory of Engines, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
2 Postdoctoral Workstation, CATARC (Tianjin) Automotive Engineering Research Institute Co., Ltd,
Tianjin 300300, China
* Correspondence: tjulex@tju.edu.cn (E.L.); whsu@tju.edu.cn (W.S.)




Received: 19 January 2019; Accepted: 9 February 2019; Published: 12 February 2019


Abstract: This paper provides a new common rail injector drive circuitry for practical use. The new
drive circuitry with variable freewheeling circuit was developed based on the requirements for the
rate of current drop in the peak-and-hold solenoid model. The variable freewheeling circuit exhibited
superior performance in the control accuracy compared to the conventional circuit with a resistor
in series with diode (RD) freewheeling circuit. Furthermore, the current cutting process was 30 µs
shorter, and the control accuracy of the cycle fuel injection mass was improved by at least 0.36%
or exactly 2.86% when a small fuel injection mass was used. In addition, the variable freewheeling
circuit consumed less power because the drive power charging was done through the feedback
from electromagnetic energy to electrical energy. When the fuel injection mass was large, the fall
range of the driving power voltage became 1 V smaller, its recovery time was 1ms shorter, and the
highest temperature of the drive circuitry was only 37 ◦ C, which was 127 ◦ C lower than that of
the RD freewheeling due to the decrease in energy consumption. Finally, experimental tests with
a multi-cylinder engine showed that the variable freewheeling circuit reduced the cycle-by-cycle
combustion variations by 0.5%, and lessened the NOx and soot emissions significantly by 3.5% and
4%, respectively, in comparison to the RD freewheeling circuit.

Keywords: injector drive circuitry; freewheeling, performance; combustion; cycle-by-cycle variations

1. Introduction
Various advanced engine combustion modes have been developed in order to achieve high
efficiency and low engine emissions [1–4]. The engine control unit (ECU) must provide more flexible
and accurate control for the start of injection (SOI), end of injection (EOI) and various injection
patterns [5–7]. Therefore, the common rail injector must not only have a highly responsive solenoid
but also have a suitable injector drive circuitry. The circuitry performance affects the control accuracy
of the injection that eventually will influence the combustion performance.
The injector solenoid is usually driven through the peak-and-hold model [8]. Figure 1 illustrates
the typical current shape of the peak-and-hold injector. In order to start a fuel injection, the solenoid
current accelerates rapidly from 0 A to Ipeak and the solenoid plunger is lifted quickly. Then, when the
plunger is already lifted, the current drops from Ipeak to Ihold , as shown in Stage (a) in Figure 1.
During the Ihold phase, the current is maintained near the Ihold , and the plunger is still lifted (Stage (b)).
Next, Stage (c) is the process in which the current drops from Ihold to 0A causing the plunger to be
lowered. The requirements for the rate of current drop are different in the three stages [9]. The rate
in Stages (a) and (b) should be slow to ensure a smooth transition and reduce the current vibrating

Energies 2019, 12, 564; doi:10.3390/en12030564 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 Energies 2019, 12, 564 2 of 18
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19

44 range power
drive and theconsumption,
drive power consumption, respectively.the
respectively. Meanwhile, Meanwhile, the(c)
rate in Stage rate in Stage
should (c) should
be fast be fast
to cut off the
45 to cut off the current quickly; the quicker the cutting process, the higher the accuracy of
current quickly; the quicker the cutting process, the higher the accuracy of EOI and fuel injection EOI and fuel
Energies
injection2018, 11, x would
mass FOR PEER
beREVIEW
obtained 2 of 19
46 mass would be obtained [10,11]. [10,11].
44 drive power consumption, respectively. Meanwhile, the rate in Stage (c) should be fast to cut off the
45 Ipeak
current quickly; the quicker the cutting process, the higher the accuracy of EOI and fuel injection
46 mass would be obtained [10,11]. Current shape of
Peak&Hold

Ipeak
Stage b
current /A current /A
Current shape of
Drive

Peak&Hold
Ihold-phase
Stage a Stage Stage
b c
Drive

0 Ihold-phase 0
Stage a Stage c
47 Time /s

48 Figure
Figure 1.
1. Typical
Typical current
current shape of the peak-and-hold injector.
0 0
49
47 conventionalRD
The conventional RDfreewheeling
freewheeling circuit
circuit often
often /semployed
employed
Time in theinsolenoid
the solenoid drive circuitry
drive circuitry design
50 design [12], as shown in Figure 2, where the circle line outlines the current freewheeling
[12], as shown in Figure 2, where the circle line outlines the current freewheeling path, and the arrow path, and the
48 arrow represents
Figure 1. Typical current shape of the peak-and-hold injector.
the current direction.
51 represents the current direction. The ruleThe rule ofdrop
of current current drop
in the RDin the RD freewheeling
freewheeling circuit is
circuit is expressed
52 expressed
by Equation by(1),
Equation
which (1), which
applies to applies
all three to all three
stages stagesabove.
mentioned mentioned
However,above.
a However,
single a single
freewheeling
49 The conventional RD freewheeling circuit often employed in the solenoid drive circuitry design
53 freewheeling
pathascannot path cannot
simultaneously simultaneously
satisfy satisfy the different demands of the three stages [13].
50 [12], shown in Figure 2, where thethe different
circle demands
line outlines theof the three
current stages [13].path, and the arrow
freewheeling
51 represents the current direction. The rulediof current
RCC+drop
(V r )i +in
UDthe RD freewheeling circuit is expressed
52 by Equation (1), which applies to all three = − (1)
dt stages mentioned
L above. However, a single freewheeling
53 path cannot simultaneously satisfy the different demands of the three stages [13].

VCC D
L

R
D
L
Q
R

54 Q
55 Figure 2. Drive circuitry with resistor in series with diode (RD) freewheeling.

54 di ( R  r )i  U D
 resistor in series with diode (RD) freewheeling. (1)
55 Drivecircuitry
Figure2.2.Drive
Figure circuitrywith
dtwithresistor inLseries with diode (RD) freewheeling.

56 Several methods
Several methods were proposed for designing an injector drive circuitry for the peak-and-hold
57 JohnD.D.Mooney
Mooney [14] di
[14] suggested
suggested ( R simulation
r )i  U D code
model. John   aa simulation code forfor evaluating
evaluating circuitry
circuitry designs,
designs,
(1)
58 introduced the design method
introduced the design method for single for dt
a single or L
dual power supply, and analyzed the influence of
59
56 different
Severalbattery voltage
methods were
the drive current and DC/DC
onproposed for designing DC/DC circuitry. The
circuitry.
an injector
The variable
variable freewheeling
drive circuitry
freewheeling circuit
for the peak-and-hold
60
57 model. John D. Mooney [14] suggested a simulation code for evaluating the
was employed in his circuitry design, but without considering the feedback from solenoid
circuitry to the
designs,
61
58 power for energy
introduced recovery
the design and for
method electric energy
a single saving.
or dual Jin Li
Jin
power Lisupply, analyzed
[15] analyzed the drive
and analyzed voltage
thevoltage on the
influence of
62
59 solenoid responses based on a finite element model of solenoid valves, showing
different battery voltage on the drive current and DC/DC circuitry. The variable freewheeling circuit that the voltage was
63
60 one employed
was of
ofthe
thekey factors
key for controlling
in factors design,the
for controlling
his circuitry butinjector. Cai
the injector.
without [16]Cai
studied
considering [16]thethe soft-switching
studied
feedback the circuit
soft-switching
from the parameters
solenoid circuit
to the
64
61 and their
parameters characteristics
and their via simulation,
characteristics via and the
simulation,results
and showed
the that
results using
showed
power for energy recovery and electric energy saving. Jin Li [15] analyzed the drive voltage on thesoft-switching
that using technology
soft-switching
65
62 technology
solenoid in a high-speed
responses based on solenoid drive circuitry
a finite element model ofcould reduce
solenoid the showing
valves, switchingthat devices loss, noise,
the voltage was
66
63 and energy consumption. In addition, there exist some patents [17–19]
one of the key factors for controlling the injector. Cai [16] studied the soft-switching circuit about drive circuitries, but
64 parameters and their characteristics via simulation, and the results showed that using soft-switching
65 technology in a high-speed solenoid drive circuitry could reduce the switching devices loss, noise,
66 and energy consumption. In addition, there exist some patents [17–19] about drive circuitries, but
 Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

67 they failed to provide the structure design principle and performance report. Also, some designs
68 were only explained through simulation, and these designs might be impractical for use. Therefore,
Energies 2019, 12, 564 3 of 18
69 in this study, a new drive circuitry with a single power supply combined with a variable
70 freewheeling circuit was proposed and its structure design principle and performance were
in a high-speed solenoid drive circuitry could reduce the switching devices loss, noise, and energy
71 discussed.
consumption. In addition, there exist some patents [17–19] about drive circuitries, but they failed
to provide the structure design principle and performance report. Also, some designs were only
72 2. Variable Freewheeling
explained Drive Circuitry
through simulation, and these designs might be impractical for use. Therefore, in this study,
a new drive circuitry with a single power supply combined with a variable freewheeling circuit was
73 The variable freewheeling drive circuitry employs different freewheeling paths in different
proposed and its structure design principle and performance were discussed.
74 stages. By changing the switches’ working conditions, a single appropriate freewheeling path will be
75 effective2.enough
Variable to
Freewheeling
control theDrive Circuitry
current drop process according to the different requirements in the
76 three stages.The variable freewheeling drive circuitry employs different freewheeling paths in different stages.
77 A predesign
By changingand example,
the switches’ whichconditions,
working completely satisfied
a single the drop
appropriate rate requirements,
freewheeling is illustrated
path will be effective
78 enough to control the current drop process according to the different
in Figure 3a. The control time sequence of QH (the high-side MOSFET) and QL (the low-siderequirements in the three stages.
A predesign and example, which completely satisfied the drop rate requirements, is illustrated in
79 MOSFET) are shown in Figure 3b. The effective freewheeling path for Stages (a) and (b) is illustrated
Figure 3a. The control time sequence of QH (the high-side MOSFET) and QL (the low-side MOSFET)
80 in Figure are4(a),
shown ininwhich QH
Figure 3b. was
The on and
effective QL waspath
freewheeling off.forIts rule(a)ofand
Stages the
(b)current drop
is illustrated is expressed
in Figure 4a, by
81 Equation in2, where
which QH the
was resistance
on and QL wasof off.
QHItswasruleneglected
of the currentunder
drop isthe on state,
expressed resulting
by Equation (2),in the lowest
where the rate.
82 In Stageresistance
(c), QHofandQH wasQLneglected
were bothunderoff,
the which
on state,means
resultingthat the
in the current
lowest rate. Inimmediately
Stage (c), QH andbecame 0A
83 throughQL were both off,
a so-called which means
avalanche that the
current current
drop. immediatelythe
Meanwhile, became 0A through
effective a so-called path
freewheeling avalanche
for Stage (c)
current drop. Meanwhile, the effective freewheeling path for Stage (c) is illustrated in Figure 4b and
84 is illustrated in Figure 4b and expressed by Equation 3. However, since the solenoid generated a
expressed by Equation (3). However, since the solenoid generated a large self-induced electromotive
85 large self-induced
force, the QH electromotive force,a high
source would generate the negative
QH source transientwould generate
voltage, which woulda highthen negative
damage thetransient
86 voltage,circuitry
which would
[20,21]. then damage the circuitry [20,21].

VCC

QH

D
L

QL

87
88 (a) Circuitry structure.

89
90 (b) Control time sequence.
Figure 3. Predesign of the variable freewheeling drive circuit.
91 Figure 3. Predesign of the variable freewheeling drive circuit.
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Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

VCC

QH

D
L

QL

92
93 (a) Stages (a) and (b).

VCC

QH

D
L

QL

94
95 (b) Stage (c).

96 Figure 4. Effective
Figure 4. Effectivefreewheeling pathin
freewheeling path inthe
thethree
three different
different stages.
stages.

didi ri +riU+D UD
==−− (2) (2)
dtdt L L
di
di = −∞ (3)
dt= −∞ (3)
dt
3. Improved Design
97 3. Improved Design
Considering the practical application, the improved design derived from Figure 3a is shown
98
in Figure Considering
5, where L the is the injector,
practical QH andthe
application, QL are the design
improved high-side MOSFET
derived and low-side
from Figure 3a is shown MOSFET,
in
99 Figure
QH-logic 5, where
and QL-logic L isare
thethe
injector, QH and QL
corresponding are the
control high-side
time MOSFET
sequence inputsand low-side
of QH MOSFET,
and QL, IR2101S is
100 QH-logic and
the high-side and QL-logic
low-sideare the corresponding
driver chips, Ho andcontrol
Lo aretime
thesequence inputs
amplified of QH
signal and QL,
outputs, R2IR2101S
and R3 are
101 is the high-side and low-side driver chips, Ho and Lo are the amplified signal outputs,R2
the respective gate resistors of QH and QL, C3 and D3 are the corresponding bootstrap capacitor and R3 are and
102 the respective gate resistors of QH and QL, C3 and D3 are the corresponding bootstrap capacitor and
diode, C1 is the absorption capacitor, D1 and D2 are the freewheeling diodes, R1 is the pull-down
103 diode, C1 is the absorption capacitor, D1 and D2 are the freewheeling diodes, R1 is the pull-down
resistor, and all D1, C1, and R1 connect the QH source to the ground,. The control time sequence was
104 resistor, and all D1, C1, and R1 connect the QH source to the ground,. The control time sequence was
the same
105 as the
the same as one in Figure
the one in Figure3b.3b.
The
Thedescriptions of symbols
descriptions of symbolsusedusedinin Figure
Figure 5 are
5 are detailed
detailed in Table
in Table 1. 1.
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VCC

12V D3 QH

C3
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
1 8 5 of 19
Vcc Vb R2
QHlogic 2 7
Hin Ho
QLlogic 3 6
Lin Vs VCC
L
4 5 D2
GND Lo C1
R3
IR2101S
12V D3 QH

C3
1 8
R1R2 D1
Vcc Vb
QHlogic 2
Hin Ho
7 QL
QLlogic 3 6
Lin Vs L
4 5 D2
GND Lo C1
R3
IR2101S

106 D1
R1 QL
107 Figure 5. Improved
Figure 5. Improved design
design of
of the
the variable
variable freewheeling
freewheelingdrive
drivecircuit.
circuit.

Table 1. The descriptions of symbols used in Figure 5.

108 106 Table 1. The descriptions of symbols used in Figure 5.
107 Figure 5. Improved
Definitions design of the variable freewheeling
Description Definitionsdrive circuit.
Description
Definitions Description Definitions Description
108 C1 Absorption
Table 1. The Capacitorof symbols
descriptions L used in Figure 5.Injector
C1
C3 Absorption Capacitor QH
Bootstrap Capacitor L HighInjector
Side MOSFET
C3 Definitions
D1 Bootstrap
Freewheeling Capacitor
Description
Diode QH High
Definitions
QL Side
SideMOSFET
Description
Low MOSFET
D2 C1 Freewheeling
Absorption Diode
Capacitor LR1 Pull-down Resistor
Injector
D1 Freewheeling Diode QL Low Side MOSFET
D3 C3 Bootstrap
BootstrapDiode
Capacitor QH R2 High Side MOSFET
Gate Resistor
D2
IR2101S D1 Freewheeling
Gate Drive Chip
Freewheeling
Diode
Diode
R1 Pull-down
QLR3 Low Side MOSFET
Resistor
Gate Resistor

D3 D2 Freewheeling
Bootstrap Diode
Diode R1R2 Pull-down
Gate Resistor
Resistor
3.1. Safety and Reliability R2 Gate Resistor
IR2101SD3 Bootstrap
Gate Drive Diode
Chip R3 Gate Resistor
IR2101S Gate Drive Chip R3 Gate Resistor
D1, C1, and R1 were set to ensure the safety and reliability of the drive circuitry. Their functions
109 3.1.109
are Safety3.1.
and
described Reliability
as follows:
Safety and Reliability
110 110D1, C1, and R1and
D1, C1, were set tosetensure
R1 were to ensurethe
thesafety andreliability
safety and reliability ofdrive
of the the drive circuitry.
circuitry. Their functions
Their functions
3.1.1. Function of Freewheeling
as follows: Diode D1 Set
111 are111 are described
described as follows:
The QH
112 3.1.1. sources
Function ofand Vs pin of
Freewheeling IR2101S
Diode D1 Set in Figure 5. were connected, which is the technical
112 3.1.1. Function
requirement of Freewheeling
of bootstrap [22]. AsDiode
shownD1 in Set
Figure 6a, a large negative transient voltage was generated
113 The QH sources and Vs pin of IR2101S in Figure 5. were connected, which is the technical
113 at the
114 QH source without
The requirement
QH sources of and D1. The
Vs pin
bootstrap voltage
[22]. of reached
As IR2101S
shown in in − 20 6a,
Figure
Figure V and would
a5.large
were damage
connected,
negative the IR2101S
which
transient voltageiswasaftertechnical
the several
114 working
115 cycles.
requirement ofThe
generated D1 QH
at the
bootstrap setting
sourcevoltage
[22]. without was
As shownD1. Thelimited
involtage
Figure −16a,
toreached
V (i.e.,
−20 Vthe
a largeand forward
would
negative voltage
damage of D1),
the IR2101S
transient as shown
voltage was
in 116
Figure after
6b. several working
Setting D1 cycles. The
ensured thatD1the
se negative
ing voltagetransient
was limitedvoltage
to −1 V (i.e.,
wouldthe forward
not voltage the
corrupt of IR2101S.
115 generated
117 at the QH source without D1. The voltage reached −20 V and would
D1), as shown in Figure 6b. Setting D1 ensured that the negative transient voltage would not corrupt
damage the IR2101S
116 Therefore,
after theworking
feasibility of circuitry D1wasse ofrealized.
118several
the IR2101S. cycles.
Therefore, The
the feasibility ing voltage
circuitry was limited to −1 V (i.e., the forward voltage of
was realized.
117 D1), as shown in Figure 6b. Setting D1 ensured that the negative transient voltage would not corrupt
60
118 the IR2101S. Therefore, the feasibility of circuitry was realized.
50
Negative transient voltage

60 40
on QH Source /V

50 30
Negative transient voltage

20
40 6
on QH Source /V

10 0
30 -6
0 -12
20 -10 -18
6 0.60 0.63

10 -20 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
-6 Time（ms）
119 0 -12
120 (a) Without D1.
-18
-10
0.60 6. Cont.
Figure 0.63

-20
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
119 Time（ms）
120 (a) Without D1.
 60

50

Negative transient voltage

Energies 2019, 12, 564 40 6 of 18

on QH Source /V
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
30
60 4
20
50
0

Negative transient voltage

10
40

on QH Source /V
-4
0 30
-8 4
20 0.60 0.63
-10
0
10
-20 -4
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
121 -8
0.60
Time
0.63
/ms
-10

122 -20 (b) With D1.

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
121 Time /ms
123 Figure 6. Effects of D1 on controlling the negative transient voltage in the variable freewheeling
124 122
drive circuit. (b) With D1.

123 Effects
Figure 6. Figure 6. of D1 of
Effects onD1controlling the
on controlling thenegative transient
negative transient voltage
voltage in theinvariable
the variable freewheeling
freewheeling
125 3.1.2.
124Function of
drive
drive circuit. Absorption
circuit. Capacitor C1 Set
126 At the
125
3.1.2.
beginning
3.1.2.
Function Function ofAbsorption
of
of Absorption
Stage (c),Capacitor
a voltage Set
Capacitor C1C1Set
spike of −10 V was generated because D1 was not fully
127 switched
126 on, as shown in Figure 7a. The IR2101S
At the beginning of Stage (c), a voltage spike of −10 (orV other high-side
was generated driver
because D1 was chips) only had a
not fully
128 At
negative
127 the beginning
transient of Stage (c), a voltage spike of − 10 V was generated because
switched on, as shown in Figure 7a. The IR2101S (or other high-side driver chips) only had a but
voltage tolerance of−5 V. The spike would not damage the D1
circuitrywas notcould
fully
129 switched
128 on, as
negative shown in
transient Figure
voltage 7a. The
tolerance IR2101S
of−5 V. The(or other
spike high-side
would not driver
damage the chips) only
circuitry
unexpectedly cause the IR2101S to be latched [23,24]. If latched, the circuitry would go out of control, but had
could a negative
130 and129
transient unexpectedly
voltage
QH would turn cause the
tolerance
on of−
again. IR2101S
The to bespike
5 V. The latched
effective [23,24].not
would If latched,
freewheeling damage
paththe circuitry would go
the turned
then circuitry outcould
but
into theofone
control,
unexpectedly
in Figure 4a,
130
cause and QH would turn on again. The effective freewheeling path then turned into the one in Figure 4a,
therate
IR2101S to be latched [23,24].slower
If latched, the circuitry would go outrate
of control, and QH would
131 and131
the and the rate of current drop became slower (Figure 7c). The slower drop rate delayed the lowering lowering
of current drop became (Figure 7c). The slower drop delayed the
132 turn on
process again.
132 ofprocess The
the plunger,effective
which
of the plunger, freewheeling
would
which would path then
subsequently turned
prolong
subsequently prolong into
thethe the one
injection
injection in
processFigure
process 4a, and the rate of
and significantly
and significantly
133 current
133 drop
increase became
increase
the fuel slower
the fuel
injection injection
mass.(Figure
mass. 7c). The slower drop rate delayed the lowering process of the
134 134
plunger, which Therefore,
would to eliminate the prolong
subsequently
Therefore, to eliminate the voltage voltage spike, C1 was set
the injection
spike, C1 wasprocess
setto connect
to and the Vs to the ground.
significantly
connect the Vs increase the fuel
to the ground.
135 mass.
injection Accordingly, the spike was eliminated by capacitor absorption, as illustrated in Figure 7b.
135 Accordingly, the spike was eliminated by capacitor absorption, as illustrated in Figure 7b.
60
60
50
Negative transient voltage

50 40
Negative transient voltage

on QH Source /V

30
40
on QH Source /V

4
20
30 0
10
4
20 -4
0
0 -8
10 -10 0.60 0.63

-4
-20
0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
136 -8 Time /ms
-10 0.60 0.63
137 (a) Without C1.
-20
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
136 Time /ms
137 (a) Without C1.

Figure 7. Cont.
 Energies 2019, 12, 564 7 of 18
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

60

50

Negative transient voltage

on QH Source /V
40

30

2
20
0
10
-2
0 0.60 0.63

-10
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
138 Time /ms
139 (b) With C1.

60
electrode/V
Voltage on

30 Gate of QH
Source of QH
0
18
12
signal/V
Control

6 QH
0
16
signal/V
Control

8 QL
0
28
Abnormal current
current/A

14 Normal current
Dtive

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
140 Time /ms

141 (c) Latched IR2101S.

142 Figure 7.
Figure Voltage spike
7. Voltage spike in
in the
the variable
variable freewheeling
freewheeling drive
drive circuit.
circuit.

Therefore, to eliminate the voltage spike, C1 was set to connect the Vs to the ground.
143 3.1.3. Function of Pull-Down Resistor R1 Set
Accordingly, the spike was eliminated by capacitor absorption, as illustrated in Figure 7b.
144 If R1 was not set, the Vs was suspended. As shownin Figure 8, when the circuit was ready for
145 3.1.3. Function
operation, of Pull-Down
but the Vs voltage Resistor
reached R16 VSet
and the voltage difference of C3 was not big enough, then
146 QH could
If R1 was not set, the Vs was suspended.on.
not be fully executed when turned AsAs a result,Figure
shownin the current became
8, when atypical.
the circuit was ready for
147 To eliminate the suspended state, R1 was set to connect the Vs to the ground. After
operation, but the Vs voltage reached 6 V and the voltage difference of C3 was not big enough, injection, the
then QH
148 Vs returned to 0 V due to the pull-down effect of the resistor. Consequently,
could not be fully executed when turned on. As a result, the current became atypical. the aberration was
149 eliminated.
 Energies 2019, 12, 564 8 of 18
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60

electrode/V
Voltage on
30
Gate of QH
0 Source of QH

signal/V 18
Control

12 QH
6
0
16 QL
signal/V
Control

0
28 Abnormal current
current/A

Normal current
14
Dtive

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
150 Time /ms

151 Figure 8.
Figure Suspensionof
8. Suspension ofVs
Vsin
in the
the variable
variable freewheeling
freewheeling drive
drive circuit.
circuit.

152 To eliminate
3.2. Current Drop Ratethe suspended state, R1 was set to connect the Vs to the ground. After injection,
the Vs returned to 0 V due to the pull-down effect of the resistor. Consequently, the aberration
153 In Stages (a) and (b), QH was turned on when QL was off. The effective freewheeling path is
was eliminated.
154 illustrated in Figure 9a, and the rule of current drop rate is expressed by Equation (2). Therefore,
155 with this design,
3.2. Current Drop Rate the current drop rate would be the slowest and would fully satisfy the
156 requirements of Stages (a) and (b).
In Stages
Energies 11,(a)
2018,(c), and
xboth
FOR (b),REVIEW
PEER QH was turned on when QL was off. The effective freewheeling 8 of 18
157 In Stage QH and QL were off. The effective freewheeling path of Stage (c) is illustrated
path is illustrated in Figure 9a, and the rule of current drop rate is expressed by Equation (2).
158 in Figure 9b, and it followed Equation (4). When compared to Figure 4b, VCC, D1, D2, and L form a
Therefore,
charging with this design,
the drive power fromthe current drop because
the solenoid rate would beconversion
of the the slowest andelectromagnetic
from would fully satisfy
energy
159 new freewheeling path. The current did not drop to 0 A immediately; instead, the rate of current
thetorequirements
electrical energy. The charging
of Stages capacity is consequently expressed by Equation (5).
(a) and (b).
160 drop became slower. However, the feasibility of the circuitry was implemented by setting D1 and
161 charging the drive power from the solenoid because VCC
of the conversion from electromagnetic energy
162 to electrical energy. The charging capacity is consequently expressed by Equation (5).
VCC

VCC QH
VCC

QH D2
D1

D1 D2

QL

QL

(a) Stages (a) and (b).

163 Figure V9.CCCont.
164 (a) Stages a and b.
VCC

QH

D1 D2

Branch 1
 QL

Energies 2019, 12, 564 9 of 18

(a) Stages (a) and (b).

VCC

VCC
QH

D1 D2

Branch 1

Branch 2
QL
Branch 3

(b) Stage (c).

Figure 9. Freewheeling paths in the three different stages.

Figure 9. Freewheeling paths in the three different stages.

In Stage (c), both QH and QL were off. The effective freewheeling path of Stage (c) is illustrated
+ VCCcompared
di (4).ri When
in Figure 9b, and it followed Equation + U D1 + UtoD 2Figure 4b, VCC, D1, D2, and L form
=− (4)
dt
a new freewheeling path. The current did not drop Lto 0 A immediately; instead, the rate of current
drop became slower. However, the feasibility of the circuitry was implemented by setting D1 and
I hold
charging the drive power from the solenoid because of the conversion from electromagnetic energy to
E = VCC ⋅ i ⋅ dt
electrical energy. The charging capacity isvccconsequently expressed by Equation (5).
0
(5)

Based on the design in Figure ri +following

di 5, the VCC + UD1 +U
two methods
D2 were commonly employed to
=− (4)
dt Stage (c).
improve the rate of current drop in L
IZhold
3.2.1. Adding Impedance Elements
Evcc = VCC · i · dt (5)
Adding impedance elements into the effective 0 freewheeling path in Figure 9b could increase the
rateBased
of current
on thedrop in Stage
design (c). 5,
in Figure Thetheeffective
following freewheeling
two methodspath ofcommonly
were Figure 9b could be broken
employed down
to improve
into three branches. Branch 2 and
the rate of current drop in Stage (c). Branch 3 were the common parts of Stages (a) and (b). The
impedance added into these branches could increase the rate of current drop not only in Stage (c) but
3.2.1. Adding Impedance Elements
Adding impedance elements into the effective freewheeling path in Figure 9b could increase
the rate of current drop in Stage (c). The effective freewheeling path of Figure 9b could be broken
down into three branches. Branch 2 and Branch 3 were the common parts of Stages (a) and (b).
The impedance added into these branches could increase the rate of current drop not only in Stage (c)
but also in Stages (a) and (b). Meanwhile, the impedance added intoBranch1 could only increase the
rate of current drop in Stage (c), but the negative transient voltage generated by Vs in Stage (c) would
be increased from –UD1 to –(UD1 +Uimpedance ). By doing so, the safety of the circuitry safety would be
threatened as described above. Therefore, it is not recommended to add any impedance elements to
improve the rate of the current drop in Stage (c).

3.2.2. Increasing the VCC Voltage

While considering the injector voltage and current limits, the effects of different VCCs on the
drive current were simulated using the PSPICE software as shown in Figure 10a, where QH-logic and
QL-logic are the same as Figure 3b, r = 0.23 Ω and L = 150 uH are as a circuit model for the injector,
Main Pulse = 100 µs, Injection Pulse = 400 µs, VCCs = 24V, 36V, 48V, 60V, 70V, and Hold Pulses are
adjusted to guarantee Ihold = 12 A. As can be seen in Figure 10b, increasing the VCC not only could
 Energies 2019, 12, 564 10 of 18

increase the current growth rate from 0 A to Ipeak but also could increase the current drop rate in
Stage (c), as also shown by Equation (4). The drive power voltage is a standardized parameter of
injectors, and its value must be within an acceptable range. A higher drive power voltage would
reduce the conversion efficiency of the boost circuitry. However, an appropriate increase should
Energies
be 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
acceptable. 10 of 19
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19
VCC
VCC

Signal Synthesis D3 InjectorQH

Signal Synthesis 12V D3 C3 InjectorQH D1
D1
12V C3
4.7uF
Injection Pulse U1
1 8 4.7uF
Injection
S1 Pulse U1
VCC Vb R2 0.23 C1 0.1uF
S1 1 8
QH-logic 2 VCC Vb 7 R2 0.23r 2 C1 0.1uF
Main Pulse 1 Hin Ho 100
QH-logic 2 7 r 2
Hin Ho
S1 Pulse2
Main 1 3 QL-logic 3
Lin Vs
6 100
2 12 3 QL-logic 3 6 R3 150uH
S1 3 4 Lin Vs 5
S1 12 R3 150uHL
AND GND Lo D2
S1 3 4 5 L
Hold Pulse OR AND GND
IR2101 Lo 100 R1 D2
Hold Pulse OR IR2101 100 100k
R1 1
100k 1
QL
QL

191
191
192
192 (a) PSPICE diagram.
(a) PSPICE diagram.
40
40

12
30 12
30
VCC 8
VCC
72V 8
72V
60V 4
current/A/A

60V
48V 4
20
48V
Drive

20 36V 0
0.00040 0.00044
Drive

0
current

36V
24V 0.00040 0.00044
24V

10
10

0
0 0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006
0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006
193 Time /ms
193 Time /ms
194
194 (b) Effects of VCC on the drive current.
(b) Effects of VCC on the drive current.

195
195 Figure 10.
Figure10.
Figure
Effects of
Effectsof
10.Effects VCC on
VCCon
ofVCC the
onthe drive
thedrive current
drivecurrent in
currentin the
inthe variable
thevariable freewheeling
variablefreewheeling circuit through
freewheeling circuit
circuit through PSPICE.
PSPICE.
through PSPICE.

196 4. Experiments
196 4. Experiments
197 The boost circuitry was used as the power source in the drive circuit to evaluate the electric energy
197 The boost circuitry was used as the power source in the drive circuit to evaluate the electric energy
198 consumption;
consumption; itsitsschematic
schematicdiagram
diagramis is illustrated
illustrated in Figure
in Figure 11.the
11. If the VCC
If VCC was lower
was lower than
than the the target
target value,
198 consumption; its schematic diagram is illustrated in Figure 11. If the VCC was lower than the target value,
199 value, the boost circuitry would start to work, and vice versa; if higher, the circuitry
the boost circuitry would start to work, and vice versa; if higher, the circuitry would stop. would stop.
199 the boost circuitry would start to work, and vice versa; if higher, the circuitry would stop.
BAT D VCC
BAT D VCC
L
L
Q C
Q C
Closed-loop
Closed-loop
Control
Control

200
200
201
201
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Boost circuitry.
Figure 11. Boost circuitry.

202 The
The effect
effect of different R
of different R on
on the
the drive
drive current
current with
with the
the RD
RD freewheeling
freewheeling circuit
circuit isis shown
shown in in
202 The12.effect
Figure of different
R R onthetherate
drive current drop
with in
theStage
RD freewheeling circuit is shown in
203 Figure 12. As the R increased, the rate of current drop in Stage (c) would be faster, as shown in
As the increased, of current (c) would be faster, as shown in
203 Figure 12.1.As the R increased, thecurrent
rate ofdrop
current drop in Stage (c) would
whenR be =faster, as shown in
204 Equation
Equation 1. However,
However, therate
the rateof
ofcurrent drop wasbasically
was basically thesame
the same when R
= 10 ΩΩ
10 and andR =R15 Ω. Ω.
= 15 In
204 Equation
In Stage 1. However,
(c), the the transient
positive rate of current drop
voltage of was
the basically
drain the same
electrode Q when
(V) in RFigure
= 10 Ω2 and
is R = 15 Ω. by
expressed In
205
205 Stage (c), the positive transient voltage of the drain electrode Q (V) in Figure 2 is expressed by
Stage (c), the positive transient voltage of the drain electrode Q (V) in Figure 2 is expressed by
206
206 Equation (6); consequently, as the R increased, the V would grow significantly larger and damage
Equation (6); consequently, as the R increased, the V would grow significantly larger and damage
207
207 the MOSFET. Therefore, a value of 10 Ω was selected as the optimal value of R.
the MOSFET. Therefore, a value of 10 Ω was selected as the optimal value of R.

VV VCC
VCC iR
iR U
UD
D
(6)
(6)
 Energies 2019, 12, 564 11 of 18

Equation (6); consequently, as the R increased, the V would grow significantly larger and damage the
MOSFET. Therefore, a value of 10 Ω was selected as the optimal value of R.

V = VCC + iR + UD (6)
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

30

25 R 6
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
0Ω 11 of 19
1Ω 4
20
30 5Ω
2
10Ω
R 15Ω 0
/A

25 6
15 0Ω
Drive

0.0006 0.0008
current

1Ω 4
20 5Ω
2
10Ω
10 15Ω 0
current /A

15
Drive

0.0006 0.0008

5
10

05
0.0000 0.0004 0.0008 0.0012 0.0016 0.0020

208 0 Time /ms

0.0000 0.0004 0.0008 0.0012 0.0016 0.0020
209 208 Figure 12.
Figure Effects of
12. Effects of R
R on
on the
the drive
drive
Timecurrent
current with RD
/ms with RD freewheeling
freewheeling circuit.
circuit.
209 Figure 12. Effects of R on the drive current with RD freewheeling circuit.
210 In order
In ordertotostudy
studythethe
effect of theoftwo
effect thetypes
two of the freewheeling
types circuit on the
of the freewheeling combustion
circuit on the performance,
combustion
211 an
210 engine
performance, test was
In order carried
an toengine
study theout using
testeffect a self-developed
wasofcarried
the two out
typesusing ECU under
of the afreewheeling the condition
circuit ECU
self-developed that
on theunder only
thethe
combustion injector drive
condition that
211
circuitperformance,
was changed.an engine
The test engine,
test was carried
as out using
shown in aFigure
self-developed
13, was ECU
basedunder
on athe condition that
heavy-duty six-cylinder diesel
212 only the injector drive circuit was changed. The test engine, as shown in Figure 13, was based on a
212 only the injector drive circuit was changed. The test engine, as shown in Figure 13, was based on a
213 engine.
heavy-dutyThe six-cylinder
detailed specifications of the test enginespecifications
are shown in Table 2. engine are shown in Table 2.
213 heavy-duty six-cylinderdiesel engine.
diesel engine. TheThe detailed
detailed specifications of the testof the test
engine are shown in Table 2.

214
215 Figure 13.
Figure 13.Schematic of experiment
Schematic setup in setup
of experiment the engine test. engine test.
in the
216

214
215 Figure 13. Schematic of experiment setup in the engine test.
 Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

217 Energies 2019, 12, 564 Table 2. Engine characteristics. 12 of 18

Bore × Stroke 126 × 155 mm

Swirl Ratio
Table 2. Engine characteristics. 1.2
Compression Ratio 17:1
Bore × Stroke 126 × 155 mm
Injection system Common rail
Swirl Ratio 1.2
Injection Pressure
Compression Ratio 16017:1
MPa
Number Injection
of Injector Nozzle Holes
system 8 holes rail
Common
Injector Injection
NozzlePressure
Hole Diameter 160 MPa
0.217 mm
Number of Injector Nozzle
Injector Spray Angle (included) Holes 8 holes
143 deg
Injector Nozzle Hole Diameter 0.217 mm
Peak Cylinder Pressure
Injector Spray Angle (included) 16.5
143Mpa
deg
Rated
Peak Rotating
Cylinder Speed
Pressure 2100
16.5r/min
Mpa
RatedRated Torque
Rotating Speed 1970
2100 N·m
r/min
RatedRated Torque
Power Rating 1970kW
353 N·m
Rated Power Rating 353 kW
Ignition Order 1-5-3-6-2-4
Ignition Order 1-5-3-6-2-4

218 As described above, the RD and variable freewheeling injector drive circuits were established,
219 as shown As in
described
Figure 2above, the RD5,and
and Figure variable freewheeling
respectively, with R = 10 injector
Ω. The drive circuits were
BOSCH-CRIN2 established,
(the second
220 as shown in Figures 2 and 5, respectively, with R = 10 Ω. The BOSCH-CRIN2
generation of Bosch common rail injector for truck and heavy duty vehicles) injector was chosen (the second generation
in
221 theoftest,
Bosch
withcommon rail injector
standardized VCC offor 48 V,truck
Ipeak and
of 25heavy
A, andduty vehicles) injector
recommended was
Ihold of 12 chosen
A. The in the test,
modulation
222 with standardized
frequencies VCC ofin
of both circuitries 48the Ipeakphase
V, Ihold of 25were
A, and recommended
the same. Ihold of 12
The experimental A. The
results modulation
are discussed
223 frequencies
as follows. of both circuitries in the I hold phase were the same. The experimental results are discussed
as follows.
224 4.1. Drive Current
4.1. Drive Current
225 A comparison of the drive current with an injection pulse of 600 µs is illustrated in Figure 14
A comparison of the drive current with an injection pulse of 600 µs is illustrated in Figure 14 below.
226 below.

25
15

20 10
inflection point
5

15 0
0.6 0.7 0.8
current /A
Drive

10

5
RD freewheeling
Variable freewheeling
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
227 Time /ms
228 Figure 14.14.
Figure Comparative effects
Comparative of freewheeling
effects injection
of freewheeling circuits
injection on on
circuits thethe
drive current.
drive current.

229 Using
Using thethevariable
variablefreewheeling
freewheeling circuit, the rates
circuit, the ratesofofcurrent
currentdropdrop in in Stages
Stages (a) and
(a) and (b) were
(b) were slower
230 slower than those
than those of the ofRDthe RD freewheeling
freewheeling circuit, circuit, as described
as described in Equationin Equation (1) and (2),
(1) and Equation Equation (2),
respectively.
231 respectively.
Therefore, the Therefore,
processthe process
duration duration
using using the
the variable variable freewheeling
freewheeling circuit
circuit in Stage (a) in Stage
was (a) was
longer. In the
232 longer. In thethe
Ihold phase, Iholdduty
phase,
cyclethe
to duty cycle
maintain thetocurrent
maintain thenear
value current value
the Ihold near
of the RDthe Ihold of the circuit
freewheeling RD
233 freewheeling
was bigger,circuit
and itswas bigger,
current and its current
fluctuation range wasfluctuation range was also larger.
also larger.
234 In In
Stage
Stage(c),(c),
R was
R was Ω,Ω,
10 10 while UD1
while UD1waswas1 V1from
V fromEquation
Equation (1).(1).
As Asthethe
current became
current became smaller,
smaller,
235 thethe
rate
rateof of
current
current drop
dropin in
thethe
RDRDfreewheeling
freewheeling circuit would
circuit would become
become lower.
lower.Using
UsingEquation
Equation (4),(4),
236 when
when r was
r wasnearly
nearly 0 Ω,
0 Ω, thethe
VCCVCCwaswas48 48
V; V;
hence,
hence,when
when I was small,
I was small,thethe
current drop
current droprate hardly
rate hardly
237 changed.
changed. AsAsis illustratedin
is illustratedinFigure 14,14,
Figure thethe
current
currentdrop rate
drop in in
rate thethevariable
variablefreewheeling
freewheeling circuit was
circuit was
faster than that of the RD freewheeling circuit. The former’s solenoid valve seating duration was 30 µs
 Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

238 Energiesthan
faster 12, 564of the RD freewheeling circuit. The former’s solenoid valve seating duration was
2019, that 13 of30
18

239 µs shorter than the inflection point of the drive current, which was nearly equivalent to the landing
240 time of the
shorter thansolenoid valve.point of the drive current, which was nearly equivalent to the landing time
the inflection
of the solenoid valve.
241 4.2. Control Accuracy
242 4.2. Control Accuracy
The cycle variations corresponding to different injection fuel masses at a fuel pressure of 160
243 MPa The
are cycle
shown in Tablecorresponding
variations 3. When the to injection
differentfuel mass fuel
injection wasmasses
the same, the pressure
at a fuel pulse width
of 160ofMPa
the
244 variable
are shown freewheeling circuit the
in Table 3. When wasinjection
slightly fuel
longer,
massbut
was thethe
cycle variation
same, the pulsewas smaller,
width indicating
of the variable
245 better control accuracy in the injection of fuel mass. The control accuracy increased by at least
freewheeling circuit was slightly longer, but the cycle variation was smaller, indicating better control 0.36%
246 or exactlyin2.86%
accuracy at 5-mgoffuel
the injection fuel mass
mass. injection as accuracy
The control shown inincreased
Figure 15. This
by at was
least a result
0.36% of a faster
or exactly 2.86%
247 current drop rate and a faster end of injection in Stage (c).
at 5-mg fuel mass injection as shown in Figure 15. This was a result of a faster current drop rate and
a faster end of injection in Stage (c).
248 Table 3. Comparative effects of freewheeling injection circuits on the control accuracy of fuel mass
249 injection.
Table 3. Comparative effects of freewheeling injection circuits on the control accuracy of fuel
mass injection.
RD freewheeling (1000 cycles)
Fuel Mass (mg) 5RD freewheeling
10 40(1000 cycles)
80 120 160 200
Pulse
Fuel Width
Mass (mg) (µs) 5 265 10334 585
40 777
80 1090
120 1467
160 1847
200
Pulse Width (µs) (%) 2655.94
Cycle Variation 334
4.28 585
2.32 777
1.82 1090
0.87 1467
0.82 1847
0.71
Cycle Variation (%) 5.94 4.28 2.32 1.82 0.87 0.82 0.71
Variable freewheeling (1000 cycles)
Variable freewheeling (1000 cycles)
Fuel Mass (mg)
Fuel Mass (mg) 5
5 10
10 40
40 80
80
120
120
160
160
200
200
Pulse
PulseWidth (µs)(µs) 299299
Width 379379 614
614 808
808 1132
1132 1502
1502 1876
1876
Cycle Variation (%) 3.08 2.18 1.51 1.1 0.45 0.38 0.35
Cycle Variation (%) 3.08 2.18 1.51 1.1 0.45 0.38 0.35

5.6

5.2
Fuel injected
mass/mg

4.8

4.4
RD freewheeling COV=5.94%
4.0 Varible freewheeling COV=3.08%
0 200 400 600 800 1000
250 Injection cycle number
251 Figure 15. Comparative
Figure 15. Comparativeeffects
effectsofoffreewheeling
freewheelinginjection
injection circuits
circuits onon
thethe cycle-by-cycle
cycle-by-cycle variations
variations of
of fuel
252 fuel injected mass at
injected mass at 5 mg.5 mg.

253 4.3. Electric

4.3. Electric Energy
Energy Consumption
Consumption

254 The change

The change in
in VCC
VCC voltage
voltage isis illustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 16.
16. When
When the
the injection
injection fuel
fuel mass
mass was
was 200
200 mg
mg
255 and done at 160 MPa, the fall range of the drive power voltage became 1 V smaller, and its
and done at 160 MPa, the fall range of the drive power voltage became 1 V smaller, and its recovery recovery
256 time was
time was 11 ms
ms shorter
shorter than
than those
those of
of the
the RD
RD freewheeling
freewheeling circuit.
circuit.
 Energies 2019, 12, 564 14 of 18
Energies
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 14 of 19 14 of 19

50 50 50 50

48 48 40 40

46 46 30 30

current /A
current /A
voltage /V
voltage /V

Drive
Drive
Drive
Drive

RD freewheeling
44 44 RD freewheeling
20 20
Varible freewheeling
Varible freewheeling

42 42 10 10

40 40 0 0
0.000 0.001 0.0000.002 0.0010.003 0.0020.004 0.0030.005 0.004 0.005
257 Time /ms Time /ms
25816. Comparative
Figure Figure 16.
16. Comparative
Comparative
Figureeffects effects
effects
of freewheeling of
of freewheeling
freewheeling
injection injection
injection
circuits on circuits
circuits
the electric on
on the
energy the electric energy consumption.
electric energy
consumption. consumption.

259 16, theInlevels

In Figure Figure
Figureof16, 16,the
thelevels
levels
electricity ofofelectricity
electricity
consumption consumption
consumption
were the same were the the
were
when same
the when
same
current the
when current
the current
increased increased
increasedfrom
260 from
0 A
from 0 A to Ipeak. However,to0 IA to. I .
However,However,there there
was was
no no
energyenergy consumption
consumption when when
the
peak there was no energy consumption when the current decreased from Ipeak to
peak the
currentcurrent decreased
decreased from I
from
peak toI Ihold
peak to.
261Ihold IIn
Ihold. In the phase,. InIhold
holdthe thephase,
the Ihold phase,
electric theenergythe electric
electric energyofconsumption
energy consumption
consumption the of of
the variable
variable thefreewheeling
variablecircuit
freewheeling freewheeling
circuit circuit than
waswas smaller was
262 smaller
that of than
the RD that
due oftothe
a RD due
smaller to
dutya smaller
for duty for
maintaining maintaining
the current
smaller than that of the RD due to a smaller duty for maintaining the current value near the Ihold. The the
value current
near the I
value
hold . near
The the
drive I .
power
hold The
263 drive
was power
charged was
in charged
Stage (c) in
when Stage
using(c) when
the using
variable the variable
freewheeling
drive power was charged in Stage (c) when using the variable freewheeling circuit, but not when freewheeling
circuit, but circuit,
not when but
using not thewhen RD
using the 264RD freewheeling
using the RDcircuit.
freewheeling freewheeling
circuit. Therefore,
Therefore, circuit.
the Therefore,
theelectric energy
electric the
energy electric
consumption energy
consumption ofconsumption
of the variable of the variable
freewheeling
the variable circuit
265 freewheeling
was smaller.
freewheeling circuit was smaller. circuit was smaller.

4.4. Highest
266Attainable
4.4. Highest 4.4. Highest Attainable Temperature
Attainable
Temperature Temperature

The267 The highest

The highest
highest temperature temperature
temperature
captured captured
captured
by a thermal by aa thermal
by
infrared thermal infrared
imager infrared imager
(FLIR) atimager
1900 rpm(FLIR)
(FLIR)
wasatatbelow
1900 rpm
1900 rpm was
was below
below
the environment temperature of 20 ◦ C during a single injection and at a fuel mass of 200 mg, as
268
the environment the environment
temperature of temperature
20 °C duringofa 20 °C during
single injectiona single
and at injection
a fuel massand ofat 200
a fuel
mg,mass
as of 200 mg, as
shown in Figure 17. The highest temperature of the variable freewheeling circuit was only
only 37 ◦ C,
37 °C,
269
shown in Figure 17. The highest temperature of the variable freewheeling circuit was only 37 °C,was
shown in Figure 17. The highest temperature of the variable freewheeling circuit
◦
which was270 127 which
which was 127
wasthan
°C lower 127 C°C lower
that of than
lower thatthat
thethan
RD of the
of RD
thefreewheeling
freewheeling RDcircuit. circuit.
freewheeling
This This
duewas
wascircuit. duewas
toThis
the to the smaller
due
smaller to theelectricity
smaller
271
electricity consumption
electricity
consumption in the
in consumption former
the former drive drive
in the former
circuit. circuit.
The driveThe element
circuit.
element thatThe that
hadelementhad the highest
that had
the highest temperature
the highest
temperature in
in temperaturethe RDin
272 freewheeling
the RD circuit
freewheeling was R,
circuit where
was R, as it
wherewasasD2it in
wasthe
D2 variable
in the
the RD freewheeling circuit was R, where as it was D2 in the variable freewheeling circuit. freewheeling
variable circuit.
freewheeling circuit.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

(a) circuit.
(a) RD freewheeling RD freewheeling circuit. freewheeling circuit.
(b) Variable

Figure 17. Comparative effects of freewheeling injection circuits on the highest attainable temperature.
273 Figure 17. Comparative effects of freewheeling injection circuits on the highest attainable
274 temperature.

275 4.5. Cycle-by-Cycle Variations

276 At a load of 1600 rpm, IMEP = 1 MPa, and a circulating fuel injection mass of 100 mg, the
277 cycle-by-cycle variations of the peak cylinder pressure for the two types of the freewheeling circuit
278 are shown in Figure 18. It can be seen that due to the improvement on the control accuracy of the fuel
279 injection mass, the cycle variations (COV) of the peak cylinder pressure using the variable
 (b) Variable freewheeling circuit.

273 Figure 17. Comparative effects of freewheeling injection circuits on the highest attainable
274 temperature.
Energies 2019, 12, 564 15 of 18

275 4.5. Cycle-by-Cycle Variations

4.5. Cycle-by-Cycle Variations
276 At a load of 1600 rpm, IMEP = 1 MPa, and a circulating fuel injection mass of 100 mg, the
277 At a loadvariations
cycle-by-cycle of 1600 rpm,
of theIMEP = 1 MPa,
peak cylinder and a for
pressure circulating fuel injection
the two types mass of 100
of the freewheeling mg,
circuit
278 the cycle-by-cycle variations of the peak cylinder pressure for the two types of the freewheeling
are shown in Figure 18. It can be seen that due to the improvement on the control accuracy of the fuel
279 circuit aremass,
injection shownthein Figure
cycle 18. It can be(COV)
variations seen that
of due
the topeak
the improvement on theusing
cylinder pressure controlthe
accuracy of
variable
280 the fuel injection mass, the cycle variations (COV) of the peak cylinder pressure
freewheeling circuit were reduced from 1.5% to 1%, indicating a significant performance using the variable
281 freewheeling circuit were reduced from 1.5% to 1%, indicating a significant performance improvement.
improvement.

11.0
Peak cylinder pressure/MPa

10.5

10.0

9.5
Cylinder 1 COV=1.498%
Cylinder 3 COV=1.478%
Cylinder 6 COV=1.417%
9.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
282 Combustion cycle number

283 Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW (a) RD freewheeling circuit. 16 of 19

11.0
Peak cylinder pressure/MPa

10.5

10.0

9.5 Cylinder 1 COV=0.977%

Cylinder 3 COV=1.073%
Cylinder 6 COV=0.997%
9.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
284 Combustion cycle number
285 (b) Variable freewheeling circuit.

286 18. Comparative

Figure 18.
Figure effects of
Comparative effects of freewheeling
freewheeling injection
injection circuits
circuits on
on the
the cycle-by-cycle
cycle-by-cycle variations
variations of
of
287 peak cylinder pressure.
peak cylinder pressure.
4.6. Combustion Performance
288 4.6. Combustion Performance
At three load levels (1300 rpm, 1600 rpm, and 1900 rpm) and IMEP = 1 MPa with the same
289 At three load levels (1300 rpm, 1600 rpm, and 1900 rpm) and IMEP = 1 MPa with the same
optimal control strategy, the NOx and soot emissions and the thermal efficiency for the two types of the
290 optimal control strategy, the NOx and soot emissions and the thermal efficiency for the two types of
freewheeling circuit are compared in Figure 19. The engine emissions and combustion efficiency were
291 the freewheeling circuit are compared in Figure 19. The engine emissions and combustion efficiency
improved due to the decrease in the combustion cycle variations, which could effectively reduce the
292 were improved due to the decrease in the combustion cycle variations, which could effectively reduce
influence of deviation of combustion process from the optimal control target. Especially at 1900 rpm,
293 the influence of deviation of combustion process from the optimal control target. Especially at 1900 rpm,
where the NOx and soot emissions were reduced by 3.5% and 4%, respectively, and the thermal
294 where the NOx and soot emissions were reduced by 3.5% and 4%, respectively, and the thermal
efficiency was slightly increased by 0.3%, while the HC and CO emissions were little improved.
295 efficiency was slightly increased by 0.3%, while the HC and CO emissions were little improved.

45 RD freewheeling
fficiency /%

42 40.3565 40.4566 Variable freewheeling

39 37.6622 37.8562
36.2244 36.5015
36
290 optimal control strategy, the NOx and soot emissions and the thermal efficiency for the two types of
291 the freewheeling circuit are compared in Figure 19. The engine emissions and combustion efficiency
292 were improved due to the decrease in the combustion cycle variations, which could effectively reduce
293 the influence of deviation of combustion process from the optimal control target. Especially at 1900 rpm,
294 where 2019,
Energies the 12,
NOx 564 and soot emissions were reduced by 3.5% and 4%, respectively, and the thermal 16 of 18
295 efficiency was slightly increased by 0.3%, while the HC and CO emissions were little improved.

45 RD freewheeling

Efficiency /%
42 40.3565 40.4566 Variable freewheeling
39 37.6622 37.8562
36.2244 36.5015
36
0
0.020
(g·（kW·h) ）
0.015 0.01266 0.01216
-1

0.010 0.00795 0.00775 0.00805 0.00776

soot /

0.005
0.000
5
(g·（kW·h) ）

4 3.26881 3.18493 3.00258 2.89832

-1

3 2.44851 2.3656
NOx /

2
1
0
1300rpm 1600rpm 1900rpm
296
297 (a) Effects
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW on Efficiency, soot and NOx emissions 17 of 19

RD freewheeling
(g·（kW·h) ） (g·（kW·h) ）

0.9
Variable freewheeling 0.73281 0.72725
-1

0.6 0.48398 0.4815

0.45488 0.45375
HC /

0.3

0.0

0.09
0.06531 0.06515 0.06256 0.06209
-1

0.06
0.05666 0.05637
CO /

0.03

0.00
1300rpm 1600rpm 1900rpm
298
299 (b) Effects on HC and CO emissions
300 Figure
Figure 19. Comparative
Comparativeeffects
effects ofof freewheeling
freewheeling injection
injection circuits
circuits on
on the
the engine
engine emissions
emissions and
and
301 combustion
combustion efficiency.
efficiency.

302 5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions

303 (1) Compared

(1) Compared to to the
the RD
RD freewheeling
freewheeling circuit,
circuit, the
the variable
variable freewheeling
freewheeling injector
injector drive
drive circuit
circuit
304 met the requirements better for the rate of current drop in the three
met the requirements better for the rate of current drop in the three different stages of the different stages of the
305 peak-and-hold model.
peak-and-hold model.
306 (2) Through analysis and
(2) Through analysis and structural
structural improvements
improvements to to improve
improve the the safety
safety and
and reliability
reliability of
of the
the
307 circuitry, any anomalies interfering with the practical use of the variable freewheeling
circuitry, any anomalies interfering with the practical use of the variable freewheeling circuit were circuit were
308 eliminated simultaneously.
eliminated simultaneously.
309 (3) Reducing
(3) Reducing the thecurrent
currentdropdrop raterate in the
in the Ihold phase
Ihold phase could could effectively
effectively reduce reduce
the energy the
310 energy consumption.
consumption.
311 (4) By
(4) By charging
chargingthe thedrive
drivepower
powersupply using
supply the electromagnetic
using the electromagnetic energyenergy
released by the injector
released by the
312 during the current closing stage, the electric energy consumption could
injector during the current closing stage, the electric energy consumption could be reduced be reduced and theand
power
the
313 recovery time could be accelerated.
power recovery time could be accelerated.
314 (5) Compared
(5) Compared to to the
the RD
RD freewheeling
freewheeling circuit,
circuit, the
the variable
variable freewheeling
freewheeling circuit
circuit exhibited
exhibited higher
higher
315 accuracy in controlling the injection mass, consumed lower electric energy and
accuracy in controlling the injection mass, consumed lower electric energy and lowered the circuit’s lowered the circuit’s
316 highest attainable
highest attainable temperature.
temperature.
317 (6) Compared to the RD freewheeling circuit, the variable freewheeling circuit could effectively
318 improve the cycle-by-cycle variations, lower the engine emissions and increase the combustion
319 efficiency.
320 The highlights of this article are as follows:
321 1. The injector drive circuitry with variable freewheeling circuit had better control accuracy of
322 fuel injection mass and lower electrical consumption than with a RD freewheeling circuit.
Energies 2019, 12, 564 17 of 18

(6) Compared to the RD freewheeling circuit, the variable freewheeling circuit could
effectively improve the cycle-by-cycle variations, lower the engine emissions and increase the
combustion efficiency.
The highlights of this article are as follows:
1. The injector drive circuitry with variable freewheeling circuit had better control accuracy of
fuel injection mass and lower electrical consumption than with a RD freewheeling circuit.
2. The improved design of the variable freewheeling circuit was studied to eliminate
anomalies interfering.
3. The variable freewheeling circuit could effectively improve the cycle-by-cycle variations,
lower the engine emissions and increase the combustion efficiency of diesel engine than RD
freewheeling circuit.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.L. and S.W.; Methodology, E.L.; Software, E.L.; Validation, E.L.;
Formal Analysis, E.L.; Investigation, E.L.; Resources, E.L.; Data Curation, E.L.; Writing-Original Draft Preparation,
E.L.; Writing-Review & Editing, E.L.; Visualization, E.L.; Supervision, S.W.; Project Administration, S.W.;
Funding Acquisition, S.W.
Funding: This research was funded by [the National Natural Science Foundation of China] grant number
[CNFS NO.51236005] and by [the Ministry of Science and Technology] grant number [973 National Key Project
2013CB228401].
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

Definitions in Circuitry Schematics

VCC Driving Power
L Injector Solenoid
D Diode
R Resistor
Q MOSFET
C Capacitor
QH High-side MOSFET
QL Low-side MOSFET
Definitions in Formulas
VCC Voltage of Driving Power
i Solenoid Current
r Resistance of Solenoid
L Inductance of Solenoid
UD Forward Voltage of D
R Resistance of R

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