4

Introduction to RF
Front-End Design
Jerzy Dąbrowski
Division of Electronic Devices
Department of Electrical Engineering (ISY)
Linköping University
e-mail: jdab@isy.liu.se
1
J.Dąbrowski, Intro to RF Front-End Design
Objectives of the course
• Learn principles of wireless digital

communication transceivers
• Gain knowledge of RF front-end circuits
• Learn basic design methods and techniques
for RF circuit design in CMOS technology
• Understand the related possibilities and
limitations
2
1
Organization of the course
• Lectures 8 x 2h
• Laboratory work 3 x 4h (guided by Henrik
Fredriksson and Rashad Ramzan)
• Project work (Simulink/Cadence Spectre)
• Individual reports
• Course books:
– B. Razavi, RF Microelectronics, Prentice-Hall, 1998
– T.H. Lee, The Design of CMOS RF Integrated Circuits,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998/2004
3
Outline of the lecture

• Wireless communication systems today
• Digital communication RF channel
• Digital modulation techniques
• Multiple access techniques
• Digital RF transceiver at glance
• CMOS RF design issues
• Summary
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2
Wireless Communication
Bit Rate
kb/sec Systems Today
100,000 UWB
In-door 4G directions
10,000 Also many other wireless
WLAN
Bluetooth UMTS applications and gadgets
CDMA2000
1000
Cellular
DECT
100 PHS EDGE, GSM
CT1/CT2 IS-54/IS-95 GPS
PDC
10 Cordless Satellite
1 Zigbee Paging
10m 100m 1000m 10km 100km 1000km Range
5
Overview of PCS Standards

Standard Access Frequency Channel Frequency Modulation Rate Peak Power
Scheme band (MHz) Spacing Accuracy Technique (kb/s)
GSM TDMA/ 890-915 (Tx) 200 kHz 90 Hz GMSK 270.8 0.8, 2,
FDMA/ TDD 935-960 (Rx) 5, 8 W
DCS-1800 TDMA/ 1710-1785 (Tx) 200 kHz 90 Hz GMSK 270.8 0.8, 2,

FDMA/ TDD 1805-1850 (Rx) 5, 8 W
DECT TDMA/ 1880-1900 1728 50 Hz GMSK 1152 250 mW

FDMA/ TDD kHz
IS-54 TDMA/ 824-849 (Tx) 30 kHz 200 Hz π/4 QPSK 48 0.8, 1,

FDMA 869-894 (Rx) 2, 3 W
IS-95 CDMA/ 824-849 (Tx) 1250 N/A OQPSK 1228 N/A

FDMA 869-894 (Rx) kHz
Bluetooth CDMA/ 2400-2483 1000 20 ppm GFSK 1000 1,4,100 mW

FDMA/FH kHz
802.11b CDMA 2400-2483 3000 25 ppm QPSK 1, 2, 11 1W

(DSSS) kHz Mb/s
WCDMA W-CDMA/ 1920-1980 (Tx) 5000 0.1 ppm QPSK 3840 0.125, 0.25,
(UMTS) TD-CDMA 2110-2170 (Rx) kHz (max) 0.5, 2W
6
3
RF communication channel
RF1 RF1
RF2
BB1 BB
Tx1 RF … Rx1 …
RF2
RF1
BB2 RF2
Tx2 BB
RF3 Rx2 …
RF3
• Tx’s convert BB to RF signals using modulation

BB3
Tx3 • Tx’s must not corrupt one another – division of RF band
• Rx’s select wanted RF signals and retrieve BB by
demodulation
• Rx’s must suppress unwanted signals and noise
7
Frequency
Abbr ITU band Example uses
Band name Wavelength
< 3 Hz
> 100,000 km
3–30 Hz
Extremely low frequency ELF 1
100,000 km – 10,000 km
30–300 Hz
Super low frequency SLF 2
10,000 km – 1000 km
300–3000 Hz
Ultra low frequency ULF 3
1000 km – 100 km
3–30 kHz
Very low frequency VLF 4
100 km – 10 km
Military communication
30–300 kHz Navigation, time signals, AM longwave

Low frequency LF 5
10 km – 1 km broadcasting
300–3000 kHz
Medium frequency MF 6
1 km – 100 m
AM broadcasts
3–30 MHz
High frequency HF 7
100 m – 10 m
Shortwave broadcasts and amateur radio
30–300 MHz
Very high frequency VHF 8
10 m – 1 m
FM and television broadcasts
300–3000 MHz
Ultra high frequency UHF 9
1 m – 100 mm
television broadcasts, wireless LAN
3–30 GHz
Super high frequency SHF 10
100 mm – 10 mm
microwave devices, mobile phones
30–300 GHz
Extremely high frequency EHF 11
10 mm – 1 mm
Above 300 GHz
< 1 mm
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Propagation Effects
• Path loss, interferers Tx R Rx

and external noise λ
Power loss in open area LP = 20 log(4 πR / λ ) [dB]

Received power incl. gain of PRx = (PTx + GTxAnt ) − LP + GRxAnt [dBm]
the antennas
Wanted signal is corrupted SNR = Psig Pnoise SIR = Psig Pint
by interferers and noise
Direct path
• Multi-path and fading Tx Rx

Moving objects or Rx/Tx
Reflective
result in signal fluctuations, path
(different varying paths)
Immobile or
mobile object
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Digital Tx & Rx
RF part (analog)
Analog BB part (digital)
BB RF
ADC DSP DAC
Front-End
input
Coding,
Interleaving, Upconversion,
Shaping, Modulation gain, filtering
RF part (analog)
BB part (digital) Analog
RF BB
ADC DSP DAC
Front-End
output
Demodulation,
Downconversion, Deinterleaving, Decoding
gain, filtering
10
5
BB data rate
y(t) Quantization
x(t) Sampling N bits
t t
Nyquist limit
1/fS
fS > 2Bx
Number of bits per sample: N

Sampled BB data rate: R = fS N bits/sec
Example: For voice coding B = 3.4 kHz fS = 8 kHz and N = 8 → R = 64 kb/sec.

Next, compression with vocoders is used so R = 2.4 .. 9.6 kb/sec
but the transmitted data rate would be much higher for system arrangements
and extra data needed, e.g. GSM – 270 kb/s, IS-95 (CDMA) – 1.23Mb/s
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Shannon limits
Information capacity: C = 2B log2M [bits/sec]
Channel Number of signal

bandwidth levels transmitted
Bandwidth efficiency: C/B = 2 log2M [bits/sec/Hz]

For 2-levels: C/B = 2, maximum possible to achieve,
M=2 Low pass channel 1 1

1 0 1 0 0 0
Tb Bmin = 1/2Tb 2Tb
Period = 2Tb In Rx at least the first harmonic is needed
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6
Shannon limit due to noise
C = 2B log2M [bits/sec] M-ary system

101
100
011
010
Information capacity if B or M 001
000
The more levels the more

noise harmful
C = B log2(1 + SNR) [bits/sec]
Channel noise limits C, but M is not specified here.
In practice bit rate must be R < C to support transmission

with an acceptable error rate
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RF systems vs channel capacity

Eb R
SNR =
N0B
C  E C R>C
= log 2 1 + b × 
B  N 0
B GSM
R<C
DECT
Bit rate R < C for any system
e.g. for GSM:
R/B = 270kbps/200kHz = 1.35
@ SNR = 9dB for BER < 10-3
for DECT:
R/B = 1152kbps/1728kHz = 0.67
@ SNR = 10.3dB for BER < 10-3
Tradeoff between signal BW and power
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7
Digital modulation schemes
• Frequency shift keying FSK

• Phase shift keying PSK, QPSK, …
• M-ary QAM
• Minimum shift keying MSK
• OFDM technique
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Basic view on modulation

Base-band signal
to be transmitted em(t)
low frequency s(t)
Modulator
Sinusoidal carrier x(t) =A0cosω0t

high frequency
3 different parameters
Sinusoidal Carrier x(t) : available for modulation
x(t ) = A0 ⋅ cos(ω 0 t + φ )
by the base-band signal
(i.e. the modulating signal)
Frequency Phase Angle modulation more useful in

Amplitude digital communication for its higher
Angle immunity to noise and interference
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8
Frequency shift keying (FSK)
xBB(t)
sFSK(t)
Acosω1t
1
0
Acosω0t ω1 ω0 ω1
Modulator
Tb
sFSK(t) ∫0 +
Acosω1t Threshold
xBB(t) 1
detector 0
Tb -
∫0 Tb = n0/f0 = n1/f1
Acosω0t “Orthogonal” frequencies
Coherent detector based on correlation
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FSK (cont’d)
In coherent FSK detection oscillator and

carrier need synchronization
When off-phase by π/2 the correlator outputs
0 instead of 1
f0
Envelope
sFSK(t) detector
- Threshold
xBB(t)
detector
f1 Envelope
+
1
detector
0
Non-coherent FSK detector (simpler receiver)
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9
Phase shift keying (PSK)
xBB(t) sPSK(t)
1
-1 Acosω0t
ϕ ϕ+π ϕ+π
Modulator
sPSK(t) xBB(t) 1
Tb Threshold
∫0 detector 0
Acosω0t Tb = n0/f0
Coherent detector based on correlation

(non-coherent PSK detection possible only in differential mode)
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Quadrature PSK (QPSK)

Serial-to- Output signal takes on 4
parallel ±1 values which happen
xBB(t) + sQPSK(t) every second input bit.
Q I Acosωct
1 -
±1
0 Required BW is half that of BPSK
Modulator Asinωct
α2
3π/4 +Ac π/4
-Ac +Ac
Model (constellation):
α1
sQPSK (t) = α1cosωct - α2sinωct
-3π/4 -Ac -π/4
α1,2= ± Ac
During transitions the phase change is ± π/2 or ± π

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10
QPSK (cont’d)
Tb Threshold
sQPSK(t) ∫0 detector
xBB(t)
Acosωct I Q
Tb Threshold 1
∫0 detector 0
Asinωct
α2 QPSK detector
Advantage of QPSK:
As bits are grouped and
α1 transmitted in pairs, the
bandwidth needed is half
compared to binary PSK.
Phase transitions in QPSK
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Offset QPSK
±1 Due to delay by 1 bit we

xBB(t) - sOQPSK(t) avoid simultaneous
transitions of bits in both
Q I Asinωct branches
1 +
Tb
0 ±1 Advantage: all phase
Acosωct changes at output ±π/2,
narrower bandwidth
α2 needed, less demands on
linearity of PA
Drawback: cannot be
α1 adopted to differential
encoding to support
ϕ ϕ + π/2 ϕ - π/2 non-coherent reception
Phase transitions in OQPSK
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11
M-ary QAM
sQAM (t) = αi cosωct - βi sinωct Combined amplitude

and phase modulation
β
Even larger throughput
but more susceptible to
channel noise,
higher SNR needed.
Also very linear amplifier
α required
16-ary QAM
constellation
(4 bits are encoded)
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Minimum shift keying

Pulse shaping by half-sinusoids
(+1, -1)
Rectangular pulses are
xBB(t) sMSK(t) replaced by half-sinusoids
Q I sinω1t sinωct of ω1= π/2Tb that modulates
the carrier of ωc
Tb
(+1, -1)
Tb Advantage: no abrupt phase
cosω1t cosωct changes at the output, signal
MSK based on Offset QPSK bandwidth saved and less
prone to amplitude variations
when limited in band!
Different variants of MSK exist, GMSK, GFSK, …

 t

sMSK (t ) = A cos ωct + ∫ ∑ bm p (t − mTb )dt  Gaussian or Raised-
cosine most popular
 −∞ m 
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12
OFDM techniques
Multiple sub-carriers to Power
transmit signal bits in Tone modulated by
parallel for very high rectangular pulse
throughput
Spectra of different sub
channels can partly f
overlap, pulse shaping fc1 fc2 fc3
not necessary Densely spaced !
Modulator
OFDM is usually fc1
combined with QAM
or PSK
Serial to parallel
fc2 OFDM modulated
Combiner
BB data signal
fcN
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Bit error rate

BER ~ Pe (probability of making an error in detector
when transmitting a symbol)
α2 PSK
These models
1  AT2 
Pe , PSK = erfc cb  assume AWGN
2  N0 
  A1 A2 α1
Distance between
A1A2 for FSK is
α2 smaller than for
 A 2T  FSK PSK – so more
1
Pe , FSK = erfc c b 
A2 immune to noise
2  2N0 
 
A1 α1
Note that erfc(·) is a descending function, PSK better than FSK

Other coherent QPSK techniques and MSK have similar BER to PSK
(for the same power), QAM is much worse, but high throughput
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13
Multiple-Access techniques
• FDMA (Frequency division)

• TDMA (Time division)
• CDMA (Code division)
• Up-link and down-link TDD/FDD
27
FDMA and TDMA systems

N channels in band
∆f ∆f ∆f
User_1
User_2 User_3
N time slots
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
User_1 User_1
User_2 User_2
User_3 User_3
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14
CDMA systems
Direct sequence CDMA
Coding sequences for
BB data different users are
orthogonal (e.g.
Data encoded
Walsh, Barker),
signals overlap in
frequency band and
in time.
1 bit period
Code sequence (chip)
User 1 Signal 1
Signal 1
Decoding
Encoding for User 1
f f Signal 2
User 2 Signal 2
( spectrum
( spectrum f
spreading ) despreading
f f Noise alike
Immune to fading by correlation)
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CDMA systems (cont’d)
Frequency-hopping CDMA
FH also spreads spectrum

BB data
f3
f2
Frequency f1
Synthesizer
Code sequence
of a user
t1 t2 time
More resistant to strong interferers than DS CDMA,

since it is similar to FDMA
In CDMA systems power level control of transmitters is

critical, feedback is provided by the base station
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15
Up-link and down-link by FDD/TDD
/Duplex – ability to transmit and receive simultaneously/
Reception band Transmission band
∆f ∆f ∆f ∆f ∆f ∆f
FD
Duplex User_1 User_1
User_2 User_2
User_3 User_3
TD Reception slots Transmission slots

Duplex
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
User_1 User_1
User_2 User_2
User_3 User_3
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RF Transceiver
at Glance
RF Baseband
Section Section
• RF Section – analog, high frequencies

• Baseband Section - mostly digital today
(DSP), low frequencies
32
16
Digital transmitter at glance
Modulation Upconversion
ADC & DSP DAC
and Filtering
Baseband Power
signal Amplifier
Carrier
Digital baseband section

(compression, coding,
shaping, modulation ) RF section (Tx Front-end)
(up-conversion, filtering,
power gain, power control,
matching to antenna)
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Digital receiver at glance
Down
RF Demodulator
Filter
Conversion ADC DAC
& filtering & DSP
Low Noise Baseband
Amplifier signal
Carrier
Digital baseband section

RF section (Rx Front-end) (equalization, demodulation,
decoding, decompression)
(band selection, matching to antenna,
gain, image rejection, down
conversion, channel selection)
34
17
CMOS RF design issues
• Disciplines in RF design
• Key goals for ICs for RF transceiver
implementation
• Why CMOS technology ?
35
Disciplines required
in RF system design
RF Design
36
18
RF Circuit Design Octagon
Multi-objective approach
Several trade-offs
in RF design
RF Design
In digital design only one

main trade-off between
speed and power
37
Ultimate objective
• Single-chip transceiver
• Minimum external components
• Inductors and capacitors integrated on chip
Duplexer RF Baseband Baseband

or switch Section DSP & Ctrl input/output
Crystal Battery or
power supply
38
19
Bluetooth CMOS TRx from Alcatel (2001)
Low-IF Rx and quadrature Tx Layout of single chip TRx (first

RF front-end commercial with integrated BB
and ARM processors + memory)
39
WLAN CMOS TRx from Intel
Intel RFIC transceiver on 0.18 µm

TSMC CMOS technology
(Taiwan Semiconductor
Manufacturing Corporation).
This IEEE 802.11a (in 5 GHz band)

transceiver employs a direct-
conversion architecture and
includes an internal synthesizer.
This is Intel's first RFIC used in
a WLAN product.
40
20
Why CMOS Technology
• Submicron MOSFETs, 180,130, 90 nm today, very fast,
fmax>100GHz, perform well up to 10 GHz or more
• Good linearity for higher signal swing
• With multiple metal layers good capacitors and inductors
(QL up to 20) can be integrated on a chip
• Upper metal layers far from Si substrate – reduce substrate
losses
• Lower substrate doping helps to isolate RF blocks and reduce
losses
• Large digital bocks (DSP & control) can be integrated on one
chip
• CMOS cheaper from other technologies (BiCMOS, GaAs, .. )
• Many successful RF CMOS designs performed recently
41
Summary
• Wireless communication systems (mobile, cordless,
WLAN, GPS, … ) are in continuous progress
• Wireless communication systems are very complex
multidisciplinary field
• Design of RF IC’s is a multi-objective task
• CMOS technology proves to be increasingly
competitive for RF IC’s design (even higher
frequencies)
• RF CMOS is an attractive research field
42
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Introduction to RF

Objectives of the course

• Learn principles of wireless digital

Outline of the lecture

10m 100m 1000m 10km 100km 1000km Range

Overview of PCS Standards

DCS-1800 TDMA/ 1710-1785 (Tx) 200 kHz 90 Hz GMSK 270.8 0.8, 2,

DECT TDMA/ 1880-1900 1728 50 Hz GMSK 1152 250 mW

IS-54 TDMA/ 824-849 (Tx) 30 kHz 200 Hz π/4 QPSK 48 0.8, 1,

IS-95 CDMA/ 824-849 (Tx) 1250 N/A OQPSK 1228 N/A

Bluetooth CDMA/ 2400-2483 1000 20 ppm GFSK 1000 1,4,100 mW

802.11b CDMA 2400-2483 3000 25 ppm QPSK 1, 2, 11 1W

• Tx’s convert BB to RF signals using modulation

30–300 kHz Navigation, time signals, AM longwave

• Path loss, interferers Tx R Rx

Power loss in open area LP = 20 log(4 πR / λ ) [dB]

• Multi-path and fading Tx Rx

Number of bits per sample: N

Example: For voice coding B = 3.4 kHz fS = 8 kHz and N = 8 → R = 64 kb/sec.

Channel Number of signal

Bandwidth efficiency: C/B = 2 log2M [bits/sec/Hz]

M=2 Low pass channel 1 1

Tb Bmin = 1/2Tb 2Tb

Period = 2Tb In Rx at least the first harmonic is needed

C = 2B log2M [bits/sec] M-ary system

The more levels the more

Channel noise limits C, but M is not specified here.

In practice bit rate must be R < C to support transmission

RF systems vs channel capacity

• Frequency shift keying FSK

Basic view on modulation

Sinusoidal carrier x(t) =A0cosω0t

Frequency Phase Angle modulation more useful in

In coherent FSK detection oscillator and

Non-coherent FSK detector (simpler receiver)

Coherent detector based on correlation

Quadrature PSK (QPSK)

During transitions the phase change is ± π/2 or ± π

±1 Due to delay by 1 bit we

Phase transitions in OQPSK

sQAM (t) = αi cosωct - βi sinωct Combined amplitude

Minimum shift keying

Different variants of MSK exist, GMSK, GFSK, …

fc2 OFDM modulated

Bit error rate

Note that erfc(·) is a descending function, PSK better than FSK

• FDMA (Frequency division)

FDMA and TDMA systems

CDMA systems (cont’d)

FH also spreads spectrum

More resistant to strong interferers than DS CDMA,

In CDMA systems power level control of transmitters is

Reception band Transmission band

TD Reception slots Transmission slots

• RF Section – analog, high frequencies

Digital baseband section

Digital receiver at glance

Digital baseband section

In digital design only one

Duplexer RF Baseband Baseband

Low-IF Rx and quadrature Tx Layout of single chip TRx (first

WLAN CMOS TRx from Intel