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Overview
We began this course by focusing on the idea of physical systems, energy systems, and
transfers of energy between different physical systems. In earlier chapters, we concentrated on
applying an approach to understanding our physical universe that emphasized the results of
interactions. The question we tried to answer was what happened to a physical system from a
time before to a time after the system interacted with other systems. We tried to avoid needing to
understand the details of the interaction. We discovered that changes of energy of a physical
system is a very useful measure of the interaction, not the only measure, but certainly a very
useful measure. We couldn’t completely avoid the details of interactions, however. We saw that
force, the agent of interaction, was involved in the amount of energy transferred during an
interaction. Specifically, the differential amount of energy transferred as work, dW, is equal to
the product of the parallel component of an externally applied force and the distance moved:
dW = F||dx. We wrote a conservation of energy expression (a more general form of the 1st law of
thermodynamics that allows for all kinds of energy changes) to express how the energy of a
system changes in response to energy inputs in the form of heat or work: dE = dQ + dW. We
saw how we could apply this energy formalism to more traditional thermodynamic systems
(gases, heat engines) as well as to mechanical systems. We also developed a simple particulate
model of matter in earlier chapters that involved modeling the bonds between atoms and
molecules as analogous to masses hanging on springs, the masses being in continuous random
oscillation. This simple model allowed us to explain and predict many of the thermal properties
of matter in its various states. Again, we avoided the details of oscillations and focused only on
changes in energies.
In this chapter, we continue our focus on the results of interactions. We are still trying to
address what happens to a physical system from a time before to a time after the system
interacted with other systems. We will analyze two new physical quantities (momentum and
angular momentum) that round out our understanding of the results of an interaction. We still
cannot completely avoid the details of interactions. We will see that force, the agent of
interaction, is also involved when either momentum or angular momentum is transferred during
an interaction.
xf
Instead of calculating an energy transfer called work, W = ∫ F|| dx (or, in differential form,
xi
Newton's Laws to answer interesting questions regarding so much of our everyday experience in
the physical world. So initially we avoid the details of the motion during the interaction and
focus only on changes in momentum. Then, in Chapter 8: The Relation of Force to Motion, we
will explicitly use the time dependence of the impulse to find the detailed time dependence of the
motion, rather than just comparing the end result of changes between two points in time.
The first model/approach in this chapter, Momentum Conservation, gets us into the
meaning of momentum and how changes in momentum are related to forces. We will solidify a
lot of learning regarding forces that was introduced in Chapter 6. Then in the second
model/approach of this chapter, Angular Momentum Conservation, we explore the fascinating
world of rotating objects, from molecules to galaxies. We extend the ideas/constructs of force,
impulse, and momentum to their analogous rotational or angular counterparts: torque, angular
impulse, and angular momentum. You will have ample opportunity to sharpen your vector
manipulation skills that were introduced in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 Momentum Conservation: Linear Momentum Model 55
J = Favg ∆t = pf - pi = ∆p
Impulse is a vector quantity and causes a change in a vector property of a system:
specifically, a change in the linear momentum, ∆p. The change in momentum, is of course,
independent of what Galilean reference frame we choose to measure the momenta in.
Note on units: Force has SI units of newtons, of course. Impulse must therefore have units
of newton seconds, N s. Momentum, the product of mass and velocity, must have SI units of
kilogram meter per second, kg m/s. Since these two quantities are equated, these units must be
equivalent, as you can show using the relation N = kg m/s2.
Linear Momentum
The linear momentum of an object is simply the product of the object’s mass and velocity:
p = mv
Linear momentum incorporates the notion of inertia, expressed as mass, as well as the speed and
direction of motion. In some ways it is similar to kinetic energy, 12 mv2, but an obvious
difference is that momentum has a direction; it is described as a vector. (Often, the word
“momentum” is used without the modifier “linear,” when talking about linear momentum. Later,
however, the modifier “angular” is always used when talking about angular momentum.)
Temporary restriction to non-rotating objects and center of mass
Until we consider rotation of objects in the next model/approach, Angular Momentum
Conservation, we will consider phenomena in which extended objects act only like point
particles. A useful construct that will become much more meaningful when we consider
rotation, is center of mass. Right now we can simply consider that any extended object acts like
a single particle whose mass is equal to the mass of the object, located at the special point, the
center of mass.
Fext on c
c
Fint b on c
d
Fint c on b
b
Fint a on b
a Fint b on a
Of the various impulses shown in the figure, only the impulse caused by Fext on c causes a change
in momentum of the system of particles.
p
tot i
After p
tot i p
tot f
pa
f
a
b p
tot f
p
bf
Regardless of what happens during the collision, as long as the road exerts a negligible
impulse during the collision (compared to the impulses exerted by the colliding autos on each
other), the total momentum of the two autos immediately before the collision equals the total
momentum immediately after the collision. Note that in the example shown in the figure, the
total momentum before and after the collision is shown in the right part of the diagram, and the
vectors are equal. They are equal in spite of the fact that after the collision, the autos bounce off
at an angle wrt (with respect to) the original direction of motion. The components of momenta in
the perpendicular direction cancel each other out, since there was no momentum in the
perpendicular direction before the collision. But before we explore momentum transfers more
closely, we want to examine collisions in general. We especially want to bring energy
conservation as well as momentum conservation into the analysis, so we can use these powerful
conservation laws together. We will see that together, these conservation laws enable us to
answer many (if not most) questions that arise in collisions, whether they be collisions of cars or
galaxies or the elementary particles physicists study in the collisions in particle accelerators.
And we can do this without having to know any details of the actual forces that act during the
collision or the details of how the motion actually changed during the collision. That is, we do it
with a “before and after” approach, not a detailed analysis of the forces and motion approach,
which we will take up later in this chapter. With the combination of energy and momentum
conservation, we have an extremely powerful and general method of analyzing many physical
phenomena. There are, however, some important questions that can’t be answered without using
a detailed analysis of forces and motion.
60 Chapter 7 Momentum Conservation: Linear Momentum Model
Elastic Collisions
In an elastic collision between two objects (particles)
both the momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
That is, the values of the total momentum and kinetic Elastic Collision
energy of the system before the collision are equal to the For Equal Mass Objects
values they have after the collision. This gives us an
equation relating the squares of the speeds of the objects Before
p1 = 0 p
from KE conservation, and a vector equation (one i 2i
equation for each dimension) relating the velocity 1 2
components from linear momentum conservation.
That is, the second ball comes to rest and the first moves off with the same velocity the second
ball had initially. This is illustrated in the accompanying figure.
If the masses are not equal, both objects will have non-zero velocity after the collision.
When the collision involves motion in more than one dimension, we can write a momentum
conservation equation for each component of the total momentum. The algebra might get a little
messy, but the idea is pretty straightforward.
Chapter 7 Momentum Conservation: Linear Momentum Model 61
Inelastic Collisions
In an inelastic collision between two objects kinetic energy is not conserved, so we can not
equate initial and final kinetic energies. However, an interesting special case occurs when the
collision is “completely inelastic” so that the objects stick together. Then they both have the
same final velocity after the collision.
Listed here are the major, most important constructs, relationships, and representations
of the momentum conservation model.
Constructs
Velocity, v
Momentum, p
Net Force, ΣF
Impulse, J
Newton’s 3rd law
Conservation of momentum
62 Chapter 7 Momentum Conservation: Linear Momentum Model
Relationships
dr Δr
The velocity is the time derivative of the displacement: v = or v average =
dt Δt
The linear momentum of an object measured in some coordinate system is simply the product
of the object’s mass and velocity:
p = mv € €
The linear momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of the individual momenta:
psystem = ∑pi
The net force acting on an object (physical system) is the vector sum of all forces acting on
that object (physical system) due to the interactions with other objects (physical systems).
ΣFA = FB on A + FC on A + FD on A + …
The impulse of the total (or net) external force acting on a system equals the product of the
average force and the time interval during which the force acted.
Net Impulseext = J = ΣFavg ext∆t = ∫ ΣFext(t) dt
The force (impulse) exerted by object A on object B is equal and opposite to the force
(impulse) exerted by object B on object A.
FA on B = – FB on A and JA on B = – JB on A
Closed System
Typically used for collisions/interactions involving two or more objects.
Closed
System pi ∆p pf
Object 1
Object 2
Total
0
System
Open System
Typically used when the phenomenon involves a net impulse acting on the system.
Open
System pi ∆p pf
Total
System
For total system: ∆p = J
pi + ∆p = pf
(and for component equations, if useful)
Write expressions for each momentum vector, such as p = mv
Below the momentum chart draw a force diagram for the object. The net force gives the
direction of the impulse and ∆p.
64 Chapter 7 Momentum Conservation: Angular Momentum Model
Overview
The ideas we have developed for linear momentum and impulse apply to rotational motion as
well. But first, we will need to develop the rotational analogs of the various variable and
constructs we have been using. Force, momentum, velocity, impulse all have rotational analogs.
The concept that impulse equals change in linear momentum has its analog in rotational motion
as does the principle of conservation of momentum.
In the last model, we focused both on the properties of forces and the momentum transfers
governing the connection of force to motion. We found that forces can be rather tricky to deal
with, and we, hopefully, began to appreciate the usefulness of being very precise about technical
terminology as it relates to force and motion and to the usefulness of representations such as
momentum charts and force diagrams.
Now we extend the formalism to enable us to analyze and make sense of the motion of
extended objects that can rotate as well as translate. We also introduce the last conserved
quantity that we will work with, angular momentum (which could also be called rotational
momentum). We will introduce a couple of additional concepts: torque and rotational inertia as
well as to ways to describe rotational motion. We will then be in a position to answer detailed
questions and make specific predictions about the magnitudes of individual forces and the
changes in motion caused by the applied forces in a wide variety of situations.
Angular momentum is analogous to momentum (translational or linear momentum) even
though they are quite different physical quantities. For instance, we found in the last model that
the momentum of an object is conserved if there is no net external force acting on it. In this
model we will find that the rotational analogue of force is called torque and that the angular
momentum of an object is conserved if there is no net external torque acting on it (even if there
is a net force). Similarly, a transfer of angular momentum is called angular impulse. Remember
from earlier chapters that work is the integral of the applied force over the distance the system
moves. In this model we broaden our idea of work a little by including the energy transferred if
a torque is applied over the angle that the system rotates.
However, translational or linear momentum (usually just called momentum) and angular
momentum are clearly very different physical quantities and you will have to work hard and be
careful at keeping them separate in your thinking. The difference is obvious when you see a
physical situation but, when discussing abstract ideas without a physical picture in mind, it is
easy to confuse the two quantities. For instance, a ball may be spinning (i.e. have angular
momentum) and flying through the air in a straight line (i.e. have momentum). Or, it may be
spinning at any speed (have any angular momentum) and not be flying through the air. Or, it
may be flying through the air but not spinning at all. So, you see that the amount of angular
momentum the ball has is completely independent of its momentum. The moral of this little
story is the same as with all physics problems: try to keep a concrete physical picture in your
head as you learn new abstract ideas.
Chapter 7 Momentum Conservation: Angular Momentum Model 65
ϑ
The Rotational Analogs of Force, Momentum, Mass,
and Impulse
The Torque Construct; the rotational analog to force F
Fradial
Consider a force F exerted tangentially on the rim of a wheel or
disk. The rim is at a distance r from the axis of rotation. We can
formally define torque, represented by the Greek letter τ, in terms of Ftangential r
the force F and the distance r:
τ = r⊥F = rFtangential ϑ
Note that the angular momentum is related to the linear momentum the same way as torque is
related to force. Both L and τ depend on the choice of the point in space to which they are
referenced. Like torque, angular momentum is a vector. Its direction is perpendicular to both r
and p and is given by the RHR.
If a system has many parts, its total angular momentum is the
vector sum of the angular momenta of all the parts: Direction of θ, ω
L = L1 + L2 + L3 ... = Σ Li and L
A rigid object with rotational inertia I about some particular
axis has an angular momentum about that same axis given by
L=Iω
The direction of L is parallel to the direction of ω. These
directions are shown in the figure. rr
rotation
Rotational Inertia; the rotational analog to mass direction
Recall that for translational motion an object with a large
amount of inertia has a greater momentum than an object with a small amount of inertia, both
moving at the same speed. Mass, m, is the measure of inertia in translational motion.
The rotational motion analogy to inertia is rotational inertia (or rotational mass), or in very
technical language, moment of inertia. With a given net torque, Στ,, different objects will
experience different rotational accelerations.
The rotational inertia of an object does not depend solely on the amount of mass in the
object, but on how this mass is distributed about the axis of rotation.
For the simplest case of a point mass m moving in a circle of radius r, its rotational inertia is
given by:
I = mr2 .
This definition allows us to calculate the rotational inertia of any object, provided we know
the position r of every portion of its mass as measured perpendicularly with respect to the axis of
rotation:
€
Chapter 7 Momentum Conservation: Angular Momentum Model 69
This looks a lot like calculus (which it is in the limit of infinitesimally small mass increments.)
The table below gives the rotational inertia of several simple geometric shapes, as calculated in
the limit of infinitesimal increments of mass using this equation.
Object Rotational
inertia
point mass m moving in radius I = mr2
r
r
As seen from the formulas in the table, objects with the same mass can have very different
rotational inertias, depending on how the mass is distributed with respect to the axis of rotation.
70 Chapter 7 Momentum Conservation: Angular Momentum Model
Also, it is possible for an object to change its rotational inertia (e.g., a gymnast tucking in or
extending arms and legs), which can lead to dramatic results as net torques are applied.
The rotational inertia of a composite object is the sum of the rotational inertias of each
component, all calculated about the same axis.
.
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 +
So for a ring and a disk stacked upon each other and rotating about the symmetry axis of both,
the total rotational inertia is: Itotal = Iring + Idisk .
€
The SI units of rotational inertia are kg·m2.
AngJext =∫ τ ext(t) dt
or, if the torque is constant with time, or we define an average torque, τ avg
AngJext = τ avg ∆t
A Statement of Angular Momentum Conservation:
AngJext =∫ τ ext(t) dt = ∆Lsystem
or
If the net external angular impulse acting on a system is zero, then there is no change
in the total angular momentum of that system; otherwise, the change in angular
momentum is equal to the net external angular impulse.
Energy Systems
The total energy of a system is the sum of all of the various energy systems, which can
include both translational and rotational energy systems. During collisions among parts of a
physical system, energy can be transferred among these separate systems. We have previously
mentioned rotational kinetic energy. Another energy system with a rotational counterpart is
elastic or spring potential energy. The elastic potential energy of a system described by a spring
constant k is:
PEelastic = 1/2 kx2
Similarly, the elastic potential energy of a rotating system which has a linear restoring force is
given by the expression:
PEelastic = 1/2 kθ2
a change in the direction of the large angular momentum of the spinning wheel. If the wheel did
not have this large angular momentum, the torque would cause the wheel to tip over, or “fall
down.”
Angular Momentum Conservation Model Summary
Just as we did for linear momentum conservation, we will summarize the main ideas of the
angular momentum conservation model/approach by listing the (1) constructs, i.e., the “things”
or ideas that are get “used” in the model, (2) the relationships–in mathematical or sentence form–
that connect the constructs in meaningful ways, and (3) the ways of representing the
relationships. Developing a deep and rich understanding of the relationships in a
model/approach comes slowly. It is absolutely not something you can memorize. This
understanding comes only with repeated hard mental effort over a period of time. A good test
you can use to see if you are “getting it” is whether you can tell a full story about each of the
relationships. It is the meaning behind the equations, behind the simple sentence relationships,
that is important for you to acquire. With this kind of understanding, you can apply a
model/approach to the analysis of phenomena you have not thought about before. You can
reason with the model.
Listed here are the major, most important constructs, relationships, and representations
of the angular momentum conservation model.
(Be sure to refer back to the chart on page 34 showing the analogous linear and angular
constructs and relationships.)
Constructs
Angular Velocity, ω
Rotational Inertia, I
Angular Momentum, L
Net Torque, Σ τ
Angular Impulse, angJ
Newton’s 3rd law
Conservation of angular momentum
Relationships
The angular velocity is the time derivative of the displacement:
dθ Δθ
ω= or ω average =
dt Δt
The angular momentum of an object measured about some fixed axes is simply the product of
the object’s rotational inertia and angular velocity:
€ € L = Iω
The angular impulse of the total (or net) external torque acting on an object equals the
product of the average torque and the time interval during which the torque acted.
Net Angular Impulseext = angJ = Σ τ avg ext∆t = ∫ Σ τ ext(t) dt
The directions of torque, impulse, angular velocity, and angular momentum as determined by
the right-hand rule
Chapter 7 Momentum Conservation: Angular Momentum Model 75
The torque (angular impulse) exerted by object A on object B is equal and opposite to the
torque (angular impulse) exerted by object B on object A.
τ A on B = – τ B on A and angJA on B = – angJB on A
Conservation of Angular Momentum
If the net external angular impulse acting on a system is zero, then there is no change in
the total angular momentum of that system; otherwise, the change in angular momentum
is equal to the net external angular impulse.
Net Angular Impulseext = angJ = ∫ Σ τ ext(t) dt = Lf - Li = ∆Lsystem
Representations
Graphical representation of all vector quantities and (vector relationships) as arrows whose
length is proportional to the magnitude of the vector and whose direction is in the direction of the
vector quantity.
Algebraic vector equations. Vectors denoted as bold symbols or with small arrows over the
symbol.
Component algebraic equations, one equation for each of the three independent directions.
A useful way to organize and use the representations of the various quantities that occur in
phenomena involving angular momentum, change in angular momentum, and angular impulse
and torques is an angular momentum chart, which is totally analogous to the linear momentum
chart. The angular momentum chart helps us keep track of what we know about the interaction,
as well as helping us see what we don’t know.
The boxes are to be filled in with scaled arrows representing the various angular momenta and
changes in angular momenta.
Closed System Open System
Typically used for interactions Typically used when the phenomenon
involving two or more objects. involves a net angular impulse acting on the
Closed system.
System Li ∆L Lf Open
System Li ∆L Lf
Object 1 Total
System
Object 2 For total system: ∆L = angJ
Total Li + ∆L = Lf
0
System (and for component equations, if useful)
Wrap-up