UNIT 2

Unit II: SI Engines 5 Hrs.

Theory of Carburetion, Types of carburetors, Electronic fuel injection system, Combustion in
spark
Ignition engines, stages of combustion, flame propagation, rate of pressure rise, abnormal
combustion,
Phenomenon of Detonation in SI engines, effect of engine variables on Detonation. Combustion
Chambers, Rating of fuels in SI engines, Additives.

2.1 Fuel Supply System

The following diagram shows fuel supply system in SI engine

 Fuel tank: It is a reservoir for storage of fuel which is utilized for operating the engine.
  Fuel feed pump: Fuel is pumped from fuel tank to carburetor by using a feed pump.

 In case of small two-wheeler vehicles it flows on account of gravity from the tank to the
carburetor.

 Fuel filter: The impurities in the fuel are separated using a fuel filter in fuel line.

 Air filter: The filter installed in the suction of the air path to remove the impurities of the
air is called as air filter.

Dry Type Air Filter

Oil Wetted Air Filter

Dual Element Air Filter

 Carburetor: The device which meters quantity of fuel into the incoming air based on the
load requirement and prepares suitable air-fuel mixture is called as carburetor. And the
process of preparing the mixture is called as Carburetion.
 Principle of Carburetion

 Intake Manifold: The mixture prepared by the carburetor passes through the intake
manifold before entering into the engine cylinder through suction valve.

Intake manifold

 Engine Cylinder: Mixture prepared by the carburetor sent to engine cylinder

(Combustion Chamber) where it is burnt using a spark plug.

 The High pressure and temperatures resulting from combustion of fuel are responsible for
power stroke. The Burnt gases generated during combustion are transferred to the exhaust
line.
 Engine block

 Exhaust Manifold: The burnt gases from the engine cylinder enter the exhaust manifold
from where they are send to the muffler/silencer.

 Silencer (Muffler): The large sound created by the exhaust gases due to the pressure
difference between atmosphere and exhaust flue gas is damped using muffler.

2.2 Carburetion:

 The process of mixing air and fuel in proper ratio so as to supply combustible mixture to
engine cylinder is called as Carburetion.

 The function of the carburetor is threefold;

 It breaks up or atomizes the fuel into a fine spray and it mixes with air to make a
mixture that will burn readily
  It regulates the ratio of fuel to air

 It regulates the amount of the fuel-air-mixture going into the combustion chamber

2.3 factors effecting for carburation

2.4 working of Simple Carburetor:

 Accelerator Pedal: The vehicle operates at different loads and speeds. The power
required for different loads are adjusted by the driver by pressing or depressing the
accelerator pedal.

 Throttle valve: The valve which controls the quantity of air sucked by changing the
vacuum inside the carburetor. When the throttle valve is fully closed i.e. no load
condition the engine vacuum is not transferred to the carburetor resulting in no air sucked
in. When the throttle valve is fully opened under full load condition increased quantity of
air and fuel is sucked in resulting increased quantity of mixture prepared.

 Float tank: The fuel from the fuel tank is received and stored in the float tank. Float tank
consists of a float in the fuel. This float is connected with a needle valve. The float is
used to maintain the level of the fuel inside the float chamber. When the level of the fuel
drops the needle valve opens resulting in supply of additional fuel to regain the original
level. When the fuel level is adequate the needle valve is closed resulting no fuel entering
the float chamber.

 Main jet and Main nozzle: The line through which the fuel is transferred to the
carburetor from the float chamber on account of the vacuum at the venture through
nozzle. The nozzle atomises the fuel and sprays the atomized fuel in the air flowing
through the carburetor to prepare combustible mixture.
  Venturi: The cross section having minimum throat diameter so as to create pressure
difference (depression) between the atmospheric pressure on top of fuel level in float
chamber and at the venturi or throat section.

 This pressure difference results in flow of the fuel from float chamber to Venturi.

 As the pressure difference increases amount of fuel supplied increases to meet the
increased load demand.

 Choke: Under normal conditions choke valve is always open. For cold starting
conditions the supplied air-fuel mixture is not sufficient to initiate the combustion.

 Engine requires rich mixture to initiate the combustion. When the choke lever is pressed
the choke valve gets closed which drastically reduces supply of the air to the carburetor
resulting in more fuel sucked at the venture hence rich mixture is supplied.

 Once the engine starts normally choke lever is released resulting normal air fuel mixture
getting supplied to the engine.

 Idling jet: The minimum mixture supply under idle conditions when accelerator is zero
is controlled by the idle jet which is located between the engine and the throttle valve.

 The ratio of fuel air is controlled by adjusting needle valves and this allows you to select
the proper mixture for the conditions under which you operate your engine

 Too lean a fuel-air mixture may result in hard starting, overheating, pre-ignition & valve
burning

 Too rich a fuel-air mixture may result in excessive fuel consumption, carbon build up in
the cylinder and cause pre-ignition

2.5 Types of Carburetor:

Venturi type Carburetor

Suction lift Carburettor

Float Type

Float type Carburetors:

Natural Draft Carburetor

Updraft Carburetor:

Flo-Jet Carburetor

Diaphragm Type Carburetor

Pulsa-Jet Carburetor

2.6 Air-Fuel ratio requirement:

The amount of air needed for combustion is far greater than the amount of fuel needed

 The usual weight ration is 15 parts of air to 1 part of fuel

 For example, if we had 1 cubic foot of gasoline, it would require 9000 cubic feet of air to
meet this ratio

 This ratio will change depending on engine operation

2.7 Air-Fuel Ratio (A/f)

 % by weight and volume of different gases necessary for estimating combustion reaction
calculations

2.7.1 Seven Different operating conditions of Engine:

 Cold or Hot Starting

 Idling

 low load

 Cruising or part load

 Full load / Full throttle

 Acceleration

 Deceleration
 Starting (0-20 %): Engine requires very rich mixture (10 to 11) due to cold engine, low
temp so low vaporization of fuel, engine does not start.

 Hence cold conditions require rich mixture initially to supply more fuel till the
temperature of the engine reaches operating temperatures which help in easily
vaporization of fuel.

 Choke valve is used at the starting to supply rich mixture.

 Idling Condition (0-20 %): At zero acceleration condition (Vehicle in standing

condition), temperature and pressure of the engine is low, backflow of the burnt gases
results in mixture dilution which may stop the engine.

 Hence rich mixture (11-13) is required to ensure normal combustion.

 Part load / Cruising Range (20-80 %): As the load on the engine increases from 20 to
80 % throttle valve opening increases resulting in increased combustion, increased
temperatures and pressure inside the engine.

 This is the condition were engine runs for majority of the time where expected efficiency
is maximum.
 A slightly lean mixture (10 % lean) 16 to 16.5 Air-fuel ratios ensures complete
combustion and maximum efficiency.

 Full Load- 80% - 100% throttle opening /load, to obtain max power, all O2 in cylinder
must be burnt, hence 10% rich mixture supplied A/F ratio 12.5 – 13.5: 1.

 Acceleration - Rich mixture required; by applying sudden accelerator, air rushes but fuel
lags due to higher inertia; also suction in intake manifold increases leading to
condensation, hence rich mixture required.

 Max Fuel Economy – All the fuel in A/F mixture to be burnt & to ensure this, little
excess air required; Max fuel economy occurs in A/F ratio range of 16.5 to 17.5: 1.

 A: F ratio Ignition limits for Combustion to happen:

Ignition limits for Hydrocarbons

 Combustion is achieved between 7 to 30 Air fuel ratios.

 Very rich (A:F < 7) or very lean (A:F > 30) will not result into combustion obvious
reasons being in very rich mixture scarcity of oxygen.

 For very leans mixtures scarcity of fuel molecules.

 This leads to suffocation of the flame and it fails to propagate fuel if it is ignited at certain
locations.
2.8 Relation between Maximum Power V/S A: F Ratio

Maximum Power / Efficiency V/s A:F Ratio:

 Maximum Power condition (12.5:1): Maximum power happens at 10 % rich mixture

condition. Maximum power condition requires complete utilization of oxygen present in
the mixture.

 This is possible only by supplying 10 % additional fuel to stoichiometric condition i.e. 10

% rich mixture. It can observe that efficiency is lower at maximum power condition.

 Maximum efficiency condition (16.5:1): Maximum efficiency requires utilization of

complete fuel during combustion which requires 10 % additional air than Theoretical air.

 Hence maximum efficiency is possible only at 10 % lean mixture condition.

 It can be observed that power produced by engine at this condition is lower.

 Stoichiometric Condition (15:1): It is the theoretically minimum amount of air required

for complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel.

 The value for petrol is around 15:1 i.e. 15 kg of air for burning 1 kg of fuel.
  This condition gives best trade-off between power and efficiency.

2.9 Drawbacks of simple carburetor:

 Very low speed - mixture supplied VERY weak which will not ignite).

 Similarly at high speeds mixture supplied is very rich – Poor fuel efficiency.

 Simple Carburetor affected Atmospheric Pressure, Temperature.

1. In Aircraft – At very high altitudes very less O2 available – Requires Altitude

control – results in rich mixture unnecessarily available - less Density of Air.

2. The working of Simple Carburetor is affected by changes of Temp.

3. Designed for winter season- will give too rich mixture in summer (less Density
of Air in summer).

- During acceleration – Only air moves in fuel delayed due to inertia.

2.10 Modified Simple Carburetor:

For starting main metering and idling system below modifications are made in modified
Simple Carburetor

1. During the cold starting choke is almost closed. This lowers the pressure in the venturi.
This pressure is lesser than pressure in the float chamber. This causes dragging of rich
mass from float to the venturi and to the engine.

2. In idling engine is running on no load so throttle valve is closed. No draft of air inside
venturi. So no fuel supply from float chamber. This cause low pressure in intake manifold
and that large pressure difference causes the fuel to overcome height barrier of idle jet
and supply the fuel below throttle valve.

3. During main metering air from the atmosphere raises the pressure in idling jet through
number of air bleeds provided causing no flow of fuel through it.

Compensating Devices:

4. A simple carburetor supplies rich mixture with increase in speed, whereas carburetor
needs nearly constant A/F ratio over wide range of speed and load for its economic
operation.

5. A/F ratio can be maintained either by increasing the supply of air or reducing the amount
of fuel with increasing speed.
6. The devices which are used to maintain constant A/F ratio are called compensating
devices.

2.10.1 Compensating Jet Method for Cruising:

 The main purpose is to make the mixture leaner.

 It consists of an additional compensating jet connected to compensating wall which is

open to the atmosphere and fuel supplied to it is through the restricted orifice.

 When air flow increases the fuel level in compensating well decreases. This results in
decrease in the fuel supply through compensating jet while the main jet increases the fuel
supply.

 As a combined effect of the both, constant A/f ratio can be maintained.

2.10.2 Auxiliary Port Method for Cruising:

Auxiliary port method:

 A butterfly valve is incorporated in the passage of air flow. By opening of this valve
additional air is admitted.

 This also reduces the pressure differential at the venturi throat, reducing the mass of flow
rate of fuel.

 Opening of the butterfly valve is proportional to the speed.

  This method is generally used in the aircraft carburetor for the altitude compensation.

Drawbacks of Carburetor:

 Low volumetric efficiency due to restriction in flow passage of A/F mixture like venturi,
throttle, turns in intake manifolds etc

 Unequal distribution of mixture to different cylinders due to unequal lengths of manifolds

 Non-supply of correct A/F ratio at all load conditions

 Higher emissions

2.11 Electronic Fuel Injection:

 The drawbacks of the carburetor are overcome by Injection System.

 The supply of fuel in case of injection system is done by supplying fuel at high pressure
and then spraying the fuel in atomized form in the air supply.

 Indirect Injection system: In this the fuel is sprayed in the intake manifold before the
intake valve.

 Direct Injection System (GDi): In this system fuel is directly sprayed into the cylinder.

 Further injection system is classified as,

 Gasoline Direct Injection

 Single point Fuel Injection (SPFI): Uses a single injector for all cylinders in multi-
cylinder engine.

 Multi point Fuel Injection (MPFI): Uses a single injector for each cylinder in multi-
cylinder engine.
2.12 Combustion in S. I. Engine:

Basic Definitions:

 Flame: Gas becoming luminous by liberation of chemical energy. It gets created from the
point of ignition and spreads outwards.

 Combustion: Rapid & high temp oxidation of fuel with liberation of heat energy

Fuels:

 Constituents of fuels : C & H2.

 Burning involves rapid oxidation of C to CO2 and H2 to H2O with release of large amount
of energy

 2C8H18 + 25O2 + 25x3.76N2 16CO2 + 18H2O + 25x3.76 N2 + Heat

Released

 Normal Combustion:Flame travels from point of ignition up to the end of combustion

chamber without any change in speed and shape

 Self Ignition Temperature: Temp, at which the fuel ignites itself without any ignition
source.

 Auto Ignition: Mixture of fuel and air ignites itself w/o ignition source or prior to
reaching of flame front.

2.12.1 Pre-Ignition:

 High rate of heat transfer and high temp of hot gases cause local heating of certain spots
excessively in combustion chamber like SP, carbon deposits etc.

 These hot spots act as ignition sources to ignite air-fuel mixture before the spark is
supplied, causing pre-ignition

2.13 Combustion Stages in S.I. Engines:

Ideal combustion curve:

 0-BDC, 180-TDC, 360-BDC

 a-b: Piston moves from BDC to TDC resulting in compression of the mixture.

 b – spark is provided at point b.

 b-c complete combustion of the mixture and instantaneous pressure rise at TDC.

 c-d: expansion stroke.

12.13.1 Ideal combustion has many assumptions:

 Complete Combustion is not instantaneous it takes certain crank angle for completing (40
to 60 degrees).

 To avoid combustion to happen during expansion stroke spark is provided 15 to 20

degrees before TDC.

 Peak pressure should happen at 10 to 15 degrees after TDC to avoid abnormal

combustion or detonation or knocking.
 Ignition advance: The angle before TDC at which spark is provided to the
mixture is called as Ignition advance.
1. Ignition Lag/Preparation Phase (AB):

 Also called Ignition Delay

 The period in terms of crank angle between supply of spark and appearance of
flame is termed as ignition lag.

 During this period chemical reaction takes place and nucleus of flame is observed.

 Depends on molecular, structure of fuel, temp, pressure, density, A/F ratio,

extent of mixture dilution.

2. Flame Propagation Phase(BC):

 Flame appears at point B.

 Fuel starts burning rapidly from B to C resulting in rapid pressure rise.

 Initially slow burning & low flame speed; later, rate, of pressure rise increases
(Flame speed 15-20 m/s); slope of BC curve indicates rate of pressure rise

 Rate of heat release will depend on intensity of turbulence and A/F ratio.

3. Late burning or after burning:

o Combustion beyond maximum pressure is called as after burning.

o Ideally all the fuel should burn till point C.

o But some fuel still remains unburned at point C which keeps on burning beyond
C.

o Late burning fuel has little effect on pressure inside the cylinder and power
output.

4. Motoring curve: If the flame does not appear at point B. The mixture simply goes
through a nominal compression and expansion stroke without combustion and without
power being produced.

5. During this power stored in the flywheel is utilized. This curve is also called as misfire.
 Above figure shows % time required to travel across the combustion chamber.

Quality of Combustion:

 The below table shows crank angle at which flame appears and its effect on quality of
combustion.

 Maximum power is possible only with fast burning cycles.

2.14 Effect of Engine variables on Ignition lag:

 Pressure and Temperature: As Pressure and temperature increases flame speed

increases, resulting in shorter ignition delay.

 Compression ratio: As compression ratio increases pressure and temperature inside the
engine cylinder increases resulting in shorter ignition delay.

 Mixture strength: Flame speed is maximum at 10 % rich mixture hence ignition delay is
minimum at 10 % rich mixture.

 SIT: Higher is the SIT longer will be the duration for flame to appear and hence longer
ignition delay.

 Engine speed: No effect on ignition delay. But ignition advance has to be increased as
engine speed increases.

 Effect of Engine variables on Flame propagation:

 Suction pressure: As suction pressure increases Compression ratio increases results in

higher flame speed and faster flame propagation throughout the engine cylinder.

 Compression ratio: Increase in compression ratio increases density, pressure,

temperature resulting in increased flame speed.

 A/F ratio: For lean mixture temperature of the flame reduces resulting in lower flame
speed.

 Flame speed is maximum at 10 % rich mixture.

 Flame speed detoriates beyond 10 % rich and 10 % condition. Beyond 10 % lean

condition amount of air exceeds greatly from amount of fuel present in the mixture this
causes increased time for flame to reach from one molecule to other molecule hence
flame speed drastically drops down for very lean mixtures and combustion continues
beyond BDC (in the next stroke) during expansion stroke.

 For mixtures richer than 10 % the oxygen becomes scarce and fuel density increases
resulting poor oxygen quantity for combustion again the flame speed decreases for very
rich mixtures.

2.15 FACTORS EFFECTING ON FLAME PROPOGATION

The factors which affect the flame propagations are

 1. Air fuel ratio

 2. Compression ratio

 3. Load on engine

 4. Turbulence and engine speed

 5. Other factors

 1. A: F ratio. The mixture strength influences the rate of combustion and amount ofHeat
generated. The maximum flame speed for all hydrocarbon fuels occurs atnearly 10% rich
mixture. Flame speed is reduced both for lean and as well as forvery rich mixture. Lean
mixture releases less heat resulting lower flame temperature

 Engine Load: With increase in load more fuel is burnt and hence higher pressure and
temperature faster fuel burning resulting in higher flame speeds.

 Turbulence: With turbulence the mixture moves faster which increases the flame speed
and flame propagation.
  Engine Speed: Flame speed increases with engine speed.

 Engine size: Engine size has no impact on flame speed.

2.15 DETONATION OR KNOCKING IN CI ENGINE

 The cycle peak pressure should never occur before or at TDC which results in abnormal
combustion or knocking.

 Hence maximum pressure should happen at least 10 to 15 degrees after TDC. This results
in maximum power output and smooth operation of the engine.

 Knocking: In normal combustion one single flame travels through the combustion
chamber from spark plug to the other end i.e. Piston top surface and entire combustion
volume.
  Sometimes due to hot cylinder surface or poor flame speed the end mixture present near
to the walls of the cylinder reaches SIT and auto-ignites even before the normal flame
reaching it.

 Multiple flames propagating through the combustion space result in very high pressures
thudding sound and large vibrations. Knocking or Detonation results in damaging the
engine cylinder components.

IT IS VERY IMPORTANT THAT THE COMPLETE MIXTURE PRESENT INSIDE THE

COMBUSTION SPACE IS BURNT BY A SINGLE FLAME TRAVELING FROM SPARK
PLUG TO THROUGHOUT THE COMBUSTION SPACE. IF THE MIXTURE AUTO-
IGNITES IN SOME LOCATION INSIDE THE CYLINDER IT LEADS TO DETONATION.

Normal Combustion in S. I. Engine

Abnormal Combustion due to secondary flame (Autoignition)
2.16 FACTORS EFFECTING FOR DETONATION

 1. Noise and Roughness. Knocking produces a loud pulsating noise and pressure waves.
These waves which vibrates back and forth across the cylinder.

 The presence of vibratory motion causes crankshaft vibrations and the engine runs rough.
 2. Mechanical Damage.

 (a)High pressure waves generated during knocking can increase rate of wear of parts Of
combustion chamber.

 Sever erosion of piston crown (in a manner similar to those Of Marine propeller blades
by cavitation), cylinder head and pitting of inlet and outlet valves may result in complete
wreckage of the engine.

 (b) Detonation is very dangerous in engines having high noise level. In small engines the
knocking noise is easily detected and the corrective measures can be taken but in

 Aero-engines it is difficult to detect knocking noise and hence corrective measures cannot
be taken.

 Hence severe detonation may persist for a long time which may

 Ultimately result in complete wreckage of the piston.

3. Carbon deposits Detonation results in increased carbon deposits.

4. Increase in heat transfer. Knocking is accompanied by an increase in the rate of heat

Transfer to the combustion chamber walls.

 The increase in heat transfer is due to two reasons. The minor reason is that the maximum
temperature in a detonating engine is

 about 150°C higher than in a non-detonating engine, due to rapid completion of

combustion The major reason for increased heat transfer is the scouring away of
protective layer of inactive stagnant gas on the cylinder walls due to pressure waves. The

 Inactive layer of gas normally reduces the heat transfer by protecting the combustion and
piston crown from direct contact with flame.

5. Decrease in power output and efficiency. Due to increase in the rate of heat transfer

 The power output as well as efficiency of a detonating engine decreases.

2.17 Rating of Fuels in SI Engine

2.18 HIGHEST USEFUL COMPRESSION RATIO (HUCR)

 The thermal efficiency of IC engine increase with increase in Compression Ratio.

 The maximum compression ratio of any SI engine is limited by its tendency to knock.

 HUCR is the highest compression ratio employed at which a fuel can be used in a
specified engine under specified set of operating conditions, at which detonation first
becomes audible with both ignition and mixture strength adjusted to give highest
efficiency.
No Parameter Spark Ignition (S. I.) engines
.
1. Preparation of Outside the cylinder in Carburetor
A: F mixture
2. During suction Air + Fuel inducted in cylinder
3. Nature of Homogenous
mixture
4. Method of Spark plug ignition (S. I).
Ignition
5. Ignition occurs Single point (Air gap of Spark plug) & single flame travels in combustion
at chamber
6. Spark plug Present
(Due to high SIT – 246 C)
7. Carburetor Present
8. Cost of fuel High
9. Sp. Low
Gravity/Density
10. Fuel sold Volume basis (in litres – less qty)
11. Thermal Low
Efficiency
12. Air standard Otto
cycle
13. Fuel economy Low
14 Compression 6-10
ratio
15. Limit on CR Yes due to Knocking (HUCR)
16. Noise & Low engine noise (Less CR)
vibrations
17. Size of the engine Small due to low CR
18. Application Light duty automobiles (Two-wheeler and low duty car)
19. Bore size / Limited due to knocking (flame will need more time to reach end mixture
Cylinder for large size resulting in knocking) max. 100 mm
diameter
20. Pre-ignition Possible (Mixture can self ignite before sparking)
(before spark)
21. Number of 2 (Suction and discharge valve)
Valves
22. Accelerator Throttle valve opening increases
increases
23. Quantity of air Varies with load - Throttle valve opening /Acc/Deceleration
24. Type of Quantity governed
governing
25. As load changes Quantity of A: F mixture changes
26. Low load Rich mixture required
condition
27. Operating range 12-17
of A:F ratio Cold starting: 7:1
Idling condition: 12.5
Normal power: 16
Maximum power: 13.5
28. Air supply Turbulence of air (disorderly random motion with no direction) to
preference increase flame velocity
29. Stages in Three (Ignition lag, Flame propagation and after burning)
Combustion
30. Number of Single definite flame
flames
31. Peak pressures 25-50 bar
32. Injection 6 – 10 bar
pressures
33. Delay period Only chemical delay (Ignition lag)
34. Physical delay Absent (Mixture prepared outside cylinder)
period
35. Ignition Delay Should be High to avoid end mixture to self ignite
(Time after SIT
is reached for
flame to appear)
Stages in Combustion
36. Diagram –
Normal
Combustion
curve
37. Suction Air + Fuel
38. Stages of 3
combustion
39. Point A Spark is supplied
40. Point B Flame appears
41. A-B Ignition lag (Stage I)
42. B-C Flame propagation
43. C-D After burning
44. D-E Not applicable
Abnormal combustion / Knocking and factors affecting knocking
46. Definition of Happens at the end of combustion due to self ignition of end mixture (Hence
Knocking or requires long delay period to avoid knocking)
abnormal
combustion
47. Knocking At End of combustion
occurs
5. Abnormal
Combustion
48. Delay period Should be Long
49. SIT to avoid High (To avoid self ignition of end mixture)
knocking
50. Octane Should be high. High SIT desirable (ON is directly proportional to SIT)
number to
avoid
knocking
51. Cetane Should be low. High SIT desirable
number to
avoid
knocking
52. Flame speed High
53. Engine size Low (Flame reaches faster to end of chamber)
54. Density Low
55. Supercharging No (Limited by detonation tendency of SI Engine due to increased density)
preferred
56. CR Limited by HUCR (6-10)
57. Initial Low (To avoid burning of end mixture)
pressure and
temp
58. Cylinder Wall Low (To avoid burning of end mixture)
temperature
59. Engine speed High (To increase flame velocity)
60. Turbo Not desirable
charging
61. Cooling water Low
temperature
62. Exhaust No smoke or odour from exhaust
63. Detection of Possible by human ear (Petrol engines are less noisy)
engine
knocking
64. Intake fuel Low
temperature
65. Engine load Low (Since high load increase operating temperatures of cylinder cooling
water etc.)
66. Exhaust gas Higher (Due to lower heat extraction and lower thermal efficiency)
temperature

Types of Combustion Chambers:

Ricardo Turbulent Combustion CHamber
Content Beyond Syllabus

Octanes are a family of hydrocarbon that are typical components of gasoline. They are colourless
liquids that boil around 125 °C (260 °F). One member of the octane family, isooctane, is used as
a reference standard to benchmark the tendency of gasoline/petrol or LPG fuels to resist self-
igniting. In a normal spark-ignition engine, the air-fuel mixture is heated due to being
compressed and is then triggered to burn (relatively) slowly by the spark plug and ignition
system. If it is heated and/or compressed too much, then it will explode when triggered
(detonate), or even self-ignite before the ignition system sparks. This causes much higher
pressures than engine components are designed for and can cause a "knocking" or "pinging"
sound. Knocking can cause major engine damage if severe.

Isooctane (upper) has an octane rating of 100 whereas n-heptane has an octane rating of 0.
The most typically used engine management systems found in automobiles today have a knock
sensor that monitors if knock is being produced by the fuel being used. In modern computer
controlled engines, the ignition timing will be automatically altered by the engine management
system to reduce the knock (detonation) to an acceptable level.

The octane rating of gasoline is measured in a test engine and is defined by comparison with the
mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (iso-octane) and heptane that would have the same anti-
knocking capacity as the fuel under test: the percentage, by volume, of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane in
that mixture is the octane number of the fuel. For example, petrol with the same knocking
characteristics as a mixture of 90% iso-octane and 10% heptane would have an octane rating of
90.[2] A rating of 90 does not mean that the petrol contains just iso-octane and heptane in these
proportions, but that it has the same detonation resistance properties. Because some fuels are
more knock-resistant than iso-octane, the definition has been extended to allow for octane
numbers greater than 100.

Octane ratings are not indicators of the energy content of fuels. (See section 4 of this page and
heating value). It is only a measure of the fuel's tendency to burn in a controlled manner, rather
than exploding in an uncontrolled manner. Where the octane number is raised by blending in
ethanol, energy content per volume is reduced. Ethanol BTUs can be compared with gasoline
BTUs in heat of combustion tables.

A US gas station pump offering five different (R+M)/2 octane ratings

It is possible for a fuel to have a Research Octane Number (RON) more than 100, because ISO-
octane is not the most knock-resistant substance available. Racing fuels, avgas, LPG and alcohol
fuels such as methanol may have octane ratings of 110 or significantly higher. Typical "octane
booster" gasoline additives include MTBE, ETBE, isooctane and toluene. Lead in the form of
tetraethyllead was once a common additive, but its use for fuels for road vehicles has been
progressively phased-out worldwide, beginning in the 1970s.[3]

Measurement methods
Research Octane Number (RON)

The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the Research Octane Number (RON).
RON is determined by running the fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratio under
controlled conditions, and comparing the results with those for mixtures of iso-octane and n-
heptane.

Motor Octane Number (MON)

There is another type of octane rating, called Motor Octane Number (MON), which is a better
measure of how the fuel behaves when under load, as it is determined at 900 rpm engine speed,
instead of the 600 rpm for RON.[1] MON testing uses a similar test engine to that used in RON
testing, but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine speed, and variable ignition timing to
further stress the fuel's knock resistance. Depending on the composition of the fuel, the MON of
a modern gasoline will be about 8 to 10 points lower than the RON, however there is no direct
link between RON and MON. Normally, fuel specifications require both a minimum RON and a
minimum MON.[citation needed]

Anti-Knock Index (AKI)

In most countries, including Australia and all of those in Europe[citation needed], the "headline"
octane rating shown on the pump is the RON, but in Canada, the United States, Brazil, and some
other countries, the headline number is the average of the RON and the MON, called the Anti-
Knock Index (AKI, and often written on pumps as (R+M)/2). It may also sometimes be called
the Pump Octane Number (PON).

Difference between RON and AKI

Because of the 8 to 10 point difference noted above, the octane rating shown in Canada and the
United States is 4 to 5 points lower than the rating shown elsewhere in the world for the same
fuel. This difference is known as the fuel's sensitivity,[4] and is not typically published for those
countries that use the Anti-Knock Index labelling system.

See the table in the following section for a comparison.

Observed Road Octane Number (RdON)

Another type of octane rating, called Observed Road Octane Number (RdON), is derived from
testing gasolines in real world multi-cylinder engines, normally at wide open throttle. It was
developed in the 1920s and is still reliable today. The original testing was done in cars on the
road but as technology developed the testing was moved to chassis dynamometers with
environmental controls to improve consistency.[5]

Aviation gasoline octane ratings

Gasoline used in piston aircraft common in general aviation have slightly different methods of
measuring the octane of the fuel. Similar to AKI, it has two different ratings, although it is
referred to only by the lower of the two. One is referred to as the "aviation lean" rating and is the
same as the MON of the fuel up to 100.[6] The second is the "aviation rich" rating and
corresponds to the octane rating of a test engine under forced induction operation common in
high-performance and military piston aircraft. This utilizes a supercharger, and uses a
significantly richer fuel/air ratio for improved detonation resistance.[4]

The most commonly used current fuel 100LL, has an aviation lean rating of 100 octane, and an
aviation rich rating of 130.[7]

Examples

The RON/MON values of n-heptane and iso-octane are exactly 0 and 100, respectively, by the
definition of octane rating. The following table lists octane ratings for various other fuels.[8][9]

Fuel RON MON AKI

hexadecane < -30
n-octane -10
n-heptane (RON and MON 0 by definition) 0 0 0
diesel fuel 15–25
2-methylheptane 23 23.8
n-hexane 25 26.0 26
1-pentene 34
2-methylhexane 44 46.4
3-methylhexane 55.0
1-heptene 60
n-pentane 62 61.9
requirement for a typical two-stroke outboard motor[10] 69 65 67
Pertamina "Premium" gasoline in Indonesia 88 78 83
"Regular" gasoline in Japan (Japanese Industrial Standards) 90
n-butanol 92 71 83
Neopentane (dimethylpropane) 80.2
"regular" gasoline in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the US 91–92 82–83 87
Pertamina "Pertamax" gasoline in Indonesia 92 82 87
Shell "Super" in Indonesia 92
n-butane 94[11] 90.1
Isopentane (methylbutane) 90.3
Pertamina "Pertamax Plus" gasoline in Indonesia 95 85 90
Shell "Super Extra" in Indonesia 95
Shell "FuelSave " in Malaysia 95
Fuel RON MON AKI
"EuroSuper" or "EuroPremium" or "Regular unleaded" in Europe,
95 85–86 90–91
"SP95" in France
"Premium" or "Super unleaded" gasoline in US (10% ethanol
97 87-88 92-93
blend)
Shell "V-Power 97" in Malaysia 97
Shell "V-Power 98", Caltex "Platinum 98 with Techron", Esso
98 89–90 93–94
Mobil "Synergy 8000" and SPC "LEVO 98" in Singapore
Great Britain, Slovenia and Spain, "SP98" in France 98 89–90 93–94
"SuperPlus" in Germany 98 88
[12]
Tesco "Momentum^99" in UK 99 87
"Premium" gasoline in Japan (Japanese Industrial Standards) 100
Pertamina "Pertamax Racing" in Indonesia 100
Shell V-Power in Italy and Germany 100 88
Eni(or Agip) Blu Super +(or Tech) in Italy 100 87 94
IP Plus 100 in Italy 100
Tamoil WR 100 in Italy 100
San Marco Petroli F-101 in Italy(northern Italy only, just a few gas
101
stations)
Petro-Canada "Ultra 94" in Canada [13] 101.5 88 94
Aral Super 95 in Germany 95 85
Aral Super 95 E10 (10% Ethanol) in Germany 95 85
Aral SuperPlus 98 in Germany 98 88
Aral Ultimate 102 in Germany 102 88
IES 98 Plus in Italy 98
2,2-dimethylbutane 93.4
2,3-dimethylbutane 94.4
99.5
ExxonMobil Avgas 100[14]
(min)
Shell "V-Power Racing" in Australia - discontinued July 2008 [15] 100
"isooctane" (RON and MON 100 by definition) 100 100 100
benzene 101
i-butane 102[16] 97.6
"BP Ultimate 102 - now discontinued"[17] 102 93–94 97–98
t-butanol 103 91 97
2,3,3-trimethylpentane 106.1[18] 99.4[18] 103
ethane 108
2,2,3-trimethylpentane 109.6[18] 99.9[18] 105
toluene 121 107 114
Fuel RON MON AKI
E85 gasoline 102-105 85-87 94-96[19]
propane 112 97
2,2,3-trimethylbutane 112.1[18] 101.3[18] 106
xylene 118 115 116.5
isopropanol 118 98 108
methanol 108.7[20] 88.6[20] 98.65
ethanol 108.6[20] 89.7[20] 99.15
2,5-Dimethylfuran 119
methane 120 120 120
hydrogen > 130

Effects

Higher octane ratings correlate to higher activation energies: This being the amount of applied
energy required to initiate combustion. Since higher octane fuels have higher activation energy
requirements, it is less likely that a given compression will cause uncontrolled ignition,
otherwise known as autoignition or detonation.

The compression ratio is directly related to power and to thermodynamic efficiency of an internal
combustion engine (see Otto-cycle). Engines with higher compression ratios develop more area
under the Otto-Cycle curve, thus they extract more energy from a given quantity of fuel.

During the compression stroke of an internal combustion engine, as the air / fuels mix is
compressed its temperature rises (PV=nRT).

A fuel with a higher octane rating is less prone to auto-ignition and can withstand a greater rise
in temperature during the compression stroke of an internal combustion engine without auto-
igniting, thus allowing more power to be extracted from the Otto-Cycle.

If during the compression stroke the air / fuel mix reaches a temperature greater than the auto-
ignition temperature of the fuel, the fuel self or auto-ignites. When auto-ignition occurs (before
the piston reaches the top of its travel) the up-rising piston is then attempting to squeeze the
rapidly heating fuel charge. This will usually destroy an engine quickly if allowed to continue.

There are two types of induction systems on internal combustion engines: Normally aspirated
engine (air is sucked in using the engine's pistons), or forced induction engines (see supercharged
or turbocharged engines).

In the case of the normally aspirated engine, at the start of the compression stroke the cylinder air
/ fuel volume is very low, this translates into a low starting pressure. As the piston travels
upward, abnormally high cylinder pressures may result in the mixture auto-igniting or
detonating, which is why conservative compression ratios are used in consumer vehicles. In a
forced induction engine where at the start of the compression stroke the cylinder pressure is
already raised (having a greater volume of air / fuel) Exp. 200 kPa (14.7Psi), the starting pressure
or air / fuel volume would be 2 times that of the normally aspirated engine. This would translate
into an effective compression ratio of 20:1 vs. 10:1 for the normally aspirated. This is why many
forced induction engines have compression ratios in the 8:1 range.

Many high-performance engines are designed to operate with a high maximum compression, and
thus demand fuels of higher octane. A common misconception is that power output or fuel
efficiency can be improved by burning fuel of higher octane than that specified by the engine
manufacturer. The power output of an engine depends in part on the energy density of the fuel
being burnt. Fuels of different octane ratings may have similar densities, but because switching
to a higher octane fuel does not add more hydrocarbon content or oxygen, the engine cannot
develop more power.

However, burning fuel with a lower octane rating than that for which the engine is designed
often results in a reduction of power output and efficiency. Many modern engines are equipped
with a knock sensor (a small piezoelectric microphone), which sends a signal to the engine
control unit, which in turn retards the ignition timing when detonation is detected. Retarding the
ignition timing reduces the tendency of the fuel-air mixture to detonate, but also reduces power
output and fuel efficiency. Because of this, under conditions of high load and high temperature, a
given engine may have a more consistent power output with a higher octane fuel, as such fuels
are less prone to detonation. Some modern high performance engines are actually optimized for
higher than pump premium (93 AKI in the US). The 2001 - 2007 BMW M3 with the S54 engine
is one such car. Car and Driver magazine tested a car using a dynamometer, and found that the
power output increased as the AKI was increased up to approximately 96 AKI.

Most fuel filling stations have two storage tanks (even those offering 3 or 4 octane levels): those
motorists who purchase intermediate grade fuels are given a mixture of higher and lower octane
fuels. "Premium" grade is fuel of higher octane, and the minimum grade sold is fuel of lower
octane. Purchasing 91 octane fuel (where offered) simply means that more fuel of higher octane
is blended with commensurately less fuel of lower octane, than when purchasing a lower grade.
The detergents and other additives in the fuel are often, but not always, identical.

The octane rating was developed by chemist Russell Marker at the Ethyl Corporation in 1926.
The selection of n-heptane as the zero point of the scale was due to its availability in high purity.
Other isomers of heptane produced from crude oil have greatly different ratings.