WRITING IN THE DISCIPLINE

A. Common Sentence Error

1. Fragments
- Any word or group of words that does not express a complete thought.

a. Added-detail fragment
b. Ing and to fragment
c. Dependent-word fragment
d. Missing- subject fragment

2. Run-ons
Run-ons are two sentences that are run together without making the break between them.

a. Fused Sentences
b. Comma Splice

3. Misplaced and dangling Modifiers

4. Faulty Parallelism
5. Faulty Coordination
B. Mechanics
a. Basic Rules in Using Punctuation Marks
1. In series of three or more terms with a single conjunction
2. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas
3. Comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause
4. A comma on a direct quotation
5. A comma to separate transitional devices
6. Use of a colon ( : ) after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars or
illustrative quotation
7. Colon to a salutation in a formal letter
8. Colon to a notation of time
9. Colon to a title of work with subtitles
10. Use hyphen ( - ) to separate compound words and compound adjectives
11. Use semicolon to join two independent clauses
12. Use quotation marks (“ “) to set off exact words of the speaker or a material quoted
from a source

C. Wordiness
Use of more words than necessary to convey message

Wordy Expressions Shorter Form Wordy Expressions Shorter Form

A large number of many Good benefit benefit
A period of a week A week In every instance always
Arrive at an agreement agree In my opinion I think
At an earlier point in time before In the event that if
At the present time now In the near future soon
Due to the fact that because In this day and age today
For the reason that because Postponed until later postponed

D. Inflated Words
-fancy, elevated words obscure reader’s comprehension than communicates message clearly
 Inflated Words Simpler Form Inflated Words Simpler Form
component part Manifested show
delineate describe Subsequent to after
facilitate help To endeavor To try
initiate begin transmit send

E. Patterns of Paragraph Development

1. Description relies on a concrete sensory detail to communicate its point.

Yes, the great ballroom is filled only with dust now. The slender columns of rose-red marble
are woven together by cobwebs. The vivid frescoes, on which the Duke’s treasury spent so
much, are dimmed by the dust; the faces of the painted goddesses look grey. And the velvet
curtains touch them when they crumble. Two hundred years now, since anyone dance in
this place on the sea-green floor in the candle-gleam. Two hundred years since the
wonderful clock struck for the very first time.

2. Narration tells the story of something that happened

While working in the library at a university, I was often shock by the excuse students would
to get out of paying their fees for overdue books. One evening, an older student returned two books
that were way overdue. When I told her that she would have to pay late fee, she complained bitterly
about the “outrageous” amount. I tried to explain how much she owed for each day, but she insisted
she would be exempt. “You don’t understand,” she blurted out. “I didn’t even read them!

3. Argumentation presents premises ( reason that supports conclusion regarding an issue ). It

presents the writer’s stand-whether he/she agrees or not.

High schools should require all students to wear uniforms. One reason for doing this so is
that uniforms would save money for parents and children. Families could simply buy two or
three inexpensive uniforms.
They would not have to constantly put out money for designer jeans, fancy sneakers, and
other high-priced clothing. A second advantage of uniform is that students would not have
to spend time worrying about clothes. They could get up every day knowing what they were
wearing to school. Last but not the least, uniforms would help all students get along better.
Well- off students would not be able to act superior by wearing expensive clothes and
students from modest backgrounds would not have to feel inferior because of lower-cost
wardrobes.

4. Exposition provides information about and explains a particular subject.

a. Definition
b. Exemplification- explains or clarifies
c. Process
d. Comparison and contrast
e. Cause and Effect
f. Division and classification

PHILIPPINE LITERATURE IN ENGLISH

A. Period of Orientation ( 1898 – 1909 )
It began with the occupation of Manila by the American forces on August 13, 1898 and extended
up to the publication of the College Folio in 1910 when Filipino writers made their first attempts
at expression in the new language
Nationalistic and rebellious spirit against the American occupation found in the expression of
Filipino literature in English of this period. It consisted mostly of articles dealing with patriotism
and nationalism.
However, El Renacimiento and the Free Press published writings in English

B. Period of Imitation (1910 – 1924 )

Began in 1910 when College Folio made its appearance in the University of the Philippines. It
was characterized by strict adherence to the conventional works of Longfellow, Tennyson, and
Hawthorne and by careful observance of the rules of grammar and rhetoric.
The publication of magazines and newspapers in English gave budding writers a chance to see
their compositions in print.
Philippine Review, Independent, Rising Philippines, Citizens; in addition to the Philippine
Collegian, the UP student organ.
Philippine Herald became the pioneer Filipino newspaper in English in 1920.
Paz Marquez Benitez gained some measure of mastery far ahead as exemplified in her story the
“Dead Star”a story considered model of perfection in character delineation, local color, plot and
message.
The first book of poems and the first novel in English written by a Filipino were published during
this period: Procorpio Sodium’s Never Mind and other poems and Zolio M. Galang’s A Child of
Sorrow
C. Period of Expansion and Experimentation ( 1925 – 1941 )
-Writers mastered not only fundamentals, but also nuances of the English language sufficiently
to be able to write in it with more confidence. They tried all forms of writing including novel and
the drama.
-A deep attachment to the soil and a strong spirit of liberalism took possessions of writers
-Some critics considered this period 1930 – 1940 as the Golden era of Filipino writing in English
-Jose Garcia (aka Doveglion) Villa excelled as critic, short story writer, and poet and
tremendously influenced number of short story writers “arrived” Manuel Arguilla, Paz Latorena,
Loreto Paras Sulit, Arturo B. Rotor and Alfredo Litiatco.
- Filipino writers were influenced by Sherwood Anderson, Ernest Hemingway, William Saroyan
and Dorothy Parker
-Marcelo de Gracia, Conception’s Azucena became the first book of Filipino verse to be printed
in America. Other poets were Amador T. Daguio, Angela Manalang-Gloria, and Luis Dato
-In 1940, through the initiative and efforts of the Philippine Writer’s League, a yearly literary
contest started.
-Filipino playwrights flourished during this period. Augusto C. Catanjal (The Oil Lamp), Vidal A.
Tan ( The Husband of Mrs. Cruz), Severino Montano (The Land of Our Fathers), and Wilfrido Ma.
Guerero (13 Plays ) who became the most prolific dramatist.

D. Perio of Propaganda ( 1942- 1944 )

-war dampened the literary enthusiasm of the preceding period
- the writing was largely journalistic and the literary output was negligible for two reasons:
(1) it was, in the main, sincere, and (2) there was very little opportunity for publication
-this period was the rise of Carlos P. Romulo, the first Filipino writer and journalist to win
international recognition. He won the Pulitzer Prize and his I saw the Fall of the Philippines, I see
the Philippines Rise, and Mother America became best sellers.

E. Post – Liberation Period ( 1945- onwards )

 - The militancy which might be expected as a result of the war was very evident among
journalist and editors.
- The most significant achievement during this period was the recognition afforded to
Filipino writers abroad.
- Carlos P. Bulosan put out a book of poems called Voice of Bataan immediately after the
outbreak of WWII. The Laughter of my Father, a collection of humorous short stories,
followed this volume and America is in the Heart, an autobiography.
- Steven Javellana published his novel Without Seeing the Dawn, a war novel comparable
to Rizal’s masterpieces.
- Jose Garcia Villa’s collection of poems Have Come, Am Here revealed great power both
in thought and expression and elicited the warmest praises from American and English
critics.

F. Post War Years from the late 40’s to 70’s

- On July 4, 1946 the US granted the Philippines its political independence, yet many
features of colonialism remained.
- Petronilo Daroy noted that “indeed the national sensitivity after the WWII is
characterized by indignant perceptions which often manifest themselves in stories
which base their claim to realism on the mere fact of their brutal treatment of evil. At
any rate the attention to the unsmiling aspects of Philippine life liberated our literature
from maudlin emotionalizing and excessive sentimentalism.
- In 1949 the National Teachers College offered a three-unit course in Contemporary
Philippine literature in English to stimulate interest in our own literature
- The Bureau of Civil Service included Philippine Literature as a subject to be covered in
the Civil Service Exam for Teachers in 1951
- The Carlos Palanca Sr. Memorial Awards For Literature started most prestigious annual
literary contest sponsored by a liquor manufacturer, a magnate, and patron of arts.

G. Post War Poetry

- Modernism in poetry started in 1950’s , the modern poet experimented in techniques of
versification, rhythm, music, and imagery
- Modern poets were influenced by modern western schools: 1. Imagism, 2. Metaphysical
school, 3. Impressionistic-symbolistic school, and 4. New criticism

H. Post-War Fiction
- Carlos Bulosan’s America is in the Heart pursues literature’s commitment to social
problems in the choice of subject matter, the peasant, the laborers, the interface
economic conditions and politics
- NVM Gonzales published Seven Hills Away in 1947
- Francisco Arcellana joined the ranks of the finest writers with his Divine By Two by
showing his artistic ingenuity in point of structure, emotional impact, subtle
manipulation of symbols and the powerful rhythm of his language
- Bienvenido Santos wrote You Lovely People, his first book of short stories about Filipino
exiles in America.
- Nick Joaquin stood above his contemporaries which included Kerima Polotan Tuvera,
Gilda Cordero Fernando, Aida Rivera Ford, Estrella Alfon, Rony Diaz, Lilia Pablo Amansec,
and Gregorio Brillantes
- Francisco Sionil Jose started his Rosales saga with the Pretenders an indictment against
the modern illustrados and social injustice
- Kerima Polotan, writer turned publisher showcased her artistic sensibility and social
conscience and portrayed the yearnings and frustrations of a heroine in The Hand of the
Enemy, a novel that is naturalistic in its pessimism but romantic in its style and
presentation
I. The Essay
 - Political essay became popular, Nick Joaquin as Quijano de Manila wrote many essays.
- Travel essay became popular with Cristina Pantoja Hidalgo leading the pack
- Literary critics wrote reviews and became members of the Manila Critics Circle, among
them Isagani Cruz, Alfred Yuson, Alfredo Salanga, Alice Guillermo, Doreen Fernandez,
Rio Alma, and Ophelia Dimalanta

J. The More Recent Times from 70’s up to the present

- The immediate post- war years were years of conformism. It was until early 1960’s that
students began to unite and hold mass protests and demonstrations against the evils
that gnawed the government. Most of these rallies ended in violent dispersals of the
police and military
- During the 1960’s some writers exhibited the western trends of naturalism and
surrealism. Language has also become denser, more elaborate.
- Writers personal commitment was questioned in terms of their choice of medium.
- Cirilo Bautista completed his trilogy of poetry books- The Cave, The Archipelago, and
Telex Moon, a project epical in scheme, historical in perspective, and surrealistic in
lifestyle.

ORAL COMMUNICATION

A. Parts of Speech
1. Pluralization of Nouns: Irregular Plurals
a. Most common nouns connected with human being seem to be irregular
- Child -children
- Person – people
- Man – men
- Woman – women
- Foot – feet
- Goose – geese
- Mouse – mice
- Tooth – teeth

b. Some nouns have identical plural and singular forms

- Aircraft – aircraft
- Fish – fish
- Headquarters – headquarters
- Sheep – sheep
- Species – species

c. Uncountable nouns have no plural form and take a singular verb

- There is a lot of luggage on the plane, but a piece of luggage has gone missing.

d. Some nouns (especially those associated with two things ) exist only in the plural form
and take a plural verb.
e.g cattle, tweezers, congratulations, pyjamas)
- Have you seen my scissors? They were on my desk.
- Are the trousers already clean?

e. Nouns that stem from older forms of English or of foreign origin often have odd plurals.
- ox – oxen
 - indices – indexes

e. In compound nouns, the plural ending is usually added to the main noun.
- Son – in- law – sons -in- law
- Passer- by – passers – by

2. Determiners
a. Articles are determiners which signal whether the noun is specific or nonspecific.
 the definite article the is used to precede a specific or previously mentioned singular
or plural noun.
 The indefinite article is used to precede to a less specific noun. Two indefinite
articles are used to precede singular nouns such as a and an. A precedes a singular
noun or its intervening adjective if it begins with a consonant as well as those with
consonant sounds. An precedes a singular noun or its intervening adjective if it
begins with a vowel or unpronounced consonant
b. Quantifiers are determiners that indicate quantity ( less failures, a lot of details, several
journals)
 When more than one determiner is used in a noun phrase, we put them in a fixed
order.

Quantifiers Article Demonstrative Possessive Number Head noun

All (of) the students
Both (of) my parents
His two sisters
Many (of) these materials

 We can use many, much, more, most, few and little after the or after a
demonstrative or a possessive especially in formal style:
He spent the little money he had left on s new suit and hat.
Those few books which were not consumed in the fire have been transferred to the
new library.
I shall invite my many friends to join me in my 47th birthday.
 All, both and half can come before articles, demonstratives and possessives. We can
use them with or without of, with no difference in meaning.
All that food should be put in the freezer. ( or All of that food )
Do both your parents work overseas? ( Both of your parents )
Half the people at the rally had been invited. ( Half of the people )

3. Pronouns
a. Pronouns are words that stand for a noun or noun phrase.

Subject Object Possessive

Singular I, You, He, She, It Me, you, her, him, it Mine, your, hers, his, its
Plural We, you , they Us, you, them Ours, yours, theirs

b. The noun being referred back to is called the “antecedent”

I read a book. It was good.
c. Possessive pronouns are not followed immediately by a noun; they stand alone.
That book is hers.
d. Possessive pronouns do not take apostrophes.
 e. Possessive determiners are followed immediately by a noun; they do not stand alone.
Her book is here.
f. It has no apostrophe when used as a possessive determiner.
A bird uses its wings to fly.
(it’s is contraction of it has or it is )

4. Adjectives
a. Forms of Adjectives
 Noun derivation
 Verb derivation
 Multiword adjectives ( adverb + past past participle, noun + past participle )
well-liked, self-centered
b. Position of Adjectives in a series

Size Shape Color Origin Materials Use Noun

a large white loaf
a Sleeveless blue woolen pullover
small Spanish serving dishes

c. Degrees of Comparison

Positive Comparative Superlative

warm, beautiful warmer, more beautiful warmest, most beautiful
Irregular Comparative Superlative
good, bad, little, much, many better, worse, less, more best, worst, least, most

5. Adverbs
a. Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective
An old man had a sudden heart attack while jogging. ( adjective )
An old man suddenly had a heart attack while jogging. (adverb )
Sheryl had a quick walk to get there on time. (adjective )
Sheryl walked quickly to get there on time. ( adverb )
b. Adverbs that share identical words with an adjective.
Henry found the exam quite hard.
Henry failed his exam as he didn’t try very hard.
The two siblings live on opposite sides of the city.
He has brother who lives opposite to him.
c. Adverbs such as as, eve, how, never, next, rather, so, soon, still, then, too, etc.
He doesn’t even know where the West Philippine is.
He said he had never been to a cinema.
He has eaten two pizzas and is still hungry.

6. Prepositions
a. Prepositions of time
At for a precise time
In for months, years, centuries and long periods
On for days and dates

at In on
At 5:30 In August On Wednesday
At 3 0 clock In winter On March 10
At night In the summer On December 26
At bedtime In 2009 On Christmas day
 b. Prepositions of Place
At for a point
In for enclosed space
On for a surface

at in on
At the bus stop in London On the wall
At the corner in the garden On the ceiling
At the entrance in a box On the floor

c. Other Common Prepositions

Preposition Use Example

during while in during the movie, during the night
between in the time perfect from between Monday to Friday, between 1993 -
one to another 2009
by at the least, near, next by Tuesday, by next month, stand by me, by
to, beside the lake
into movement towards Into the cinema, into the bus
inside something
Out of to leave a place/thing out of the hall, out of the car
through by way of through the tunnel, through e-mail

7. Verbs: Stative Verbs

Stative Verbs Dynamic Verbs

Describe states, conditions or situations that
exist
When verbs have stative meanings, they are
usually not used in progressive tenses.
This food tastes good.
I like it very much
Also referred to as “action verbs” express a
wide range of actions which maybe physical,
mental or perceptual as opposed to stative
verb which purely expresses a state in which
there is no obvious action.
Example: eat, go, type, read, write, listen,
speak, watch, say, work, sook, talk

COMMON STATIVE VERBS

MENTAL STATE EMOTIONAL STATE POSSESSION SENSE OTHER EXISTING

PERCEPTION STATES
Know Love Possess Taste Seem
Understand Like Have Smell Look
Recognize Appreciate Own Hear Appear
Realize Please belong Feel Sound
Believe Prefer see Resemble
need Hate Look like
suppose Dislike Cost
desire Envy Owe
Feel mind equal

8. Tenses and Aspect System

a. Simple Forms
1. Simple present - expresses permanent, repeated or reoccurring action or situation
that exist in the moment, or could be generally accepted truth.
2. Simple past – action or situations that was started and completed in the past
 3. Simple past - - an action that will occur in the future
b. Progressive Forms
1. Present progressive- describes an ongoing action that is happening at the same time
that statement is written.
2. Past progressive – a past action which was happening when another action
occurred.
3. Future progressive – an ongoing or continuous action that will take place in the
future
c. Perfect Forms
1. Present perfect- an action that happened in an indefinite time in the past or that
began in the past and continuous in the present
2. Past perfect- an action that took place in the past before another past action
3. Future perfect- an action that will occur in the future before some other action
d. Perfect Progressive
1. Present perfect progressive – an action that began in the past, continuous in the
present, and maybe extended/continue in the future
2. Past Perfect progressive – a past, on going action that was completed before some
other past action
3. Future perfect progressive – a future ongoing action that will occur before some
specified future time.

9. Verbs: Subject verb Agreement Rules

a. Noncount nouns take singular verb. Abstract nouns which may refer to ideas,
emotions, and situations take singular verb.
b. Some common and proper nouns ending in -s including -ics nouns and certain
diseases are always perceived as a single entity and take a singular verb.
c. Gerund ( verb + ing ) and infinitive verb + to subjects take a singular verb
d. In most cases collective noun subjects take singular verbs, but if the group is viewed
as individual members, the plural form is used.
Our volleyball team has won all its games.
Our volleyball team have won all their games.
e. When the word here or there begins a sentence, the verb maybe singular or plural
depending on the nouns that follows.
There are many students in the class today.
Here is the result of all your efforts.
f. Plural units of distance, money and time take singular verb when one entity is
implied.
1,000 miles is a long distance to travel.
Two million dollars is a lot of money.
Five years is a long time to spend on M.A thesis.
g. A number of normally takes the plural verb, while the number of takes the singular
verb.
The number of students in our class is forty.
A number of important people are here today.
h. Basic arithmetical operations take singular verbs.
Seven times eight equals fifty-six.
Twelve minus three is nine.
i. Fractions and percentages take a singular verb when modifying a noncount nouns.
They take a plural verb when they modify a plural noun.
Fifty percent of the toxic waste has been thrown into the Pasig River.
Two-third of the guests are satisfied with the hotel service.
j. With none as the subject, use singular verb.
None of the magazine is here.
 k. Indefinite pronouns each, everyone, one, everybody, anyone, anybody, somebody
are singular and require singular verbs.
Each of the girls sings well.
Everyone of the participating teams is pleased about the judging.
l. With either or neither as subject, use a singular verb.
m. With correlative subjects either… or neither…..nor, the verb agrees with the closest
subject.
Either Ben or his daughters are going to attend the awarding ceremony.
Neither my cousins nor their father is going to the party.
n. Phrases like along with, together with, accompanied by, as well as, and also in
addition to do not affect the verb.
The politician, along with the newsmen is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness is the cause of her shaking
o. Titles of book, operas, films and such works-even when plural in form take the
singular verb because they are perceived as single entity.
Language Files was edited by Stewart.

10. Modals
English modals verbs as a part of auxiliary verbs have the following grammatical
characteristics:
a. Modals are not inflected in the third person
He must go. Not He musts go.
b. Modals are followed by the bare infinitive- the base form of the verb alone.
I must go. Not I must to go.
c. Modals are negated by the addition of “n’t
I can’t. I cannot. Not I don’t can
d. Modals are inverted with the subject to form a question without using “do”
Should I do it? Not Do I should do it?
e. Modals cannot co-occur.
He will come. He may come. Not He may will come.

WORLD LITERATURE

A. SUMMERIAN, EGYPTIAN AND HEBREW LITERATURE ( 3000 B.C – 100 B.C )

1. Gilgamesh – the epic poem Gilgamesh is the first great heroic narrative of world literature.
It’s origins date back to the margin of prehistory, and its evolution spans millenia.
- Tablets containing portion of Gilgamesh have been found at sites throughout the Middle
East written in Cuneiform
- The epic developed over a period of nearly a thousand years. The version discovered in
the city of Nineveh amid the ruins of the great library of Assurbanipal, the last King of
Assyrian empire.
- The epic narrates the legendary deeds of Gilgamesh, the King of Uruk. He was endowed
by his divine creator with extraordinary strength, courage and beauty. He is more god
than man.
2. Ancient Egyptian Poetry
-it survived only in scattered fragments, and because of the difficulty of the Egyptian
language and writing system ( stylized pictographs called hieroglyphics) it is far less well
known than either the art or architecture.
- The largest and earliest group of poems comes from the pyramids that were constructed in
the period of the Old Kingdom(2575-2130 B.C). They include narratives, incantations, and
invocations designed to help the pharaoh’s soul on its journey to the other world.
 3. The Bible: The Old Testament
The religious attitudes of the Hebrews appear in the story that they told in the creation of
the world and the humankind.
-The most important example of Hebrew literature is the Jewish Bible ( called by the
Christians the Old Testament in contrast to the New Testament.

3. The Bible: The New Testament

The collection known to Christians as the New Testament was formed by combining
the four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John with another book by Luke, The
Acts of the Apostles, which is an account of Paul’s missionary journeys to the cities of
Greece and Asia minor.

B. Persian and Arabic Literature ( c.a A. D 600 – A.D 1400 )

ARABIC LITERATURE
1. Qasidas (Odes). For centuries, poets from all over Arabia had gathered to recite odes
praising their own tribe or making fun of others. Arabic prose also began to develop,
although the earliest work were religious in nature and dealt directly or indirectly, with
the text of the Koran.
2. The Thousand and One Nights
Islamic Arabs also enjoy listening to fables and folktales the most famous of which is the
Thousand and One Nights ( Arabian Nights Entertainment). A collection of stories puts
together tales into one long narrative.

PERSIAN LITERATURE

1. Sha-nama ( Epic of Kings ) by Firdawsi. This epic is considered a national treasure. The
Sha-nama is presented as a history of Persia from the beginning of the world until the
conquest of Iran by the Arabs. The most important heroes are the warriors Rustam and
his son, Suhrab.
2. Rubaiyat. A collection of poetry called the Rubaiyat is attributed to Omar Khayyam. The
Rubai takes its name from the Arabic word for “four”. Because each poem consists of
four lines, the first line, second and fourth of which rhyme with one another. The poet
must use vivid imagery to convey his message to the reader through the use of elaborate
metaphor.

C. Indian Literature ( c. 1400 B.C – c. A.D 500 )

1. The Rig-Veda. Ancient Indians had no literary genres like the novel of the short story except
for poetry and drama, most Sanskrit text imitated the Rig-Veda in attempting to convey
general and timeless truths.
- Hinduism, an Indian religion, claims the Vedas as the source of all truths and the basis of
its religious beliefs.
- Rig-Veda is a collection of 1,028 hymns composed by different authors at different
times. It also contains poems like the “Creation Hymns” which speculates about the
origin and nature of the universe.
2. The Mahabharata- considered the longest epic, the story revolves around the fight between
the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Pandava brothers are banished or exiled in the forest, they
meet various characters who tell them instructive and entertaining stories.
3. The Panchatantra ( The Five Books or Five Strategies ) the best well-known collection of
folktales and animal fables in Indian literature attributed to Visnusarman. It aims to teach
young princes of India in the ancient times about political matters and interpersonal
relationships in general.
4. Shakuntala by Kalidasa. Is the most beloved of Indian plays. Rooted in thev values of India’s
classical civilization, and at the same time articulating a profoundly human vision, the play is
about lovers parted and reunited transcends cultural particularities
D. Chinese Literature ( 1000 B.C – A.D 1890 )
1. The Book of Songs, a collection of 305 songs representing the heritage of the Chou people.
2. Philosophical Texts, along with poetry, the most highly valued Chinese literary works.
Of these books the most notable are the Analects of Confucius and the Tao Te Ching of Lao
Tzu- the principal works of Confucianism and Taoism, respectively.
The Analects- represents the memory of teaching of Confucius and was probably not written
down until many centuries after his death. Analects consists of twenty books or chapters.
The Tao Te Ching is widely regarded to be the most influential Taoism text.

E. Japanese Literature ( 500 B.C – A. D 1890 )

1. Manyoshu or the Book of Ten Thousand Leaves”
This is the first anthology of the Japanese poetry. It contains of four thousand poems and
includes the works by poets from a wide range of social classes, including the peasantry, the
clergy, and the ruling class.
The poems of Manyoshu were recorded using Chinese characters in three different ways:
for the meaning, for the sound when read in Chinese and when read in Japanse.
2. Haiku, originally it is the opening verse ( the Hokku) of a renga, a form of collaborative
poetry but later the Haiku developed into a distinct literary form. It consist of three lines
with five, seven, five syllables. Characterized with precision and simplicity and
suggestiveness.
3. Japanese Theater
The Noh, the classical theater of the Japan is the world’s oldest professional theater. There
are small cast of actors, all males wearing masks.

F. Greek Literature
1. The Illiad, recounts only part of a long series of events in the Trojan War, which was fought
according to the legend because of a quarrel among the gods and the resulting betrayal
among mortals.
2. The Odyssey, focuses on the long drawn-out return of Odysseus to Ithaca. He was destined
to spend ten years wandering in unknown seas before he returned to his own kingdom.
3. Greek Lyric Poetry, Greeks are also known for their lyric poetry. One of the poets of lyric is
Sappho-singing or chanting poems to her own accompaniment of the lyre. The musical
quality of her poems heightens their emotional quality.
4. Greek Drama, reached its peak in the 5th century Athens. During that time tragedies and
comedies were performed in conjunction with the worship of Dionysus and fertility rituals
connected with the seasons and the staple crops of the community.

LITERARY TERMS/CONCEPTS

1. Allegory
2. Alliteration
3. Allusion
4. Anaphora
5. Anecdote
6. Antagonist
7. Aphorism
8. Apostrophe
9. Assonance
10. Ballad
11. Caesura
12. Climax
13. Connotation
14. Denotation
15. Consonance
16. Dialogue
17. Elegy
18. Essay
19. Fiction
20. Figurative language
21. Flashback
22. Foreshadowing
23. Free verse
24. Hyperbole
25. Image
26. Imagery
27. Irony
28. Litotes
29. Lyric poem
30. Metaphor
31. Metonymy
32. Onomatopoeia
33. Oxymoron
34. Paradox
35. Parody
36. Personification
37. Satire
38. Simile
39. Sonnet
40. Symbol
41. Synecdoche
42. Theme
43. Tone
44. Local color