INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

DESIGN DATA HAND BOOK

(INTERNAL CIRCULATION)

Jayashish Kumar Pandey

187ME006

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KARNATAKA
SURATHKAL, MANGALORE -575025
2
1. Design of a Cylinder

𝐷 2 ×𝑝
The apparent longitudinal stress, 𝜎𝑙 = [𝐷2 −𝐷2 ]
𝑜
𝐷×𝑝
The apparent circumferential stress, 𝜎𝑐 = 2𝑡
Net longitudinal stress, 𝜎𝐿 = 𝜎𝑙 − 𝜇𝜎𝑐
Net circumferential stress, 𝜎𝐶 = 𝜎𝑐 − 𝜇𝜎𝑙

Here,
Do = is outside diameter in mm,
D = Inside diameter of the cylinder in mm,
p = Maximum pressure inside the engine cylinder in N/mm2,
t = Thickness of the cylinder wall in mm, and
µ = Poisson’s ratio. It is usually taken as 0.25.

𝐷×𝑝
The thickness of the cylinder wall, 𝑡= +𝐶
2𝜎𝑐
Here,
p = Maximum pressure inside the cylinder in N/mm2,
D = Inside diameter of the cylinder or cylinder bore in mm,
σc = Permissible circumferential for the cylinder material in MPa (35 MPa to 100 MPa)
C = Allowance for reboring

Table-1. The allowance of reboring for IC engine cylinders

D (mm) 75 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

C (mm) 1.5 2.4 4.0 6.3 8.0 9.5 11.0 12.5 12.5 12.5

The thickness of cylinder wall may 𝑡 = 0.045𝐷 + 1.6𝑚𝑚

also be considered
Thickness of dry liner 𝑡𝑙𝑛 = 0.03𝐷 𝑡𝑜 0.035𝐷
Thickness of water jacket wall 𝑡𝑤𝑗 = 0.032𝐷 + 1.6𝑚𝑚 or 𝑡/3 for bigger engine
and 3𝑡/4 for smaller engine
Water space between the outer 𝑡𝑤𝑠 =10 mm for a 75 mm cylinder to 75 mm for a
cylinder wall and inner jacket wall 750 mm cylinder
or 0.08 D + 6.5 mm

𝑝𝑚 ×𝑙×𝐴×𝑁
Indicated Power. 𝐼𝑃 =
60×𝑘
Here,
pm = Indicated mean effective pressure in N/mm2
A = Cross-sectional area of the cylinder in mm2
l = Length of stroke in metres
N = Engine speed in RPM
k = number of crank revolutions to complete one cycle, 1 for two-stroke and 2 for four-stroke.

1
 The length of stroke is taken as 1.25D to 1.5D.
Total length of the cylinder with clearance 1.15l.
𝐵𝑃
The mechanical efficiency, 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝐼𝑃
*
The maximum gas pressure can be taken 9 to 10 times the mean effective pressure.
The cylinder flange thickness varies from 1.2t to 1.4t.
𝜋
The maximum load on studs, 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4 × 𝐷2 × 𝑝
𝜋
The resisting force of studs, 𝐹𝑟 = 𝑛𝑠 × 4 × 𝑑𝑐 2 × 𝜎𝑡
Here,
D = Cylinder bore in mm,
p = Maximum pressure in N/mm2,
ns = Number of studs. It may be taken as 0.01 D + 4 to 0.02 D + 4
dc = Core or minor diameter, i.e. diameter at the root of the thread in mm
σt = Allowable tensile stress for the material of studs or bolts in MPa (35 to 70 MPa).
The nominal or major diameter of the stud or bolt, d =0.75 tf to tf,
The distance of the flange from the centre of the hole for the stud or bolt = d+6 to 1.5d
The pitch of bolts and studs = 19√𝑑 𝑡𝑜 28.5√𝑑

𝐶 × 𝑝⁄
The thickness of cylinder head, 𝑡ℎ = 𝐷√( 𝜎𝑐 )
Here,
σc = Permissible circumferential for the cylinder material in MPa (30 MPa to 50 MPa)
C = Constant whose value is taken as 0.1
The pitch circle diameter Dp is taken as D+3d.

2. Design of Piston

The thickness of piston head by

Grashoff’s formula,
3𝑝𝐷2
𝑡𝐻 = √
16𝜎𝑡
Here,
σt = Permissible bending (tensile)
stress for the material of the piston in
MPa or N/mm2.
35 to 40 MPa for grey cast iron,
50 to 90 MPa for nickel cast iron and
aluminium alloy
60 to 100 MPa for forged steel.

By considering the heat transfer,

𝐻
𝑡𝐻 =
12.56𝑘(𝑇𝐶 − 𝑇𝐸 )

2
Here,
H = Heat flowing through the piston head in kJ/s or watts,
= 𝐶 × 𝐻𝐶𝑉 × 𝑚 × 𝐵𝑃(𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊)
C = Constant representing that portion of the heat supplied to the engine, absorbed by the piston.
(Its value is usually taken as 0.05.)
HCV = Higher calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg.
M = Mass of the fuel used in kg per brake power per second.
B.P. = Brake power of the engine per cylinder

k = Heat conductivity factor in W/m/°C.

46.6 W/m/°C for grey cast iron,
51.25 W/m/°C for steel,
174.75 W/m/°C for aluminium alloys.
TC = Temperature at the centre of the piston head in °C, and
TE = Temperature at the edges of the piston head in °C
*
The temperature difference (TC– TE) may be taken as 220°C for cast iron and 75°C for aluminium.
*
When tH is greater than 6 mm, ribs are required. The thickness of the ribs varies as (tH/3) to (tH/2).
*
For length of stroke to cylinder bore (L / D) ratio up to 1.5, a cup is provided with a radius equal to 0.7 D.

3𝑝𝑤
The radial thickness of piston ring, 𝑡1 = 𝐷 √
𝜎𝑡
Here,
D = Cylinder bore in mm,
pw = Pressure of gas on the cylinder wall in N/mm2. (0.025 N/mm2 to 0.042 N/mm2)
σt = Allowable bending (tensile) stress in MPa. (85 MPa to 110 MPa for cast iron rings)

The axial thickness (t2 ) of the rings may be taken as 0.7 t1 to t1.
𝐷
The minimum axial thickness, 𝑡2 = 10𝑛 ; nR is number of rings.
𝑅
Width of Top land, 𝑏1 = 𝑡𝐻 𝑡𝑜 1.2𝑡𝐻
Width of other ring lands, 𝑏2 = 0.75𝑡2 𝑡𝑜 𝑡2
The gap between free ends of ring = 3.5𝑡1 𝑡𝑜 4𝑡1
The gap when rings are in cylinder = 0.002𝐷 𝑡𝑜 0.004𝐷

The maximum thickness of piston barrel, 𝑡3 = 0.03𝐷 + 𝑏 + 4.5𝑚𝑚

Here,
b = Radial depth of piston ring groove (It is 0.4 mm larger than the radial thickness of the piston ring (t1))
= t1 + 0.4 mm
The piston wall thickness (t4) towards the open end should be taken as 0.25 t3 to 0.35 t3.

𝜋
The maximum gas load on piston, 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑃 = 𝑝 × 4 𝐷2
𝐹 𝜋
The maximum side thrust, 𝑅 = 𝑃⁄10 = 0.1𝑝 × 4 𝐷2 = 𝑝𝑏 × 𝐷 × 𝑙
Here,
l = length of piston skirt
pb = bearing pressure
D×l = Projected bearing area on piston skirt.
*
Usually length of piston skirt is taken 0.65 to 0.8 time the cylinder bore.

3
 Total length of piston, 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡 + 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑
*
Usually length of piston varies from D to 1.5D.

Load on piston pin due to bearing pressure, 𝑃′ = 𝑝𝑏1 × 𝑑0 × 𝑙1 = 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥

Here,
do = Outside diameter of piston pin in mm
l1 = Length of piston pin in the bush of the small end of the connecting rod in mm, usually 0.45 D.
pb1 = Bearing pressure at the small end of the connecting rod bushing (for the bronze bushing 25 N/mm2).
𝐷+𝑙1
The length between the support, 𝑙2 = 2
The maximum bending moment at the centre of the pin,
𝑃×𝐷
𝑀= = 𝑍 × 𝜎𝑏
8
𝜋 (𝑑 )4 −(𝑑 )4
Section Modulus, 𝑍 = 32 [ 𝑜 𝑑 𝑖 ]
𝑜
Here,
σb = Allowable bending stress for the material of the piston pin.
(84 MPa for case hardened carbon steel and 140 MPa for
heat treated alloy steel)
di = Inner diameter of piston pin in mm, it is taken as 0.6 do.

3. Connecting Rod
𝜋𝐷 2
Force on the piston due to gas pressure, 𝐹𝑃 = 𝑝 × 4
cos 2𝜃
Inertia force of reciprocating parts, 𝐹𝐼 = 𝑚𝑅 × 𝜔2 × 𝑟 × (cos 𝜃 + )
𝑛
Net force on piston, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑃 ± 𝐹𝐼

Here,
p = maximum
pressure of gas
mR = mass of
reciprocating
parts
ω = Angular
speed of crank
φ = Angle of
inclination of the
connecting rod
with the line of
stroke
θ = Angle of
inclination of the
crank from top
dead centre,
r = Radius of crank,
l = Length of connecting rod, and
n = Ratio of length of connecting rod to radius of crank = l / r

4
 For heavier flywheel, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑃 ∓ 𝐹𝐼 ± 𝑊𝑅

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡⁄ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡
Force in connecting rod at any instance, 𝐹𝑐 = ( cos 𝜑) = ( ⁄ )
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜑
√(1 − 2 )
𝑛
Inertia force per unit length at the crankpin
= 𝑚1 × 𝜔2 × 𝑟
Inertia force per unit length at the piston pin
=0
Inertia force due to small element of length dx at a distance
𝑚
x from the piston pin P, 𝐹𝐼 = 2 × 𝜔2 × 𝑟
Now the bending moment acting on the rod at section X –
X at a distance x from P,
𝐹𝐼 𝑥3
𝑀𝑋 = (𝑥 − 2 )
3 𝑙
Maximum bending moment,
𝑙
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚1 × 𝜔2 × 𝑟 × 9√3
The maximum bending stress, due to
inertia of the connecting rod,
𝑀
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑍
The frictional force of the piston rings,
𝐹 = 𝜋𝐷 ∙ 𝑡𝑅 ∙ 𝑝𝑅 ∙ 𝜇
Here,
tR = Axial width of rings
nR = Number of rings,
pR = Pressure of rings (0.025 to 0.04
N/mm2)
μ = Coefficient of friction (about 0.1)

The Rankine’s formula,

(𝜎𝐶 𝐴) (𝜎 𝐴)
Buckling load about X-axis, 𝑊𝐵 = { 𝑙 2
}={ 𝐶 𝑙 2
}
⁄ ⁄
(1 + 𝑎 (𝐼 ) ) (1 + 𝑎 (𝐾 ) )
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
(for both ends hinged, L=l)

(𝜎𝐶 𝐴) (𝜎𝐶 𝐴)
Buckling load about Y-axis, 𝑊𝐵 = 2 = 2
⁄ 𝑙 ⁄ 𝑙
(1 + 𝑎 (𝐼 ) ) (1 + 𝑎 (2𝐾 ) )
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
{ } { }
(for both ends hinged, l=l/2)

Here,
A = Cross section area of connecting rod,
l = Length of connecting rod,
σc = Compressive yield stress,
5
 WB = Buckling load,
Ixx & Iyy = Moment of inertia of the section about X-axis and Y-axis respectively,
Kxx & kyy = Radius of gyration of the section about X-axis and Y-axis respectively,
L = Equivalent length of connecting rod,
a = Constant, (1/7500) for mild steel, (1/9000) for wrought iron, (1/1600) for cast iron.
In order to have a connecting rod equally strong in buckling about both the axes, the buckling loads must be
equal, hence,
𝐾𝑥𝑥 2 = 4𝐾𝑦𝑦 2 ⇒ 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦

I-section connecting rod,

Let thickness of the flange and web of the section is t,
Width of the section, B = 4t
Depth or height of the section, H = 5t
Area of the section, A = 11t2
419
Moment of inertia of the section about X-axis, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 12 𝑡 4
131 4
Moment of inertia of the section about X-axis, 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡
12
The buckling load WB = max. gas force × factor of safety
Factor of safety fs is taken as 5 or 6.

Load on crank pin, 𝐹𝑐𝑟 = 𝑑𝑐 × 𝑙𝑐 × 𝑝𝑏𝑐 = 𝐹𝑃

Load on piston pin, 𝐹𝑝𝑝 = 𝑑𝑝 × 𝑙𝑝 × 𝑝𝑏𝑝 = 𝐹𝑃
Here,
p = Maximum gas force on piston in N/mm2,
dc & dp = Diameter of crank pin and piston pin respectively, mm
lc & lp = Length of crank pin and piston pin respectively, mm
pbc & pbp = Allowable bearing pressure at crank pin and piston pin respectively in N/mm2

cos 2𝜃
Inertia force of reciprocating parts, 𝐹𝐼 = 𝑚𝑅 × 𝜔2 × 𝑟 × (cos 𝜃 + )
𝑙⁄𝑟
At the top dead centre angle of inclination is 0, so,
𝑟
𝐹𝐼 = 𝑚𝑅 × 𝜔2 × 𝑟 × (1 + )
𝑙
𝜋
Force on the bolts, 𝐹𝑏 = 4 (𝑑𝑐𝑏 )2 × 𝜎𝑡 × 𝑛𝑏
Here,
dcb = Core diameter of the bolts, mm
σt = Allowable tensile stress for the material of the bolts in MPa,
nb = Number of bolts, generally two bolts are used
for sustainability of the bolts, 𝐹𝐼 = 𝐹𝑏
𝑑
𝑐𝑏
the nominal or major diameter of the bolts, 𝑑𝑏 = 0.84

𝑃𝐼 ×𝑥
The maximum bending moment on the cap, 𝑀𝐶 = 6

6
 Here,
x = distance between bolt centres
= dc+2×thickness of bearing liner (3mm) +clearance (3mm)
bc = Width of cap in mm
= lc (length of the crankpin or big end bearing)
σb = Allowable bending stress for material of the cap in MPa

𝑏𝑐 (𝑡𝑐 )2
Section modulus for the cap, 𝑍𝐶 = 6
𝑀𝐶
Bending Stress, 𝜎𝑏 = 𝑍𝐶

4. Crankshaft
The crankshafts are subjected to shock and fatigue loads. Thus, material of the crankshaft should be tough
and fatigue
resistant. The
crankshafts are
generally made of
carbon steel, special
steel or special cast
iron. The following
table shows the
allowable bending
and shear stresses
for some commonly used materials for crankshafts.

Table 2. Allowable bending and shear stresses.

Endurance limit in MPa Allowable stress in MPa
Material
Bending Shear Bending Shear
Chrome nickel
525 290 130 to 175 72.5 to 97
Carbon steel
225 124 56 to 75 31 to 42
and cast steel
140 140 35 to 47 35 to 47
Alloy cast iron

Crank Shaft design involves two different types of crank shaft, first centre crank shaft and second side crack
shaft.
(a) Centre Crank shaft
☞ When the crank is at dead centre

2
Thrust on the connecting rod is equal to the gas load 𝐹𝑃 , 𝐹𝑃 = 𝑝 × (𝜋𝐷 ⁄4)

The horizontal reaction H1 and H2 due to gas load are,

(𝐹 × 𝑏1 )⁄ (𝐹𝑃 × 𝑏2 )⁄
𝐻1 = 𝑃 𝑏 and 𝐻2 = 𝑏

The vertical reactions V2 and V3 due to flywheel are,

(𝑊 × 𝑐1 )⁄ (𝑊 × 𝑐2 )⁄
𝑉2 = 𝑐 and 𝑉3 = 𝑐
7
The horizontal reactions H2′ and H3′ due to
resultant belt tension (T1+T2) are,

((𝑇1 + 𝑇2 ) × 𝑐1 )⁄
𝐻2′ = { 𝑐} and
((𝑇1 + 𝑇2 ) × 𝑐2 )⁄
𝐻3′ = { 𝑐}
The resultant force at bearing 2,
𝑅2 = √(𝐻2 + 𝐻2′ )2 + (𝑉2 )2
The resultant force at bearing 3,
𝑅3 = √(𝐻3 )2 + (𝑉3 )2
Here,
D = Piston diameter or cylinder bore in mm,
p = Maximum intensity of pressure on the
piston in N/mm2,
W = Weight of the flywheel acting
downwards in N,
T1 = Belt tension in tight side in N,
T2 = Belt tension in slack side in N.

The bending moment at the centre of crankpin, 𝑀𝐶 = 𝐻1 × 𝑏2 = (𝜋⁄32) × (𝑑𝑐 )3 × 𝜎𝑏

𝐹
The length of the crankpin, 𝑙𝐶 = { 𝑃⁄(𝑑 × 𝑝 )}
𝐶 𝑏
Here,
dC = Diameter of the crankpin in mm,
lC = Length of the crankpin in mm,
σb = Allowable bending stress for the crankpin in N/mm2,
pb = Permissible bearing pressure in N/mm2.

The thickness of crank web, 𝑡 = 0.4𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 0.6𝑑𝑠

= 0.22𝐷 𝑡𝑜 0.32𝐷
= 0.65𝑑𝑐 + 6.35𝑚𝑚
Here,
ds = Shaft diameter in mm,
D = Bore diameter in mm,
dC = Crankpin diameter in mm.

The width of the crank web, 𝑤 = 1.125𝑑𝑐 + 12.7𝑚𝑚

𝑙𝐶 𝑡
The maximum bending moment on the crank web, 𝑀 = 𝐻1 (𝑏2 − − 2)
2
1 2
The section modulus, 𝑍 = 6×𝑤×𝑡
And bending stress, 𝜎𝑏 = 𝑀⁄𝑍
𝐻
The direct compressive stress on crank web, 𝜎𝐶 = 1⁄(𝑤 ∙ 𝑡)
Total stress on crank web, 𝜎 = 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝐶
8
It must be less than the permissible limit.

The bending moment due to the weight of flywheel, 𝑀𝑊 = 𝑉3 ∙ 𝑐1

The bending moment due to belt tension, 𝑀𝑇 = 𝐻3′ ∙ 𝑐1
The resultant bending moment at the flywheel, 𝑀𝑆 = √(𝑀𝑊 )2 + (𝑀𝑇 )2 = √(𝑉3 ∙ 𝑐1 )2 + (𝑉3 ∙ 𝑐1 )2
The bending moment at the shaft, 𝑀𝑆 = (𝜋⁄32) ∙ (𝑑𝑆 )2 ∙ 𝜎𝑏

Here,
ds = Shaft diameter in mm,
σb = Allowable bending stress in N/mm2.

☞ When the crank is at an angle of maximum twisting moment.

𝐹
The thrust at the connecting rod, 𝐹𝑄 = ( 𝑃⁄cos 𝜑)
Here,
φ = Angle of
inclination of the
connecting rod with the
line of stroke PO,

The tangential force is,

𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹𝑄 ∙ sin(𝜃 + 𝜑)

And the radial force is,

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹𝑄 ∙ cos(𝜃 + 𝜑)

The reactions due to FT

on bearings 1 & 2,
(𝐹 × 𝑏1 )⁄
𝐻𝑇1 = 𝑇 𝑏
(𝐹𝑇 × 𝑏2 )⁄
𝐻𝑇2 = 𝑏

The reactions due to FR

on bearing 1 & 2,
(𝐹 × 𝑏1 )⁄ (𝐹𝑅 × 𝑏2 )⁄
𝐻𝑅1 = 𝑅 𝑏 and 𝐻𝑅2 = 𝑏

The moment at the centre of the crankpin, 𝑀𝐶 = 𝐻𝑅1 × 𝑏2

And the twisting moment on the crankpin, 𝑇𝐶 = 𝐻𝑇1 × 𝑟
The equivalent twisting moment, 𝑇𝑒 = √(𝑀𝐶 )2 + (𝑇𝐶 )2 = √(𝐻𝑅1 × 𝑏2 )2 + (𝐻𝑇1 × 𝑟)2
And the equivalent twisting moment is also, 𝑇𝑒 = (𝜋⁄16)(𝑑𝑐 )3 𝜏
Here,
dC = diameter of the crankpin in mm,
τ = Allowable shear stress in crankpin in N/mm2.

9
Shaft under flywheel,
The bending moment on the shaft, 𝑀𝑆 = 𝑅3 × 𝑐1
The twisting moment on the shaft, 𝑇𝑆 = 𝐹𝑇 × 𝑟
Equivalent twisting moment on the shaft, 𝑇𝑒 = √(𝑀𝑆 )2 + (𝑇𝑆 )2 = √(𝑅3 × 𝑐1 )2 + (𝐹𝑇 × 𝑟)2
Also, the equivalent twisting moment is also, 𝑇𝑒 = (𝜋⁄16)(𝑑𝑆 )3 𝜏
Here,
dS = diameter of the shaft in mm,
τ = Allowable shear stress in the shaft in N/mm2.

Shaft at the juncture of right-hand crank arm,

The bending moment at the juncture of the right-hand crank arm,
𝑙𝑐 𝑡 𝑙𝑐 𝑡
𝑀𝑆1 = 𝑅1 (𝑏2 + + ) − 𝐹𝑄 ( + )
2 2 2 2
The twisting moment at the juncture of the right-hand crank arm, 𝑇𝑆1 = 𝐹𝑇 × 𝑟
Equivalent twisting moment on the shaft, 𝑇𝑒 = √(𝑀𝑆1 )2 + (𝑇𝑆1 )2
Also, the equivalent twisting moment is also, 𝑇𝑒 = (𝜋⁄16)(𝑑𝑆1 )3 𝜏
Here,
dS1 = diameter of the shaft at the juncture of right-hand crank arm in mm,
τ = Allowable shear stress in the shaft in N/mm2.

Right-hand crank web,

𝑙𝑐 𝑡
The bending moment due to radial component of FQ is, 𝑀𝑅 = 𝐻𝑅2 (𝑏1 − − 2)
2
1
It is also expressed as, 𝑀𝑅 = 𝜎𝑏𝑅 × 𝑍 = 𝜎𝑏𝑅 × 6 × 𝑤 ∙ 𝑡 2
Here,
σbR = Bending stress in radial direction,
Z = Section modulus = 1⁄6 × 𝑤 ∙ 𝑡 2
The maximum bending moment due to the tangential component of FQ at the juncture of
crank and shaft,
𝑑𝑠1
𝑀𝑇 = 𝐹𝑇 (𝑟 − )
2
Also given as,
1
𝑀𝑇 = 𝜎𝑏𝑇 × 𝑍 = 𝜎𝑏𝑇 × × 𝑤 ∙ 𝑡 2
6
Here,
dS1 = diameter of the shaft at the juncture of right-hand crank arm in mm,
σbT = Allowable shear stress in the shaft in N/mm2.
Z = Section modulus.

𝐹
The direct compressive stress is, 𝜎𝑑 = 𝑅⁄2𝑤 ∙ 𝑡
The maximum compressive stress (σc) will occur at the upper left corner of the cross-section of
the crank, 𝜎𝑐 = 𝜎𝑏𝑅 + 𝜎𝑏𝑇 + 𝜎𝑑

𝑙 𝑑𝑠1 𝑙
The twisting moment on the arm, 𝑇 = 𝐻𝑇1 (𝑏2 + 2𝑐) − (𝐹𝑇 × ) = 𝐻𝑇2 (𝑏1 − 2𝑐)
2
The shear stress on the arm, 𝜏 = 𝑇⁄𝑍 = 4.5𝑇⁄𝑤 ∙ 𝑡 2
𝑃
10
 Here,
ZP = Polar section modulus = 4.5𝑇⁄𝑤 ∙ 𝑡 2

𝜎𝐶
Maximum/ total combined stress, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ⁄2 + 1⁄2 √((𝜎𝐶 )2 + 4𝜏 2 )
σmax must be within safe limits.

Crankshaft bearings,
𝐹𝑃⁄ 𝑊 (𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )⁄
Reaction at bearing 2, 𝑅2 = 2 + ⁄2 + 2
𝑅2
Total bearing pressure, 𝑝𝑏𝑇 = ⁄𝑙 ∙ 𝑑
2 𝑆1
Here,
l2 = length of bearing

(b) Side or Overhung Crankshaft

☞ The crank is at dead centre,
Force on the piston due to gas pressure, 𝐹𝑃 = 𝜋⁄4 × 𝐷2 × 𝑝
Due to this piston gas load (FP) acting horizontally, there will be two horizontal reactions H1and
H2 at bearings 1 and 2
respectively,

{𝐹𝑃 ∙ (𝑎 + 𝑏)}⁄
𝐻1 = 𝑏 and
{𝐹𝑃 ∙ 𝑎}⁄
𝐻2 = 𝑏

Due to the weight of the

flywheel (W) acting
downwards, there will be
two vertical reactions V1
and V2 at bearings l and 2
respectively,

{𝑊 ∙ 𝑏1 }⁄
𝑉1 = 𝑏 and
{𝑊 ∙ 𝑏2 }⁄
𝑉2 = 𝑏

Due to the resultant belt

tension (T1 + T2) acting
horizontally, there will be two horizontal reactions H1′ and H2′ at bearings 1 and 2 respectively,

{(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 ) ∙ 𝑏1 }⁄ {(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 ) ∙ 𝑏2 }⁄
𝐻1′ = 𝑏 and 𝐻2′ = 𝑏
Here,
W = Weight of the flywheel acting downwards in N,
T1+T2 = Resultant belt tension or pull acting horizontally in N

11
Considering crankpin, 𝐹𝑃 = 𝑑𝐶 ∙ 𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝑝𝑏
The maximum bending moment at the crankpin, 𝑀 = 3⁄4 (𝐹𝑃 ∙ 𝑙𝐶 )
Section modulus for the crankpin, 𝑍 = 𝜋⁄32 (𝑑𝐶 )3
Bending stress induced, 𝜎𝐶 = 𝑀⁄𝑍

Here,
dC = Diameter of the crankpin in mm,
lC = Length of the crankpin in mm, and
pb = Safe bearing pressure on the pin in N/mm2. It may be between 9.8 to 12.6 N/mm2
This induced bending stress should be within the permissible limits.

Bearing,
The bending moment at the centre of the bearing 1 is,
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑃 (0.75𝑙𝐶 + 𝑡 + 0.5𝑙1 )
It is also given as,
𝑀 = 𝜋⁄32 (𝑑𝐶 )3 𝜎𝑏
Here,
lC = Length of the crankpin,
t = Thickness of the crank web = 0.45 dC to 0.75 dC,
l1 = Length of the bearing = 1.5 dC to 2 dC.

Crank web,
The bending moment at the crank web is,
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑃 (0.75𝑙𝐶 + 0.5𝑡)
Section modulus. 𝑍 = 1⁄6 × 𝑤 ∙ 𝑡 2
Bending stress, 𝜎𝑏 = 𝑀⁄𝑍
𝐹
The compressive stress, 𝜎𝑑 = 𝑃⁄𝑤 ∙ 𝑡
Total stress on crank web, 𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑑

Shaft under flywheel,

The horizontal bending moment at the flywheel location due to piston gas load,
𝑀1 = 𝐹𝑃 (𝑎 + 𝑏2 ) − 𝐻1 ∙ 𝑏2 = 𝐻2 ∙ 𝑏1
The horizontal bending moment at the flywheel location due to belt pull,
((𝑇1 + 𝑇2 ) ∙ 𝑏1 ∙ 𝑏2 )⁄
𝑀2 = 𝐻1′ ∙ 𝑏2 = 𝐻2′ ∙ 𝑏1 = 𝑏
Total horizontal bending moment,
𝑀𝐻 = 𝑀1 + 𝑀2
The vertical bending moment due to flywheel weight,
𝑊𝑏1 𝑏2⁄
𝑀𝑉 = 𝑉1 ∙ 𝑏2 = 𝑉2 ∙ 𝑏1 = 𝑏
Resultant bending moment,
𝑀𝑅 = √(𝑀𝐻 )2 + (𝑀𝑉 )2
It’s also,
𝑀𝑅 = 𝜋⁄32 (𝑑𝑆 )3 𝜎𝑏
dS = Diameter of the shaft under flywheel in mm.
12
☞ The crank is at an angle of maximum twisting moment.
The reactions due to tangential force FT on bearings 1 & 2,
(𝐹 × (𝑎 + 𝑏))⁄
𝐻𝑇1 = 𝑇 𝑏 and
(𝐹 × 𝑎)⁄
𝐻𝑇2 = 𝑇 𝑏

The reactions due to FR

on bearing 1 & 2,
(𝐹 × (𝑎 + 𝑏))⁄
𝐻𝑅1 = 𝑅 𝑏
and
(𝐹 × 𝑎)⁄
𝐻𝑅2 = 𝑅 𝑏

The reactions at the

bearings 1 and 2 due to
the flywheel weight (W)
and resultant belt pull (T1 + T2) will be same as described earlier.

Crank web
𝑑1⁄
The bending moment due to the tangential force, 𝑀𝑏𝑇 = 𝐹𝑇 (𝑟 − 2)
d1 is the diameter of bearing 1.

𝑀𝑏𝑇⁄ 6𝑀𝑏𝑇⁄
Bending stress due to tangential force, 𝜎𝑏𝑇 = 𝑍= 𝑡 ∙ 𝑤2
Bending moment due to radial force, 𝑀𝑏𝑅 = 𝐹𝑅 (0.75𝑙𝐶 + 0.5𝑡)
𝑀 6𝑀𝑏𝑅⁄
Bending stress due to radial force, 𝜎𝑏𝑅 = 𝑏𝑅⁄𝑍 = 𝑡 ∙ 𝑤2
𝐹
Direct compressive stress, 𝜎𝑑 = 𝑅⁄𝑤 ∙ 𝑡
Total compressive stress, 𝜎𝐶 = 𝜎𝑏𝑇 + 𝜎𝑏𝑅 + 𝜎𝑑
Twisting moment due to tangential force, 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑇 (0.75𝑙𝐶 + 0.5𝑡)
Shear stress, 𝜏 = 𝑇⁄𝑍 = 4.5𝑇⁄𝑡 ∙ 𝑤 2
𝑃
2
Here, 𝑍𝑃 is polar section modulus = 𝑡 ∙ 𝑤 ⁄4.5
𝜎
The maximum/total stress, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶⁄2 + 1⁄2 √(𝜎𝐶 )2 + 4𝜏 2
This total maximum stress should be less than the maximum allowable stress.

Shaft at the junction of crank

The bending moment at the junction of the crank,
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑄 (0.75𝑙𝐶 + 𝑡)
And twisting moment on the shaft, 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑇 × 𝑟
Equivalent twisting moment, 𝑇𝑒 = √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2
It is also found as, 𝑇𝑒 = 𝜋⁄16 ((𝑑𝑠1 )3 𝜏)

13
 Shaft under flywheel,
The resultant bending moment (MR) acting on the shaft is obtained in the similar way as
described for dead centre position.
The horizontal bending moment acting on the shaft due to piston gas load,
𝑀1 = 𝐹𝑃 (𝑎 + 𝑏2 ) − [√(𝐻𝑅1 )2 + (𝐻𝑇1 )2 ] 𝑏1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 horizontal bending moment at the flywheel location due to belt pull,
{(𝑇1+ 𝑇2 )𝑏1𝑏2 }⁄
𝑀2 = 𝐻1′ 𝑏2 = 𝐻2′ 𝑏1 = 𝑏
Total horizontal bending moment, 𝑀𝐻 = 𝑀1 + 𝑀2

Vertical bending moment due to flywheel weight,

{𝑊𝑏1 𝑏2 }⁄
𝑀𝑉 = 𝑉1 𝑏2 = 𝑉2 𝑏1 = 𝑏
Resultant bending moment, 2
𝑀𝑅 = √(𝑀𝐻 ) + (𝑀𝑉 ) 2

The twisting moment on the shaft, 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑇 × 𝑟

Equivalent twisting moment, 𝑇𝑒 = √(𝑀𝑅 )2 + 𝑇 2
It is also found as, 𝑇𝑒 = 𝜋⁄16 ((𝑑𝑠 )3 𝜏)
Here, dS = Diameter of shaft under the flywheel.

5. Valve Gear Mechanism

(a) Valve
Size of valve port
ap = Area of the port,
vp = Mean velocity of gas flowing through the port,
a = Area of the piston,
v = Mean velocity of the piston.
Area of port 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑣⁄𝑣𝑝
The mean velocity can be taken from the table,

Table 3. Mean velocity of the gas (vp)

Mean velocity of the gas (vp) m/s
Type of engine
Inlet valve Exhaust valve
Low speed 33 – 40 40 – 50
High speed 80 – 90 90 – 100

Thickness of the valve disc

𝑝
𝑡 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑑𝑝 √ ⁄𝜎𝑏

Here,
k = Constant = 0.42 for steel and 0.54 for cast iron,
dp = Diameter of the port in mm,
p = Maximum gas pressure in N/mm2,
σb = Permissible bending stress (50 to 60 MPa for carbon steel, 100 to 120 MPa for alloy steel)

14
 Maximum lift of the valve
h = Lift of the valve
α = Angle at which valve seat is tapered =30º to 40º
𝑑
ℎ = 𝑝⁄4 cos 𝛼
in case of flat headed valve,
𝑑
ℎ = 𝑝⁄4
The valve seats usually have the same angle as the valve seating surface.
But it is preferable to make the angle of valve seat 1/2° to 1° larger than the
valve angle.

Valve stem diameter dS

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑆 = ( 𝑝⁄8 + 6.35mm) to ( 𝑝⁄8 + 11mm)
The valve is subjected to spring force which is taken as concentrated load at the centre. Due to this spring
force (Fs), the stress in the valve (σt) is,
1.4𝐹𝑠⁄ 2𝑑𝑠
𝜎𝑠 = 𝑡 2 (1 − ⁄3𝑑 )
𝑝
(b) Rocker Arm
mv = Mass of the valve,
dv = Diameter of the
valve head,
h = Lift of the valve,
a = Acceleration of
the valve,
pc = Cylinder
pressure or back pressure
when the exhaust valve
opens,
ps = Maximum
suction pressure.

The gas load, 𝑃 = area of valve × Cylinder pressure when the exhaust valve opens = 𝜋⁄4 (𝑑𝑣 )2 𝑝𝑐
Spring force, 𝐹𝑠 = area of valve × maximum suction pressure = 𝜋⁄4 (𝑑𝑣 )2 𝑝𝑠
Force due to valve acceleration, 𝐹𝑣𝑎 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 of valve × acceleration of valve = 𝑚𝑣 × 𝑎
Maximum load on rocker arm for exhaust valve, 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑃 + 𝐹𝑠 + 𝐹𝑣𝑎
Maximum load on rocker arm for inlet valve, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹𝑠 + 𝐹𝑣𝑎

Fulcrum pin
The load acting on the fulcrum pin is the total reaction (RF), 𝑅𝐹 = 𝑑1 ∙ 𝑙1 ∙ 𝑝𝑏
Here,
d1 = Diameter of the fulcrum pin,
l1 = Length of the fulcrum pin.

Considerations
The ratio of 𝑙1⁄𝑑1 is taken as 1.25 and the bearing pressure (pb) for ordinary lubrication is taken
from 3.5 to 6 N / mm2 and it may go up to 10.5 N/mm2 for forced lubrication.
15
The pin should be checked for the induced shear stress.
The thickness of the phosphor bronze bush may be taken from 2 to 4 mm.
The outside diameter of the boss at the fulcrum is usually taken twice the diameter of the fulcrum pin.

Forked End
The load acting on the roller pin is Fc, 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑑1 ∙ 𝑙1 ∙ 𝑝𝑏
Here,
d2 = Diameter of the roller pin,
l2 = Length of the roller pin.
The ratio of 𝑙2 ⁄𝑑2 may be taken as 1.25. The roller pin should be checked for induced shear stress.
The roller pin is fixed in eye and the thickness of each eye is taken as half the length of the roller pin.
Thickness of each eye = 𝑙2 ⁄2
The radial thickness of eye (t3) is taken as 𝑑1 ⁄2.
Therefore, overall diameter of the eye, 𝐷1 = 2𝑑1
The outer diameter of the roller is taken slightly larger (at least 3 mm more) than the outer diameter of the
eye.
A clearance of 1.5 mm between the roller and the fork on either side of the roller is provided.

Rocker arm cross-section

L = Effective length of each rocker arm,
σb = Permissible bending stress
The bending moment on the rocker arm, 𝑀 = 𝐹𝑒 × 𝑙
The bending moment is also, 𝑀 = 𝜎𝑏 × 𝑍
Z is section modulus.

Tapped
dc = Core diameter of the tappet,
σc = Permissible compressive stress for the material of the tappet (mild steel, 50 MPa).

Load on the tappet, 𝐹𝑒 = 𝜋⁄4 (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑐

𝑑
The outer or nominal diameter of the tappet, 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑐⁄0.84
The diameter of the circular end of the rocker arm (D3) and its depth (t4) is taken as twice the nominal
diameter of the tappet (dn),
𝐷3 = 2𝑑𝑛 and 𝑡4 = 2𝑑𝑛

Valve Spring
W1 = Initial load on the spring
= Force on the valve tending to draw it into the cylinder on suction stroke,
W2 = Load at full lift
= Full lift × Stiffness of spring
Total load on the spring, 𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2

D = Mean diameter of the spring coil,

d = Diameter of the spring wire
Wahl’s stress factor,
(4𝐶 − 1)
𝐾={ ⁄(4𝐶 − 4)} + (0.615⁄𝐶 ) here, 𝐶 = 𝐷⁄𝑑 ≈ 8
16
The maximum shear stress,
𝜏 = 𝐾 × (8𝑊𝐶⁄𝜋𝑑 2 )
Outer spring coil diameter, 𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷 + 𝑑
n = number of turns of the coil
(8𝑊 ∙ 𝐶 3 ∙ 𝑛)
𝛿={ ⁄(𝐺
The maximum compression of the spring, ∙ 𝑑)}
Stiffness of the spring, 𝑠 = 𝛿⁄𝑊
For squared and ground ends, the total number of the turns, 𝑛′ = 𝑛 + 2

Free length of spring, 𝐿𝐹 = 𝑛′ ∙ 𝑑 + 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 0.15𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐿
Pitch of the coil, = 𝐹⁄(𝑛′ − 1)

17