Organic Farming 5 - Vadakayil

BEFORE THE GREEN REVOLUTION KERALA GREW RICE WITHOUT ANY CHEMICAL
FERTILISERS/ HERBICIDES AND PESTICIDES.. NOBODY USED UREA YET THE

CROPS WERE LUSH GREEN. HOW IS THAT ?
FIRST LET ME WARN PM MODI
PM MODI, LISTEN UP-- WHAT IS APPLICABLE TO ISRAEL IS NOT APPLICABLE TO

INDIA..
SO IN YOUR EAGERNESS TO WRANGLE A KOSHER NOBEL PRIZE DONT KILL

BHARATMATA.. IN ANY CASE ONLY CAPT AJIT VADAKAYIL CAN WRITE YOUR
LEGACY.. IT IS IN MY POCKET..
WE THE PEOPLE STILL WONDER IF MODI WORKS FOR ISRAEL OR INDIA...
NOW MODI HAS TEAMED UP WITH THAT STUPID FELLOW CHITPAVAN PRAJASH
JAVEDEKAR .. WE KNOW MODIs COMPULSIONS TO TAKE SUCH A USELESS
MINISTER FOR ENVIRONMENT..
WHY DOES PRAKASH JAVEDEKAR HAVE TO GRIN LIKE AN IMBECILE ?
IN INDIA WE USE OXEN AND TILL OUR LAND.. TILLAGE IS THE ORGANIC
ALTERNATIVE TO CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL.. THERE IS NO NEED FOR
HERBICIDES IF YOU BURN CROP STUBBLE FOR WEED ELIMINATION AND FOR
PRICELESS BIOCHAR..
Weed control techniques may alter the growing environment by eliminating light, increasing
the temperature of the soil, or depriving the plant of carbon dioxide or oxygen..
Fire causes the cell walls to rupture when they reach a temperature of 50 deg C.
IN KERALA WE HAVE NEVER SET FIRE TO OUR FIELDS FOR BURNING CROP
STUBBLE.. WE USE A DIFFERENT METHOD CALLED FLOODING..
Flooding is a method of control that requires the area being treated to be saturated at a
depth of 15 to 30 cm for a period of 3 to 8 weeks..
The saturation of the soil reduces the availability of oxygen to the plant roots thereby killing
the weed..
In Kerala we keep the paddy field flooded after harrowing to kill weeds and to hasten
decomposition. Water level should be high enough to submerge all weeds. Typically, a
permanent flood is applied 3–6 weeks after planting.
The main reason for flooding the rice fields is that most Kerala rice varieties maintain better
growth and produce higher yields when grown in flooded soils, than when grown in dry soils.
SO WE DONT NEED TO BE BRAINWASHED BY MODIs PATRONS IN ISRAEL-- ASKING
INDIA NOT TO TILL OUR LAND OR NOT TO FLOOD THE LAND --BECAUSE WE WILL
RELEASE METHANE INTO THE ATMOSPHERE ..
Rice is a crop that can flourish in flooded soils, whereas many other plants will die.. In Kerala
we have plenty water unlike Israel where they have stolen Golan Heights from Syria --as it
has abundant water resources..
Rice doesn't actually need that much water, but since it can thrive in such conditions,
whereas weeds cannot, it's a natural protection against them.
The traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the
young seedlings
Water creates unfavourable conditions for weeds, by cutting off sunlight and aeration to the
ground..
The seed of rice is unusual among crops because it can germinate and grow into a young
plant that can capture light energy even when the entire process occurs underwater..
Tillage allows the seeds to be planted at the right depth, and also helps with weed control..
Because of prolonged flooding in rice fields, farmers are able to conserve soil organic matter
and also receive free input of nitrogen from biological sources, which means they need little
or no nitrogen fertilizer ( UREA ) to retain yields.
IF UREA IS PUT FOR NO REASON, IT DESTROYS THE WATER RESOURCES WITH

NITRITES..
THE PRIZES GIVEN TO THE FATHER OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION MS

SWAMINATHAN MUST BE WITHDRAWN.. THIS DESH DROHI BASTARD BELONGS TO
JAIL..
DELETE ALL BHAKTI MOVEMENT HEROES ( FAKE DASAS ETC COOKED UP BY JEW
ROTHSCHILD ) FROM HISTORY AD SOCIAL STUDIES BOOKS..
THE CONTENTS OF THIS 5 PART BLOGPOST ( ONLY 60% COMPLETE ) MUST BE

PART OF THE SCHOOL NCERT SYLLABUS.. SMALL CHILDREN MUST KNOW THE
IMPORTANCE OF WATER AND SOIL MANAGEMENT..
PUT THE LINK BELOW IN THE "EDUCATIONAL POLICY SUGGESTION" WEBSITE..
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2019/05/india-must-revert-to-organic.html
Interseeding is the method of planting a cover crop into a primary crop where the primary
crop is still growing. The goal of this method is to establish cover crops earlier in the
growing season, giving the cover crops a head start in order to help improve soil health.
Water quality is also improved as the cover crops will help reduce erosion and nutrient loss
due to surface water runoff.
Cover Crops can be used to produce Nitrogen.. Nitrogen is necessary for all plant growth.
Legumes have the ability to “fix” nitrogen from the air and store it in nodules in their roots.
This nitrogen can be released or use by subsequent crops. Legumes (peas, vetches,
clovers, beans and others) grow in a symbiotic relationship with soil-dwelling bacteria.
The bacteria take gaseous nitrogen from the air in the soil and feed this nitrogen to the
legumes; in exchange the plant provides carbohydrates to the bacteria. Key players in this
process are legumes and the symbiotic bacteria which are associated with the legume's root
nodules. These bacteria are known as nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These organisms convert
nitrogen in the soil to ammonia, which can then be taken up by plants.
Two types of bacteria do this job: non-symbiotic bacteria in the soil and symbiotic bacteria
that live in the roots of plants. Bacteria in the genera Clostridium and Azotobacter are
non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, while those in the genus Rhizobium are symbiotic
bacteria. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are very important to other organisms because they
chemically change nitrogenous compounds that are not usable by living things into
compounds that are usable. ...
These specific bacteria that live in the soil are able to fix, or chemically change N2 into
ammonia, NH3. In the atmosphere, nitrogen is fixed (i.e. N2 is converted to NH3) in three
ways: (1) bacteria, (2) by humans through a manufacturing process called Haber process
used in fertilizer production, and (3) through a chemical process initiated by lightning.
Certain bacteria are diazotrophs (or more simply, nitrogen-fixers). The grandfather of
microbial nitrogen fixation is the bacteria in the genus Rhizobia. These bacteria form a
symbiotic relationship with only legume plants, like soybeans, green beans, clover, and
alfalfa. They form nodules on the root system.
Nitrogen fixing (rhizobia) live in a symbiotic relationship with roots of legumes (beans, alfalfa,
clover). The bacteria receive sugars and other plant chemicals from the plant and in return,
Rhizobia convert nitrogen from the soil atmosphere into nitrogen compounds usable by the
plant. Rhizobium is the nitrogen fixing bacteria present mainly in the soil.
The Rhizobia chemically convert the nitrogen from the air to make it available for the
plant.These bacteria live in symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants. The Rhizobia live
in nodules in the roots of the plant.
A legume or the fruit or seed of such a plant (also called a pulse). Legumes are grown
agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, for livestock forage and silage, and as
soil-enhancing green manure.
Well-known legumes include alfalfa, clover, beans, peas, chickpeas, lentils, lupins, mesquite,
carob, soybeans, peanuts, and tamarind. Legumes, with the proper soil bacteria, convert
nitrogen gas from the air to a plant available form. Therefore, they do not need nitrogen
fertilization, and can even add nitrogen to the soil.
DIGRESSION: ON CHEMICAL TANKERS WE ARE EXPERTS IN TESTING EVEN THE

ATMOSPHERE .. ALL THIS SOIL TESTING IS LIKE LKG FOR US ( AT PHD LEVEL ).
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2011/01/toxic-gas-detector-tubes-capt-ajit.html
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2012/09/draeger-tube-list-on-chemical-tankers.html
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2010/02/wall-wash-method-chemical-tankers-capt.html
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2012/05/wall-wash-ptt-without-tears-chemical.html
THE BIGGEST PROBLEM CAUSE THE GREEN REVOLUTION IS THAT INDIA HAS BEEN
DEPRIVED OF CLEANING DRINKING WATER..
IF A DOG SHITS SAY THREE METRES AWAY FROM A DRINKING WATER WELL, THE
SOIL MICROBES CAUSE THE DOG SHIT TO BE PULVERIZED AND CONVERTED TO
CO2 AND WATER ..
AND IF RAIN FALLS ONLY CLEAN UNPOLLUTED WATER ENTERS THE WELL FROM
HIGHER LEVELS ( IF THE WELL IS NOT CEMENTED )..
BUT WITH MICROBES DEAD DUE TO CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS/PESTICIDES , PURE

DOG SHIT BACTERIA / COLI GOES THOUGH THE SOIL AND ENTERS THE WELL.
THIS CAUSES HUMAN GUT MICROBE DEGRADATION.
ALL THIS IN A COUNTRY LIKE INDIA WHERE PEOPLE DEFECATE IN THE OPEN DUE
TO LACK OF TOILETS.
EVEN PLASTICS CAN BE DEGRADED IN SOIL BY THE APPROPRIATE MICROBES.
THIS BASTARD MS SWAMINATHAN BELONGS TO JAIL.
DURING FLOODS IN KERALA IMPROPER SEPTIC TANKS CAUSED SHIT TO RUN

OVER THE STATE..
82 % DISEASES ARE WATER BORNE.
80 % water pollution is caused by the domestic sewage. Polluted river have intolerable smell
and contains less flora and fauna. 80% of the world’s population is facing threats to water
security
Being a universal solvent, water is a major source of infection.
Toxins in industrial waste are the major cause of immune suppression, reproductive failure
and acute poisoning. Infectious diseases, like cholera, typhoid fever and other diseases
gastroenteritis, diarrhea, vomiting, skin and kidney problem are spreading through polluted
water
90 % OF DISEASES ORIGINATE IN THE GUT AS PER 6200 YEAR OLD CHARAKA

SAMHITA
IN 2019 , THE ATHEIST COMMIE KERALA GOVT DELIBERATELY ENSURE TOILETS
DID NOT WORK AT SABARIMALA.. HARRIED PILGRIMS SHAT IN THE OPEN. THERE
WAS HEAVY RAIN AND ALL THIS SHIT WATER WENT INTO THE PAMPA RIVER..
THE GOVT LABS LIED ( IMPROPER SAMPLING ) WHEN THE REPORTED BOD/ COD/
COLI CONTENT OF WATER..
Bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases like typhoid, cholera, encephalitis, poliomyelitis,
hepatitis, skin infection and gastrointestinal are spreading through polluted water.
Plastics are not organic matter and it is difficult to break them down into their constituents
materials. Hence, it is difficult for bacteria to break down plastics.
With exposure to UV rays and the ocean environment, plastic breaks down into smaller and
smaller fragments. Polypropylene is resistant to acid and alkali but they can be broken down
by UV of sunlight. The sunlight causes the bonds holding the polymer together to break
which weakens the plastic.
UV light can cause a chemical reaction in the plastic, which results in scission, or severing,
of those big polymer molecules. This makes polypropylene unsuitable for uses that require
longterm exposure to sunlight.. Polyester is often chosen as the outside coating for a cored
rope as it is UV resistant.
A PLASTIC FISHING LINE TAKES 600 YEARS TO BE BROKEN DOWN IN THE SALTY
OCEAN.
Certain plastics such as acrylic, Ultem, PVDF, and PTFE are inherently UV stable
Short wave ultraviolet light (100 to 300 nm) is used to kill bacteria, hasten chemical reactions
(as a catalyst), and is also valuable in the identification of certain fluorescent minerals.
Unlike long wave UV, the short wave UV cannot pass through ordinary glass or most
plastics.
The Ideonella sakaiensis bacterium eats plastic. Waxworm caterpillars can break down
plastic in a matter of hours, and mealworms possess gut microbes that eat through
polystyrene.
Viruses can sometimes survive on indoor surfaces for more than 7 days. In general, viruses
survive for longer on non-porous (water resistant) surfaces, such as stainless steel and
plastics, than porous surfaces, such as fabrics and tissues.
Only 60% fertilizers are used in the soil other chemicals leached in to soils polluting the
water, cyanobacteria are rich in polluted water and excess phosphate run off leads to
eutrophication.
Residues of chemicals mix with river water due to flooding, heavy rainfall, excess irrigation
and enter in the food chain. These chemicals are lethal for living organisms and many
vegetables and fruits are contaminated with these chemicals . Trace amounts of
pharmaceutical in water also causes water pollution and it is dangerous to human health..
Disease causing microorganisms are known as pathogens and these pathogens are
spreading disease directly among humans..
Many waterborne infectious diseases are linked with fecal pollution of water sources and
results in fecal-oral route of infection . Health risk associated with polluted water includes
different diseases such as respiratory disease, cancer, diarrheal disease, neurological
disorder and cardiovascular disease
Nitrogenous chemicals are responsible for cancer.. Contaminated water has large negative
effects in pregnant women -it leads to still births, retarded children and low birth weights.
Untreated drinking water and fecal contamination of water is the major cause of diarrhea.
Campylobacter jejuni spread diarrhea to 15% worldwide..
Disease cholera is caused by the contaminated water. Vibrio Cholerae is responsible for this
disease. This bacterium produces toxins in digestive tracts. The symptoms of this disease
are watery diarrhea, nausea, vomiting and watery diarrhea leads to dehydration and renal
failure.
Shigellosis is a bacterial disease caused by Shigella bacteria. It affects the digestive tract of
humans and damages the intestinal lining..
Salmonellosis infects the intestinal tract. Salmonella bacteria are found in contaminated
water and it results in inflammation of intestine and often death occurs.
Hepatitis is a viral disease caused by contaminated water and infects the liver. Jaundice,
loss of appetite, fatigue, discomfort and high fever are symptoms of hepatitis. If it persists for
a long time it may be fatal and results in death.
Encephalitis is inflammatory disease spread by bite of infected mosquitoes. Culex mosquito

lays their eggs in contaminated water. Most people don’t show any symptoms but some
symptoms are headache, high fever, muscle stiffness, convulsions however in severe cases
coma and paralysis results. No vaccine is available for this disease..
Poliomyelitis virus is responsible for poliomyelitis. Sore throat, fever, nausea, constipation
and diarrhea and sometimes paralysis are symptoms of poliomyelitis..
Gastroenteritis is caused by different viruses including rotaviruses, adenoviruses,

calciviruses and Norwalk virus. Symptoms of gastroenteritis are vomiting, headache and
fever.
Cryptosporidiosis is a parasitic disease caused by the cryptosporidium parvum. It is
worldwide disease and symptoms are diarrhea, loose or watery bowls, stomach cramps and
upset stomach . Cryptosporidium is resistant to disinfection and affects immune system and
it is the cause of diarrhoea and vomiting in humans .
Galloping amoeba is caused by the Entamoeba histolytica and affects stomach lining. This
parasite undergoes cyst and non-cyst form. Infection occurs when cyst found in
contaminated water and it is swallowed. Symptoms are fever, chills and watery diarrhea
According to WHO, diarrheal cases are about 5 billion and results in 3 million deaths .
Giardiasis is caused by Giardia lamblia. Cells of intestinal lining may become injure. Giardia
is resistant to wintry temperature and disinfectant. Sometimes it is known as travelers’
disease. People suffering from giardiasis have symptoms bloating, excess gas, watery
diarrhea and weight loss..
LOSS OF MCIROBES IN THE SOIL HAS AFFECTED HUMAN HEALTH.. WHO IS

RESPONSIBLE?
A BASTARD NAMED MS SWAMINATHAN, WHOM WE HONOR AS THE “FATHER OF

GREEN REVOLUTION”.
CHOOTITA BUGGER PC CHACKO TOLD ON TV BEFORE 2019 LOK SABHA

ELECTIONS “ WE CONGRESS GAVE INDIA GREEN REVOLUTION. WE CONGRESS
GAVE INDIA “WHITE REVOLUTION ”..
BOTH THESE REVOLUTIONS NEARLY KILLED BHARATMATA ..
MODI IS STILL SINGING THE PRAISES OF GUJARATI AMUL MILK ( TOXIC A1 MILK OF
HUMPLESS COWS ) AND GUJARATI MILK MARKETING FEDERATION..
MODI IS WORKING 21 HOURS A DAY.. WE DON’T GET IMPRESSED , IF WORKING

HOURS ARE NOT PRODUCTIVE.
ONCE WHEN I WAS SIGNING OFF A CHEMICAL TANKER , THE RUSSIAN BOSUN
GUSHED.. “SIR , YOU WENT ON DECK WHILE TAKING OVER , YOU WENT ON DECK
ONCE WHEN THERE WAS A CRISIS , AND TODAY YOU WENT OF DECK TO HAND
OVER COMMAND.. BUT IN THE FULL 5 MONTHS YOU WERE ON BOARD, YOU KNEW
EVERYTHING WHAT HAPPENED ON YOUR SHIP , BETTER THAN ANYBODY ELSE
AND WAS IN FULL COMMAND”
INDEED THE KING NEED NOT PEEK INTO EVERY GUTTER OF HIS KINGDOM.. HE
MUST LAY OUT A SYSTEM..
Integrated Pest Management (IPM), is to reduce or mitigate the risks ssociated with a
particular pest suppression technique to specific natural resources (e.g. water, pollinators
and other beneficial organisms).
This standard defines IPM differently than some producers, who may think of IPM as a
long-term system that focuses on prevention of pests through a combination of strategies
such as biological controls, cultural practices and resistant varieties.
Some pesticides allowed in organic farming can pose significant risks to natural resources,
such as pyrethrum to fish, spinosad to bees, or any botanical or soap-based pesticide to
nontarget and beneficial arthropods.
Pest management in organic farming is achieved by using appropriate cropping techniques,

biological control, and natural pesticides (mainly extracted from plant or animal origins).
Weed control, the main problem for organic growers, can be managed through cultural
practices including mechanic cultivation, mulching, and flaming.
Organic farming is characterized by higher diversity of arthropod fauna and conservation of

natural enemies than conventional agriculture..
Successful IPM programs in organic farming have the following components:--

(1) monitoring crops for pests,
(2) accurately identifying pests,
(3) developing economic thresholds,
(4) implementing integrated pest control tactics, and
(5) record keeping and evaluation.
Few options of plant protection substances are available for certified organic growers
compared to conventional ones. Thus, they should capitalize on the natural processes and
management of the ecosystem to control harmful organisms.
Under organic farming systems, the fundamental components and natural processes of
ecosystems, such as soil organism activities, nutrient cycling, and species distribution and
competition, are used directly and indirectly as farm management tools to prevent pest
populations from reaching economically damaging levels.
Soil fertility and crop nutrients are managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop
rotations, and cover crops and supplemented with manure, composts, crop waste material,
and other allowed substances.
Soil-borne and root pathogens are usually found in low levels in organic farming as
compared to conventional ( chemical ) farming.. Airborne pathogens cannot be controlled
with cultural practice such as crop rotation..
Identification of insect pests and their natural enemies is an important step in any pest
management program. Insect pests and natural enemies could be identified using keys and
field guides or otherwise consulting an official identification bodies.
Unlike insect pests, plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, virus, and nematodes are
difficult to identify in the field and may need laboratory diagnosis. However, signs of insect
damage and symptoms of plant diseases may be easily distinguished in the field. Weeds
could be easily identified using key and field guides.
Monitoring is the regular inspection or scouting of field crops for pests, including insects,
pathogens, nematodes, and weeds, to determine their abundance and level of damage. It
serves as an early warning system for the presence of pests and diseases providing
information for decision-making regarding management action and evaluation of control
methods.
Insect pests can be monitored through visual observation, pheromone and light traps, sticky
traps, water traps, yellow traps, sweep nets, beating trays, and pitfall traps. Scouting data
are used to develop economic thresholds, a useful decision-making tool to start control
action when a pest population reaches or exceeds the specified economic threshold.
In agricultural crops, crop rotation, selection of crop plant varieties, timing of planting and
harvesting, irrigation management, crop rotation, and use of trap crops help reduce
populations of weeds, microorganisms, insects, mites, and other pests. These cultural
practices are more preventive than curative and thus may require planning in advance . The
diversified habitat provides these parasites and predators with alternative food sources,
shelter, and breeding sites
BURNING CROP STUBBLE DESTROYS ALL WEEDS AND PESTS – IN ADDITION TO

PROVIDING PRICELESS BIOCHAR.. USING CROP STUBBLE AS MULCH ATTRACTS
AND HARBOURS PESTS / TERMITES/ SNAKES / TERMITES / DISEASES...
Devices that can be used to exclude insect pests from reaching crops in organic farming
include, but not limited to, row covers, protective nets with varying mesh size according to
the pest in question, and sticky paper collars that prevent crawling insects from climbing the
trunks of trees.
Water pressure sprays can be employed to dislodge insect pests such as aphids and mites
from the plant surface. Insect vacuums, on the other hand, could be used to remove insects
from plant surface and collect them into a collection box.

Biological methods are the use of beneficial organisms that can be used in the field to
reduce insect pest populations. Biological control is grouped into three categories:
importation or classical biological control, which introduces pest’s natural enemies to the
locations where they do not occur naturally, augmentation involves the supplemental release
of natural enemies, boosting the naturally occurring population, and conservation, which
involves the conservation of existing natural enemies in the environment .

The role of beneficial species on pests is of relatively greater importance in organic

agriculture than in conventional agriculture, because organic growers do not have recourse
to highly potent insecticides (such as synthetic pyrethroids) with which to tackle major pest
problems

Biopesticides are characterized by having minimal or no risk to the environment, natural

enemies, and nontarget organisms due to their mode of action, rapid degradation, and the
small amounts applied to control pests.
They are slow acting, have a relatively critical application times, and suppress rather than
eliminate a pest population . Biopesticides have limited field persistence and shorter shelf life
and present no residue problems. Thus, they are approved for pest management in organic
crops.

Organically approved pesticides fall into the following groups: biorational, inorganics,
botanicals, microbial, oils, and soaps. The most widely used as insecticides are
microorganisms, natural pyrethrins, rapeseed oil, and paraffin; the most widely used as
fungicides are copper compounds, sulfur, and microorganisms.
Pheromone trapping could be used to determine population cycles and prediction of pest
outbreaks. Pheromones can also be employed in mating disruption, attack and kill, and male
inhalation techniques to reduce pest populations .
The same devices of pheromone and light traps can also be used for mass trapping of adult
insect pests, particularly gravid females that lead to drastic reduction in pest population

IPM starts with the least invasive, organic methods. Pesticides are a last resort in both
organic pest control and Integrated Pest Management. The difference is that the pesticides
in organic gardening are all naturally derived, but Integrated Pest Management also
suggests an array of chemicals.
file:///C:/Users/win7/Downloads/ipm_full.pdf

Hydroponic farming is the cultivation of plants in water without soil. ... Commercial
hydroponic growing is done in greenhouses.
INDIA WITH THE BEST TOP SOILS ( THOUGH RAPED BY A BASTARD NAMED MS
SWAMINATHAN ) DOES NOT NEED HYDROPHONIC FARMING.. LET ISRAEL OR
HOLLAND WITH SHIT TOP SOIL DO IT..
Hydroponic gardening uses considerably less water than soil gardening, because of the
constant reuse the nutrient solutions. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has ruled that
hydroponic and aquaponic products remain eligible for organic certification. Plants make
their own vitamins, so vitamin levels tend to be similar whether a vegetable is grown
hydroponically or in soil.
“Feed the soil to feed the plant” is a basic principle of organic farming . The overall goal of a
soil health management program is to balance nutrient inputs and outputs and ensure a
good balance of nutrients for the crop. This balance requires a complex mix of soil
management activities including proper tillage, irrigation, crop residue management, weed
management, and crop rotation planning.
Neglecting any of these components can compromise soil health and quality, affect crop
performance, and create potential pollution problems due to erosion, nutrient runoff or
leaching.
Sustainable agriculture is an approach to agriculture where the aim is to create
environmentally sound, economically viable, and socially just food and agricultural systems.
Emphasis is placed on renewable resources and the management of self-regulating

ecological and biological processes and interactions in order to provide acceptable levels of
crop, livestock, and human nutrition, protection from pests and diseases, and an appropriate
return to the human and other resources employed.
Reliance on external inputs, whether chemical or organic, is reduced as far as is practically

possible.
Sustainable agriculture also encompasses: The maintenance or restoration of surrounding
ecological landscapes; the economic viability for all involved in agricultural production,
processing and distribution; and more equitable distribution of agricultural products to assure
that basic human needs are met
2. Generally, organic agriculture refers to farming systems that avoid use of synthetic
pesticides and fertilizers.
i. “Certified Organic” agriculture it is a system of agriculture that encourages healthy soil
and crops through such practices as nutrient and organic matter recycling, crop rotations,
proper tillage, and the strict avoidance of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for at least three
years prior to certification
B. Soil Fertility and Soil Health in Sustainable Farming Systems

1. Soil health and fertility ---
a) “Soil health” and “soil quality” can be used interchangeably. They are: The capacity of a
soil to function, within land use and ecosystem boundaries, to sustain biological productivity,
maintain environmental quality, and promote plant, animal, and human health
b) Soil fertility is a feature of soil health as applied to agroecosystems. It is the capacity of a
soil to provide nutrients required by plants for growth.
c) Soil health is established through the interactions of soil’s physical, chemical, and
biological, properties
i. Physical properties include soil texture, a physical measurement of the percent of sand,
silt, and clay; and soil structure, the arrangement of individual soil particles (sand, silt, clay)
into aggregates or “clumps”
ii. Chemical properties of a soil measure its nutrient-carrying capacity and pH (acidity)
iii. Biological properties refer to the community of soil organisms (principally bacteria, fungi,
and actinomycetes)
d) Soil health indicators --

i. Soil provides adequate levels of macro- and micronutrients to plants and soil microbes.
This reflects the ability of the soil to mineralize nutrients and a moderate pH (~6.0–7.0) that
allows the nutrients to be both held in the soil and available to plants as needed.
ii. Soil has good “tilth.” This includes a good structure that resists degradation (e.g., erosion
and compaction), provides adequate aeration and rapid water infiltration, and accepts, holds,
and releases water to plants and groundwater.
iii. Soil promotes good root growth and maintains good biotic habitat that sustains high and
diverse populations of beneficial organisms and low populations of pests and pathogens
iv. Soil has low salinity levels and low levels of potentially toxic elements (e.g., boron,
manganese, and aluminum)
v. Soil has high resilience and is able to withstand deleterious events, such as drought and
flooding
2. Soil fertility, plant health, and the resistance and resilience of crop plants to pest and
pathogens
a) Soil fertility requires a balance of critical plant nutrients. Either a deficiency or an excess
of nutrients can adversely affect plant growth, susceptibility to pests and pathogens, and
post-harvest quality.
C. Goals of a Sustainable Soil Fertility Management Program--

1. To sustain high crop productivity and crop quality in food and fiber production (not
maximum yields, which typically require excessive nutrient inputs to achieve)
a) Crop productivity, crop quality, and the economic viability of a given farming operation
2. To minimize environmental quality and human health risks associated with agricultural
production
a) Important steps in minimizing human health risks and on- and off-farm impacts
i. Avoid the use of all synthetically compounded materials (e.g., fertilizers and pest control
agents, etc.) known to have an associated environmental quality or human health risk
ii. Avoid creating non-point source (NPS) pollution through surface runoff and leaching.
Excess nutrients (especially nitrogen and phosphorus) can degrade the quality of
groundwater, surface freshwater (e.g., rivers, lakes and wetlands), and nearshore marine
environments, causing eutrophication (low oxygen levels) and allowing weedy species to
outcompete native species as well as polluting drinking water
iii. Prevent soil erosion and sedimentation of waterways. Soil loss reduces production
capacity and soil entering waterways may degrade aquatic habitat
iv. Close nutrient cycles as much as possible within the field and farm to reduce energy use
and environmental impact of food and fiber production
v. Close nutrient cycles at multiple scales (e.g., watershed, regional, and national scales)
3. To assess and maintain soil health for long-term functioning of the above goals
D. Components of a Sustainable Soil Fertility Management Program: The Means to

Achieving the Above Goals
1. Improving and maintaining physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil involves a
suite of interrelated practices. Because these properties are so deeply and complexly
interconnected, soil health management requires an overall approach focused on how the
soil and plants are managed, rather than a product-based approach that focuses primarily on
delivering chemical “solutions” to nutrient and pest “problems.”
a) Sustainable agricultural practices used to improve and sustain soil physical and biological
properties
i. Maintain or increase soil organic matter (SOM) levels through inputs of compost and cover
cropping SOM has a high capacity to hold and release inorganic nitrogen and other
essential nutrients to plants. Organic matter inputs enhance the stability of soil aggregates,
increase the porosity and permeability to water and air, and improve the water-holding
capacity of soils. The primary constituents of SOM are organic compounds rich in carbon.
Building or maintaining the level of soil carbon provides the energy and nutrients necessary
to stimulate the soil microorganisms responsible for decomposition and the formation of soil
aggregates and more desirable soil structure.
ii. Provide a balanced nutrient supply for the crop, also through compost and cover
cropping. Use in-season supplemental fertilizers (when suggested as necessary by soil test
results, plant growth observations, or plant tissue testing) to prevent or address plant
nutrient deficiencies.
iii. Time tillage properly to stimulate the decomposition of SOM by breaking up compacted
areas and large soil clods and thus increase aeration (O2 supply to aerobic microbes) and
expose a greater surface area for microbial breakdown. Appropriately timed tillage also
increases water infiltration and good drainage
iv. Manage irrigation carefully to avoid runoff, erosion, and leaching of soluble nutrients. For
irrigation-dependent crops, manage soil moisture between 50% and 100% of field capacity
through soil moisture monitoring and moisture retention techniques such as mulching
v. Manage crop rotations and crop sequences carefully to build SOM and to alternate
rooting depths and nutrient demands of crops, where possible making use of different parts
of the soil profile over time
2. Improve and maintain chemical properties of soil
a) Benchmarks of optimal soil chemistry
i. Balanced levels of available plant nutrients
ii. Soil pH ~6.0–7.0: At this soil pH the greatest amount of soil nutrients are available to
crops
iii. Low salinity levels: The accumulation of salts in the soil may result in plant water and salt
stress
b) Sustainable agricultural practices used to develop and maintain optimal soil chemical
properties
i. Provide a balanced nutrient supply for the crop. As plant growth is related to the
availability of the most limiting nutrient, it is essential to consider the balance (ratios) of soil
nutrients available. Yield and quality may be limited if levels of some nutrients are too high
while others are too low.
ii. Conduct soil analysis with periodic monitoring. Soil analysis provides current quantitative
information on the nutrient profile of a given soil. Soil analysis report data should be
compared to established optimal benchmarks of soil fertility when developing soil
amendment plans to assure adequate but not excessive nutrient applications. Comparing
results from multiple years of sampling will show whether you are depleting or accumulating
soil nutrients over time, and indicate whether changes in fertility management are needed.
iii. Conduct plant tissue testing. In-season plant tissue testing provides current quantitative
data on the nutrient profile of growing plants. Such data may be compared with
recommended nutrient levels and may be used to determine the need for mid-season
supplemental fertilizing . However, be aware that most tissue testing information has been
developed for systems using synthetic chemical fertilizers, and sufficiency levels may well
differ for organic systems.
iv. Time seasonal nutrient release from organic amendments to correspond with crop
requirements
Important factors influencing the mineralization rate include:

• The quality of the organic matter input: E.g., carbon:nitrogen ratio, lignins, tannins,
polyphenols, etc.
• Environmental factors such as soil temperature and
• Note: When nitrogen from cover crops is mineralized in excess of crop demand, nitrate will
be vulnerable to leaching
v. Generally keep fields covered with a crop, cover crop, or mulch. Avoid leaving fields bare
to avoid wind and water erosion and nutrient leaching.
vi. Manage irrigation carefully to avoid runoff, erosion, and leaching of soluble nutrients
vii. Supply major nutrients primarily through organic matter and mineral soil amendments
(e.g., cover crops, composts, limestone, rock phosphate, etc.)
viii. Allow sufficient time for fresh residue to break down before planting crops
ix. Use in-season supplemental fertilizers (when suggested as necessary by soil test results,
plant growth observations, or plant tissue testing) to prevent or address plant nutrient
deficiencies
3. Increasing soil health can also helps minimize susceptibility to diseases and pests. Some
practices in organic agroecosystem management are particularly helpful towards this end.
a) Maintain soil nutrient levels and soil pH within optimal range to reduce plant nutrient
deficiencies or excesses. Plant nutrient deficiencies or excesses often lead to increased
susceptibility to pests and pathogens.
b) Build and maintain soil organic matter to promote desirable soil physical properties and
supply essential plant nutrients. For example, adequate drainage discourages prolonged
wet conditions that can lead to root rot, damping off, and other soil-borne diseases. Soil with
high SOM can also provide habitat for beneficial soil microbes that may impart
disease-suppressive qualities to agricultural soils.
c) Planting a high diversity of crops can increase the diversity of soil microbe populations by
supplying the microbes with diverse food sources and other compounds, such as chemo
attractants, from crop residue and root exudates. High microbial diversity can help suppress
pests and diseases.
d) Design appropriate rotations to break pest cycles, and include disease-suppressive crops
or cover crops. Changing the place in the garden or field where crops are grown interrupts
the host/pest cycle and thereby reduces or limits the development of populations of pest
and pathogens.
e) Maintain soil moisture within optimal ranges for plant growth and the avoidance of
compaction and erosion
f) Use appropriate preventive (e.g., farmscaping) and active biocontrol practices to suppress
the growth of pest populations
4. Summary--
The sustainable farming practices described above, including crop rotations, soil amending
and fertilizing, tillage, and irrigation techniques, should be used in concert to improve and
maintain the quality and health of agricultural soils. Soil quality in turn affects crop
performance (yield) and the resistance and resilience of crop plants to pests and pathogens.
Sustainable Agriculture Practices--

A. Main Goals of Managing for Soil Health
1.Soil fertility is a feature of soil health as applied to agroecosystems. It is the capacity of a
soil to provide nutrients that plants require for growth.
2. Key indicators of soil health include

a) The ability of the soil ecosystem to mineralize nutrients and make them available to plants
b) A moderate pH, which promotes nutrient retention and makes nutrients available to plants
c) Good structure, or tilth, that resists degradation and provides adequate air and water to
roots
d) Good biotic habitat, particularly for beneficial organisms
3. One of the main ways to support these goals is by increasing the carbon content of the
soil in the form of soil organic matter (SOM)
a) SOM has three main constituents. these are:

i. Plant debris and living microbial biomass
ii. Detritus (active soil organic matter, made of partially decomposed plant, animal, and
microbial tissues)
iii. Humus (stable soil organic matter)
b) The microbes help decompose the plant debris and the detritus, while humus (a black,
sticky substance) is the final product of decomposition
c) SOM has many benefits for the soil, supporting the key indicators of soil health listed
above. Some of these functions include those below
i. It provides the source of substances for mineralization
ii. SOM, especially the humus fraction, helps maintain soil pH biochemically
iii. It helps soils resist crusting and decreases erosiveness
iv. Plant debris and detritus fractions of SOM provide food for the microbial biomass
4. All these benefits of SOM make it “money in the bank” for the agroecosystem. Maintaining
and increasing SOM are the basis of the soil health practices described in this lecture.
B. Soil Cultivation in Sustainable Agriculture

1. Cultivation is physically working the soil for seedbed preparation or weed control, using
hand tools or mechanical implements. It is synonymous with tillage.
2. Services provided by tillage

a) Prepares soil for seeds or transplants by improving soil aeration and breaking up soil
clods
b) Incorporates crop or cover crop residue, helping make carbon and macronutrients,
especially nitrogen, available to soil microbes
c) Enables the incorporation of amendments such as compost and lime
d) Allows soil to dry more rapidly
e) Allows soil to warm up more rapidly
f) Increases microbial activity and mineralization rates in the short-term
g) Deep tillage can break through compacted layers that are a barrier to root growth and
water movement
h) Controls weeds by burial or exposure of seeds or seedlings
i) Controls overwintering insects by exposure to the surface
3. Disadvantages of tillage
Loss of soil organic matter (SOM) from excessive tillage can lead to crusting of bare soils,
impeding seedling emergence and water infiltration
4. Advantages of conservation tillage systems
a) Residue cover on the soil surface protects the soil from wind and water erosion
b) Increases moisture retention
c) Increases SOM over time (years), reaching a higher “steady state” than tilled systems in
the same environment
5. Limitations of conservation tillage systems

a) Residue cover lowers soil temperature, which delays seed germination and slows
seedling growth and may place grower at an economic disadvantage
b) Weed control is very difficult without use of herbicides
c) Conservation tillage requires specialized equipment such as no-till drills for seeding
d) Increased leaching of nutrients and herbicides into the groundwater has been shown in
some systems after years of reduced or no-till agriculture
6. Conservation tillage practices can also be employed on a small scale
a) For example, laying down a base of cardboard followed by a layer of wood chips can be
effective at reducing weed pressure while increasing SOM with relatively little work
C. Cover Crops in Sustainable Agriculture--

1. Services provided by cover crops
a) Cover crops increase nutrient availability
i. Rhizobium bacteria, in association with legume cover crops, are able to convert freely
available atmospheric nitrogen (N2 ) to a plant usable form (NH3 ). The legumes absorb the
NH3 and use it for growth and reproduction.
ii. Grass/cereal cover crops, when used alone or with N-fixing legume cover crops, may
reduce nutrient losses by capturing mobile nutrients (e.g., NO3 -) that would otherwise be
vulnerable to leaching or to loss through soil erosion
iii. After cover crops are mown and incorporated at the end of the season, the residues from
both the N-fixing and N-capturing plants are broken down by soil organisms, releasing the
cover crop nutrients into the soil solution for plant use
iv. As a source of labile carbon, cover crops can stimulate microbial activity and increase the
breakdown of existing SOM. Cover crops are a source of labile carbon (C) in the soil
ecosystem, and as such have a range of potential effects. Plant-derived labile C can affect
mineralization of SOM (called a “priming effect”), which can release atmospheric CO2 from
the SOM and allow mineralization of N from the SOM, making stored nutrients available to
plants. However, how much this happens depends on the specific soil and other interacting
factors.
v. Deep-rooted cover crops are able to recycle nutrients acquired from deeper in the soil
profile (e.g., phosphorus), acting essentially as nutrient “pumps”
b) Cover crops improve soil physical properties: Carbon and nutrient cycling through the use
of cover crops result in short-term improvements to soil physical properties 2. Influences on
nutrient release from cover crops
a) Decomposition of cover crops in the soil begins with primary consumers that consume the
cover crop residue. These include large invertebrates such as earthworms, millipedes,
sowbugs, and slugs. As the large organisms consume the plant materials, they shred it,
creating greater surface area for microscopic invertebrates, such as nematodes, and
microbes such as bacteria and fungi to continue the decomposition process.
b) Temperature and moisture conditions affect the level of microbial activity (lower
bioactivity at cooler temperatures, and under dry or waterlogged conditions)
c) Location of the residue: Residue may be left on the soil surface (as in conservation
tillage) or incorporated into the soil
i. Incorporation into the top 6–8 inches of the soil: With adequate moisture, will decompose
most rapidly due to high oxygen levels and large populations of decomposing organisms
ii. Leaving cover crop residue on soil surface: Will decompose more slowly due to drying.
However, in some systems and under certain conditions (especially warm temperatures and
adequate moisture), soil organisms may move surface residue below ground, facilitating
decomposition.
iii. Below 6–8 inches: May decompose more slowly due to lower oxygen levels and fewer
decomposing organisms
d) Composition of the cover crop residue

i. The carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio of the cover crop residue has a close link with N
mineralization. Higher cereal biomass produces higher C:N, while more legume-heavy
biomass produces lower C:N. Microbes need both C and N, the C in carbohydrates to
combust for energy and the N for building amino acids necessary for maintenance and
reproduction. The relative amount of C and N available for microbes determines how large
the pool of mineralized nitrate in the soil will be.
• C:N ratios of 22:1 or less result in net mineralization of N. Nitrate is liberated into soil
solution and is thus available for plant uptake or leaching.
• C:N ratios above 22:1 result in net immobilization of N. Nitrogen is bound in organic forms
and is unavailable for plant uptake. Nutrient deficiencies may result if this state is prolonged.
• Because the C:N ratio of cover crops increases as they age, it is generally recommended
that cover crops be harvested or incorporated into the soil when close to full bloom (but prior
to seed set) to assure a C:N ratio of 22:1 or less so that net mineralization occurs
ii. The presence of lignins and tannins in cover crop residue slows the rate of
decomposition. Lignins and tannins are organic compounds that are produced by plants and
have high C:N. Managing Soil Health
Soil Fertility Management—Sustainable Agriculture Practices
3. The timing of nutrient release, crop demand, and the fate of essential plant nutrients
a) Growers generally should try to manage the timing of nutrient release from cover crops to
coincide with crop demand
b) Nutrients (particularly N in the form of nitrate) can become vulnerable to loss if timing is
mismatched
c) If timing is mismatched, nutrient deficiencies (especially N) may result during key stages
in the growth cycle, leading to reduced yields. This is especially true with longer-season
crops, e.g., peppers and tomatoes.
D. Composts and Animal Manures in Sustainable Agriculture Fertility

1. Both compost and animal manure are sources of organic matter for the soil ecosystem
and provide benefits for soil, including:
a) Nutrients for crops
b) Increased soil organic matter content
c) Increased soil cation exchange capacity (CEC)
d) Habitat and food for beneficial soil microbes
e) Increased soil aggregates
2. Compost application
a) Common annual application rates: ~4–5 tons/acre/year on field scale; 10–12 tons/acre/
year on garden scale (cropping dependent)
b) The nutrient contribution (N:P:K) of compost varies greatly, depending on the raw
materials of the compost, and how long and under what conditions it matured. Check with
the supplier or have a compost nutrient assessment done to determine nutrient levels and
proportions.
c) Compost C:N: Compost with C:N of less than 20:1 can provide N to the following crop,
but compost with C:N greater than 20:1 can immobilize the N, making it less available to the
crop. This depends greatly on the raw materials, as well as the compost’s maturity.
Here, too, check with the supplier or have a compost nutrient assessment done.
d) Application timing: Ideally, nutrient release should coincide with crop demand.
However, this is difficult to control in organic systems because it is a biologically-driven
process, dependent on microbes breaking down the organic matter.
i. Compost is generally applied at the start of the season or when planting new crops during
the growing season
ii. Compost may be applied midseason as a sidedress (applied adjacent to or between rows
of growing crops), although it needs to be incorporated into the soil surface
iii. Depending on the quality of the compost, particularly the C:N, it may be an inefficient
source of N in the short term
iv. Release of N may last 6 weeks to several months following incorporation, depending on
the C:N, soil c haracteristics, and environmental conditions (e.g., weather). Up to 10–15% of
the compost N is released the first year.
3. Other considerations of compost use---

a) Requirements for on-farm compost production The feasibility of making compost on the
farm (versus “buying in” compost from a commercial source) depends on the farm or garden
scale and the overall labor and economics of the operation.
i. Labor and knowledge: On-farm compost production requires labor inputs and knowlege of
compost production techniques to both build and monitor compost piles
ii. Equipment and water: On-farm compost production requires proper equipment for pile
building and turning, and a water source
4. Manure application
a) Composted vs. uncomposted manure: While composted manure provides the benefits of
compost as described above, fresh or uncomposted manure may present several problems:
i. High ammonium levels may result in nitrogen “burns” on plants
ii. High ammonium and/or nitrate levels may cause rapid population growth of soil microbes
and the subsequent immobilization of N
iii. Undigested seeds from the animals’ feed (e.g., hay) or pasture may introduce weeds
iv. N is easily leached if stored manure is exposed to rain or if manure is incorporated into
the soil shortly before significant precipitation (enough to move the available nitrate and
ammonium below the root zone). This contributes to water pollution as well as reduces the
amount of N that would be available to plants later.
v. Pathogens such as E. coli and other disease-causing organisms may be present in fresh
manure.
vi. Composting the manure also helps address these problems
b) Restrictions on the use of manure are included in the National Organic Standards of 2002
c) The nutrient contribution (N:P:K) of fresh manures varies
E. Soil Amendments and Supplemental Fertilizers in Sustainable Agriculture--

1. Soil fertility management and nutrient budgets: In sustainable agriculture systems, the
goal often is to balance nutrient inputs with nutrient outputs each year. A nutrient budget
takes into account nutrient inputs, including those from compost and cover crops, and those
nutrients lost to crop production and other activities.
a) Goal: Balance inputs and outputs once you have achieved desired/optimal nutrient levels
and ratios
b) Inputs > outputs = accumulation. Potential risk of excess nutrients leading to non-point
source pollution through leaching and runoff, it also can increase disease and pest
problems.
c) Inputs < outputs = soil depletion. Potential risk of plant nutrient deficiencies and stress,
reduced yield, and increased susceptibility to pests and pathogens.
d) Example of inputs factored into budget for nitrogen--
i. Inputs = N imported in fertilizers and amendments (including compost and manure) + N
fixation through cover crops
Managing Soil Health
ii. Outputs = N exported in crop harvest + N lost through leaching, erosion, and denitrification
3. Supplemental fertilizers
a) Supplemental fertilizers are used to prevent or remedy acute soil or plant nutrient
deficiencies identified through soil analysis reports, plant tissue testing, and/or plant growth
observations
4. Application of nutrient budgets in assessing the health of larger-scale units, such as
watersheds and regions
a) Example of accumulation and depletion: Confinement animal production facilities import
nutrients as feed from large areas, and concentrate waste disposal in small areas
F. Crop Rotation and Crop Sequencing in Sustainable

1. Crop rotations
a) Crop rotation defined: The movement of crops from site to site on the farm in a planned
sequence
b) Rationale behind crop rotation: It interrupts pest-host cycles and prevents the buildup of
pests, weeds, and pathogens. Rotation also allows crops to access nutrients from different
soil depths, based on their rooting characteristics. Integrating cover crops and fallow periods
into rotations helps build soil organic matter and improve aggregation.
2. Rotation and sequencing considerations

a) Try to avoid repeated planting of crop species that are subject to similar pests, diseases,
and weed pressures in the same beds. Rotate with different crops to remove hosts and
break pest cycles.
i. Example: Solanaceae rotation. It is common practice to change the location of
Solanaceae family crops each year. Because these crops (tomatoes, eggplants, peppers,
potatoes, etc.) share common pests and pathogens, repeated cropping in the same location
can lead to the buildup of pest populations.
b) Rotate crops to maximize use of nutrient inputs and distribute nutrient demand placed on
the soil
i. Examples of multi-year crop rotations Rotate crops with various types of root systems to
improve soil health and structure.
E.g., tap-rooted crops promote water infiltration; fibrous-rooted crops help maintain soil
organic matter levels.
d) Incorporate fallow periods and perennial cover crop rotations. Fallow periods—areas
intentionally left uncultivated and planted to perennial cover crops—allow the soil to remain
undisturbed and the aggregation processes to proceed uninterrupted. This can help restore
the desired physical components of soil health.
3. Crop rotations and within-season sequences are farm specific and will depend on the
diversity of crops being grown, as well as factors such as farm location, soil types, climate,
and economic factors.
Organic farming is a system of agriculture that encourages healthy soil and crops through
such practices as nutrient and organic matter recycling, crop rotations, proper tillage, and
the strict avoidance of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for at least three years prior to
certification.
The goals of a sustainable soil health management program are --

• To sustain high crop productivity and crop quality in food and fiber production
• To minimize environmental quality and human health risks associated with agricultural
production
The capacity of a soil to provide nutrients required by plants for growth. This capacity to
provide nutrients to crop plants is in part influenced by the physical properties of soils and
is one component of soil fertility. Desirable soil physical properties and the capacity of the
soil to provide nutrients for growing crops are both soil quality indicators. Crops grown in
fertile soils are higher quality, better yielding, and are more resistant and resilient to pests
and pathogens
Soil is often thought of as an inert substrate, useful in propping up plants and a mere vehicle
for applied fertilizer and water. It is, in reality, a distinct ecosystem, defined as a system
formed by the interactions of a community of organisms with their physical environment.
Although we tend to take it for granted, human society is principally possible only because
the earth’s crust is “dusted” with a thin and often fragile layer of life-supporting material on
which we can grow food
Two distinct parts of the soil—the biotic and abiotic components—function together to form
a stable system. The biotic, or living (or that which was once alive) component is comprised
largely of living plants, living organisms (macro and micro), and organic matter (plant and
animal residues), which can be fresh, partially decomposed, or fully stabilized (humus).
Biotic factors are the living components of an ecosystem. They are sorted into three groups:
producers or autotrophs, consumers or heterotrophs, and decomposers or detritivores. In a
marine ecosystem, some of the biotic factor are algae, fungi, microorganisms (such as
bacteria), plants, animals and corals. These living beings compete against each other for
food and resources, are part of the predator-prey relation, and also include the
decomposers.
Biotic components are typically sorted into three main categories:---
Producers, otherwise known as autotrophs, convert energy (through the process of

photosynthesis) into food.
Consumers, otherwise known as heterotrophs, depend upon producers (and occasionally

other consumers) for food.
Decomposers, otherwise known as detritivores, break down chemicals from producers and
consumers (usually antibiotic) into simpler form which can be reused. Nearly all species are
influenced by biotic factors in one way or another. If the number of predators was to
increase, the entire food chain would be affected as any prey falling below that specified
predator in the food chain will become prey.
If the prey is not given enough time by the predator to repopulate, this could not only cause
endangerment and extinction in the prey, but the predator as well. Contradicting a decrease
in population size, if a particular species reproduces too rapidly, this will cause an increase
in population size, thus affecting the environment around them.
Soil’s abiotic component is made up of minerals, air, and water. Abiotic factors refer to
non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem. Abiotic resources are usually
obtained from the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Examples of abiotic factors
are water, air, soil, sunlight, and minerals. Biotic factors are living or once-living organisms in
the ecosystem.
Once the bacteria and fungi have completely broken down that dead tree or cow into soil,
and it's no longer an important food source, we can consider it part of the abiotic world.
Abiotic factors are the non-living parts of the environment that can often have a major
influence on living organisms. Abiotic factors include water, sunlight, oxygen, soil and
temperature. Water is a very important abiotic factor – it is often said that “water is life.” All
living organisms need water.
By understanding the soil’s ecosystem, growers can harness and promote the biotic
components with judicious additions of compost and “green manures” (cover crops worked
into the soil) to create a healthy environment for plant growth, and thus virtually eliminate
the need to apply purchased fertilizer. This can lower costs—both out of pocket and
environmental.
Soil’s Four Components--

When you pick up a handful of soil, only half of that volume is solid material (minerals and
organic matter). The other half should be pore space occupied by air (25%) and water
(25%).
Thus soil consists of four basic components:--

1. Mineral (45%, + or -, by volume): The mineral component of soil consists of rocks ground
down over geologic time as a result of physical, chemical and biological actions. Think of it
as rock or stone “flour.”
2. Organic matter (5%, + or -): Organic matter is made up of a wide range of organic
(carbon-containing) substances, including living organisms, plant biomass, and the
carbonaceous remains of organisms and plants. Some soil microorganisms break down the
remains of plants, animals, and other microorganisms; others synthesize new substances.
3. Soil air (25%): Soil air occupies the interstitial spaces between soil particles. Its primary
role is to provide oxygen to fuel the aerobic (oxygen requiring) activities of microorganisms
and plant roots. Soil bacteria that associate with roots of legumes such a beans and peas
use the nitrogen component of soil air to “fix” nitrogen in a form that plant roots can
assimilate.
4. Water (25%): Soil water or the soil solution carries dissolved nutrients that flow to and are
actively intercepted by plant roots. Thus the soil solution is the vehicle for nutrients to “flow”
into plants and, along with the products of photosynthesis, “grow” the plant. The soil solution
also gives plants their turgor and rigidity.
Physical properties of soil are divided into texture and structure. Soil texture is a physical
measurement of the percentage of sand, silt, and clay particles in a soil (as determined by
grain size, with sandy soils being the largest and clay the smallest). It is a given, and
cannot be altered Sandy soils usually feature low nutrient- and water-holding capacity and
an associated lower organic matter content.
On the plus side, sandy soils drain well, warm quickly, and allow early cultivation and
planting in the spring. Clay soils are the opposite: they carry high levels of nutrients and
water, but are often difficult to work. You can determine soil texture by a simple field “feel”
test called ribboning, or have it measured with a lab soil test.
Soil structure refers to the arrangement of individual soil particles (sand, silt, clay) into
aggregates or “clumps”; ideally, it takes the form of a granular or crumb structure, much like
the cross section of a loaf of good whole grain bread. Such a structure features an
amalgamation of small, intermediate, and large, stable aggregates.
Some major contributors to stable aggregates and good soil structure are: --
• The addition of organic matter—fresh, as green manures, and stabilized, as finished
compost. Organic matter is a feedstock for soil microorganisms that break down the organic
materials and in the process exude mucilaginous glues and slimes that help bind soil
particles into stable aggregates. Plant roots, both living and decomposed, also contribute
“binding” substances to the system.
• Timely and skilled cultivation techniques— rough plowing or digging physically forces soil
particle contacts, beginning the process of aggregation. Organic matter contributes to
stabilizing the aggregates that form. Note: Too much cultivation (especially secondary
cultivation, or pulverizing) damages soil structure, as does working a soil when it’s too wet.
.
Chemical properties of a soil measure its nutrient-carrying capacity and pH --
These are best determined by a soil test. Biological properties of the soil refer to the
“community of creatures” that live in and form the soil, principally bacteria, fungi, and
actinomycetes (microorganisms that are especially effective in breaking down
hard-to-decompose compounds, such as chitin;
While the three properties of soil are discreet, they are also synergistically interactive—
• By providing a “feedstock” for soil’s biological components with compost, green manures,
and fertilizers, you stimulate microbial populations. These microbes break down organic
matter so that it can be dissolved in soil water and taken up by plants for growth. The
microbes, in turn, die and contribute their own organic materials to the organic matter
content of the soil. You improve the chemical property of your soil by promoting the
biological properties.
• Similarly, by adding organic matter at least once a year, and using timely, skilled
cultivation techniques, you create good soil aggregation and improve soil structure (a
physical property). This creates large, continuous “pore spaces” in the soil; with their
balance of air and water, these pore spaces create a favorable habitat for the microbes and
plant roots that live and grow there. Thus you harness the physical properties of a soil to
create and maintain hospitable conditions for soil organisms and plants (the biological
properties).
Although it makes up only 3–5% of the soil, organic matter has a pronounced influence on all
soil properties.
When added to the soil, it yields:-

• A sufficient nutrient supply
• An open, permeable soil surface that allows air/gas exchange to replenish the soil’s
oxygen content, and makes it easy for water to enter, percolate through, and drain out of
the root zone
Managing Soil Health --
A “feedstock” to nourish microbes

• A low population of soil-borne plant diseases and pathogens
• A high population of beneficial soil microorganisms
• Good soil consistency, that is, the ability to resist degradation (compaction, erosion, etc.)
• Good tilth, which refers to the “workability” of a soil
Short of calling it a panacea, whatever the problem with soils, the answer is almost always to
add organic matter in the form of compost and/or green manures from cover crops:
• On a mono-grained, structureless sandy soil it creates aggregation and aids with moisture
and nutrient retention, building the “body” of a soil.
• On a sticky clay it adds more continuous macropores from the surface to the subsoil. This
type of pore system reduces puddling, crusting, and erosion of surface soils and allows
easy root growth.
• It also increases the aerobic (oxygen) content of clay soils, thus facilitating better root
growth and a flourishing biological community.
One of organic matter’s key properties is that it provides nutrients both for immediate use by
microbes and plant roots, and also holds and releases nutrients over time. This is especially
true of nitrogen, the most volatile and motile (moveable) of all nutrients, and the one needed
by plants in the largest quantity.
On a soil test, the estimated nitrogen release (ENR) is a reflection of the amount of organic
matter in a soil, as well as the organic matter’s ability to release nitrogen each growing
season. ENR in USA is expressed in pounds/acre, where >80–100 pounds is considered
good. Along with a nitrate nitrogen reading (20–40 parts/million is adequate), knowing the
percent of organic matter in your soil helps to determine whether you need to add nitrogen
as a fertilizer.
Digression:
Some organic methods of adding nitrogen to the soil include:

Adding composted manure to the soil.
Planting a green manure crop, such as borage.
Planting nitrogen fixing plants like peas or beans.
Adding coffee grounds to the soil.
Alfalfa meal encourages beneficial microbes and is an excellent organic source of nitrogen.
Animal Manure: The waste from grass eating animals is an excellent source of nitrogen.
Make sure the manure is well composted; since raw manure can not only burn your plants,
but the nitrogen is more volatile and can leach away.
If your plants prefer a complete fertilizer with a higher percentage of nitrogen, manure is an
easy option that provides the 3 main nutrients -- namely, nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium -- with nitrogen being the biggest dose. Manure also improves soil structure and
adds micronutrients..
All plants require three primary nutrients -- nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium -- for proper
growth. Nitrogen promotes green, leafy growth and aids in the production of chlorophyll.
Nitrogen is subject to losses in a greater variey of ways than any other nutrient: volatilization
of ammonia, leaching and denitrification of nitrates.
Nitrogen fixation by soil organisms is the only significant way to maintain the soil supply in a
sustainable system. Nitrogen is necessary for the production of sugars and, subsequently, of
sweet, ripe fruit.
If nitrogen is low, growth is stunted, and all plant functions are disturbed. Nitrogen is mobile
and, and when in short supply it will drift from older leaves to younger ones. Deprived of
nitrogen, the older leaves will often turn light green, yellow, or in some cases pink.
A stunted plant with such discolored leaves is a good sign of a protein deficiency in the plant,
and it may indicate a nitrogen deficiency in the soil, but it also may mean that the soil is too
cold or too wet or too dry, or that the plant is under attack by an insect or disease.
In the presence of excess nitrogen, a plant's response is to divert energy, carbohydrates,

water and minerals in order to metabolize it.
Consequently everything is thrown out of balance:--
sugars and starches are unavailable

the plant is overly succulent
tubers accumulate water and rot
plants are weak and fall over
flowering and fruiting is delayed
fruits ripen unevenly
trace elements, such as boron and copper are deficient.
If sunlight is insufficient to provide enough energy for nitrogen metabolism, the plant
accumulates nitrates and free amino acids, the latter of which may attract insects. Unlike
other soil nutrients, nitrogen does not originate from the soil but from the air.
Some nitrogen accumulates when rainfall absorbs nitrates in the atmosphere. And some is
fixed by free-living organisms (such as blue-green algae) not associated with plants. If the
plant receives enough nitrogen, its production of carbohydrates is diverted to manufacturing
proteins, and the supply to the root nodules is cut off. If nitrogen is low, carbohydrate
production increases, and more becomes available to the root nodules.
This feedback mechanism gives legumes an extra competitive edge, because the production
of carbohydrates requires energy, which is better utilized for other purposes if the plant has
no need for additional nitrogen. Legumes can contribute nitrogen to the soil before the plant
is tilled under, because various portions of the roots die during the year and are sloughed off
along with their nodules.
The nodules decay rapidly and release nitrogen. Legume roots may die when stressed, for
example by a local exhaustion of nutrients or a drought. Grasses growing with the legumes
will utilize nitrogen released from these decaying roots and nodules.
Consequently, one of the best ways to maximize nitrogen fixation is to grow a non-legume
as a companion crop. The non-legume sops up excess nitrogen in the soil and forces the
legume to continue fixing nitrogen.
During a drought, nitrogen fixation ceases, but soon after, new roots develop fresh nodules,
and fixation resumes. Usually, the more one tries to force nitrogen into the soil, the greater
are the chances of losses. If the soil is overfertilized, it may find a way to get rid of the
nitrogen almost as fast as the farmer puts it on.
If the nitrogen is spread in ammonium form, the soil may either cause it to be volatilized or to
be rapidly nitrified (converted to nitrate form) and soon afterward lost as a gas by
denitrification. If the nitrogen is initially in nitrate form, it may be denitrified or leach into the
groundwater. Nitrogen losses can be reduced by adding calcium or potassium salts to the
soil.
End of digression..
Percent organic matter is a measurement of the amount of plant and animal residue in the
soil. The color of the soil is usually closely related to its organic matter content, with darker
soils being higher in organic matter. The organic matter serves as a reserve for many
essential nutrients, especially nitrogen.
During the growing season, a part of this reserve nitrogen is made available to the plant
through bacterial activity. The ENR is an estimate of the amount of nitrogen (lbs/ac) that will
be released over the season. In addition to organic matter level, this figure may be
influenced by seasonal variation in weather conditions as well as soil physical conditions.
The nitrate nitrogen is a measure of the nitrogen available to the plant in the nitrate form. In
high rainfall areas, sandy soil types and areas with warm winters this measurement may be
of limited value except at planting or side dress time. In the areas with lower rainfall the
nitrate test mat be very beneficial.
Phosphorus facilitates early root growth, flowering, fruiting, sugar development, and energy
transfer within plants. Organic sources include bone meal, oyster shell flour rock, and
colloidal rock phosphate.
Once added to the soil, phosphorus is relatively immobile—that is, it doesn’t readily leach
downward as does nitrogen. But it is quickly “locked up” by both aluminum and calcium in
the soil, and thus unavailable for plant growth. As a biological soil manager you can grow
phosphorus-concentrating crops such as brassicas, legumes, and cucurbits, then use them
for compost or as green manure to work the phosphorus in their plant parts into the organic
fraction of the soil, where it will be available to crops.
Another strategy is to add a dusting of colloidal rock phosphate powder to manure layers in
a compost pile. Nitrifying bacteria proliferate in manure and they also consume and
immobilize the phosphorus, then “give it up” as they die and decompose.
Again, it becomes available in the organic matter fraction of the soil when the finished
compost is applied. Add organic matter at least once a year as compost or green manures
from cover crops
• Don’t water excessively, as water leaches nutrients and when applied heavily via overhead
or furrow irrigation can damage soil structure and reduce the aerobic (air-holding) capacity
of a soil
• Protect the soil surface, either with a living mulch (cover crops), or straw, chips, etc.
• Minimize soil compaction
• Get a lab soil test done and use the results to develop a fertility management plan. Then
monitor the soil via periodic tests every 1–3 years to see if your plan is working.
Potassium : Magnesium Ratio ñ On some crops, high magnesium levels may reduce
potassium uptake by the plant. The ratio of Potassium to Magnesium should be between 0.2
to 0.3 for best uptake. Ratios below 0.2 could cause reduced potassium uptake.
Calcium - Primarily soil type, drainage, liming and cropping practices affect the levels of
calcium found in soil. Calcium is closely related so soil pH. Calcium deficiencies are rare
when soil pH is adequate. The level for calcium will vary with soil type, but optimum ranges
are normally in the 65% to 75% cation saturation range. Magnesium - The same factors,
which affect calcium levels in the soil, also influence magnesium levels except magnesium
deficiencies are more common. Adequate magnesium levels range from 30 to 70 ppm (60
to 140 lbs/ac). The cation saturation for magnesium should be 10 to 15%.
Phosphorus - The phosphorus test measures that phosphorus that should be available to
the plant. The optimum level will vary with crop, yield and soil conditions, but for most field
crops a medium to optimum rating is adequate. For soils with pH above 7.3 the sodium
bicarbonate test will determine the available P. Potassium - This test measures available
potassium. The optimum level will vary with crop, yield, soil type, soil physical condition,
and other soil related factors.
Generally higher levels of potassium are needed on soils high in clay and organic matter
versus soils, which are sandy and low in organic matter. Optimum levels for light-colored,
coarsetextured soils may range from 90 t0 125 ppm (180 to 250 lbs/ac). On dark colored
heavy textured soils levels ranging from 125 to 200ppm (250 to 400 lbs/ac) may be required
Soil erosion is the natural process of detachment and movement of surface soil by water or
wind, and has occurred simultaneously with soil formation on the Earth for millennia.
In natural ecosystems the formation of soil from decomposing plant and animal matter
occurs in balance with the rate of erosion, maintaining overall soil health and fertility and
preventing a net loss of topsoil. In the last several centuries, however, human activities have
increased the rate of soil erosion, t takes about 500 years to form an inch of topsoil, this
alarming rate of erosion in modern times is cause for concern for the future of agriculture.
Cultivation is a purposefully broader concept than simply digging or tilling the
soil—cultivation involves an array of tools, materials and methods that, when properly
combined, promote and maintain optimum soil health and good tilth, a composite term for
the overall physical
characteristics of a soil (texture, structure, permeability, consistency, drainage, and
water-holding capacity). In short, tilth equals the workability of a soil in relationship
to its ability to grow plants. Soil tilth is its physical condition of soil, especially in relation to its
suitability for planting or growing a crop. Factors that determine tilth include the formation
and stability of aggregated soil particles, moisture content, degree of aeration, rate of water
infiltration and drainage.
Tilth can change rapidly, depending on environmental factors such as changes in moisture,
tillage and soil amendments. The objective of tillage (mechanical manipulation of the soil) is
to improve tilth, thereby increasing crop production; in the long term, however, conventional
tillage, especially plowing, often has the opposite effect, causing the soil to break down and
become compacted.
Soil with good tilth has large pore spaces for air infiltration and water movement. Roots only
grow where the soil tilth allows for adequate levels of soil oxygen. Such soil also holds a
reasonable supply of water and nutrients.
Tillage, organic matter amendments, fertilization and irrigation can each improve tilth, Crop
rotation and cover crops can positively impact tilth. A combined approach can produce the
greatest improvement.
Aggregation is positively associated with tilth. With finer-textured soils, aggregates may in
turn be made up of smaller aggregates. Aggregation implies substantial pores between
individual aggregates.
Aggregation is important in the subsoil, the layer below tillage. Such aggregates involve
larger (2- to 6-inch) blocks of soil that are more angular and not as distinctive. These
aggregates are less impacted by biological activity than the tillage layer. Subsurface
aggregates are important for root growth deep into the profile.
Deep roots allow greater access to moisture, which helps in drought periods. Subsoil
aggregates can also be compacted, mainly by heavy equipment on wet soil. Another
significant source of subsoil compaction is the practice of plowing with tractor wheels in the
open furrow.. Soil that is well aggregated has a range of pore sizes.
Each pore size plays a role in soil's physical functioning. Large pores drain rapidly and are
needed for good air exchange during wet periods, preventing oxygen deficiency that can
drown plants and increase pest problems. Denitrification by conversion of nitrogen to
gaseous forms is increased in oxygen-deficient wet soil. In degraded soil large pores are
compressed into small ones.
Small pores are critical for water retention and help a crop endure dry periods with minimal
yield loss
Soil tilth can be obtained through mechanical and biological manipulation.
Tillage --
Mechanical soil cultivation practices, including primary tillage (mold-board or chisel plowing)
followed by secondary tillage (disking, harrowing, etc.), break up and aerate soil. When soils
become degraded and compacted, such tillage practices are often deemed necessary. The
preferred scenario for good tilth is as the result of natural soil-building processes, provided
by the activity of plant roots, microorganisms, earthworms and other beneficial organisms.
Such stable aggregates break apart during tillage/planting and readily provide good tilth.
Stable aggregates are held together by organic bonds that resist breakdown during soil
saturation. These organic materials are themselves subject to biological degradation,
requiring active amendments with organic material, and minimal mechanical tillage.
Crop rotation can help restore tilth in compacted soils. Two processes contribute to this gain.
First, accelerated organic matter decomposition from tillage ends under the sod crop.
Another way to achieve this is via no-till farming. Second, grass and legume sods develop
extensive root systems that continually grow and die off. The dead roots supply a source of
active organic matter, which feeds soil organisms that create aggregation.
Beneficial organisms need continual supplies of organic matter to sustain themselves and
they deposit the digested materials on soil aggregates and thereby stabilize them. Also, the
living roots and symbiotic microorganisms (for example, mycorrhizal fungi) can exude
organic materials that nourish soil organisms and help with aggregation. Grass and legume
sod crops therefore return more organic matter to the soil than most other crops
Crop mixtures with different rooting systems can be beneficial. Other rotation crops are more
valuable for improving subsoils. Perennial crops have strong, deep, penetrating tap roots
that can push through hard layers, especially during wet periods when the soil is soft. These
deep roots establish pathways for water and future plant roots, and produce organic matter
Crops rotation can extend the period of active growth compared to conventional row crops,
leaving more organic material behind.
Soil types --
The soil management practices required to maintain soil tilth are a function of the type of
soil. Sandy and gravelly soils are naturally deficient in small pores and are therefore drought
prone, whereas loams and clays can retain and thus supply crops with more water.
Coarse-textured, sandy soils --

Sandy soil has lower capacity to hold water and nutrients. Water is applied more frequently
in smaller amounts to avoid it leaching and carrying nutrients below the root zone. Routine
application of organic matter increases sandy soil's ability to hold water and nutrients by 10
times or more.
Fine-textured, clay soils --
Clay soils lack large pores, restricting both water and air movement. During irrigation or rain
events, the limited large pore space in fine-textured soils quickly fills with water, reducing soil
oxygen levels. In addition to routine application of organic matter, microorganisms and
earthworms perform a crucial assist to soil tilth. As microorganisms decompose the organic
matter, soil particles bind together into larger aggregates, increasing large pore space. Clay
soils are more subject to soil compaction, which reduces large pore spaces.
Gravelly and decomposed granite soils --

Such soils natively have little tilth, especially once they have been disturbed. Adding organic
matter up to 25% by volume can help compensate. For example, if tilling to a depth of eight
inches, add two inches of organic materials.
Synthetically manufactured urea is an organic compound CO(NH2)2 which is NOT

considered an 'Organic' fertilizer.
UREA IN HUMPED COW URINE IS AN ORGANIC FERTILIZER
Urea fertilizer has nearly replaced ammonium nitrate as a fertilizer in large farming
operations. .... It contains large amounts of nitrogen, which is essential for healthy plant
growth
Urea is an inexpensive form of nitrogen fertilizer with an NPK

(nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium) ratio of 46-0-0. Synthetic urea is manufactured with
anhydrous ammonia.. Urea breakdown begins as soon as it's applied to the soil. If the soil is
totally dry, no reaction happens. But with the enzyme urease, plus any small amount of soil
moisture, urea normally hydrolyzes and converts to ammonium and carbon dioxide..
This breakdown begins immediately after spreading the urea, which is why you must work
fast to incorporate it into the soil, preferably within two days. The ammonium might be
released as a gas if the granules sit on top of the surface, reducing the amount of material
that turns into helpful nitrate in the soil.
India uses its imported ammonia mostly to produce DAP. Diammonium phosphate (DAP)
(chemical formula (NH4)2HPO4, IUPAC name diammonium hydrogen phosphate) is one of
a series of water-soluble ammonium phosphate salts that can be produced when ammonia
reacts with phosphoric acid.
DAP is used as a fertilizer.When applied as plant food, it temporarily increases the soil pH,
but over a long term the treated ground becomes more acidic than before upon nitrification
of the ammonium. It is incompatible with alkaline chemicals because its ammonium ion is
more likely to convert to ammonia in a high-pH environment .
The main function of Urea fertilizer is to provide the plants with nitrogen to promote green
leafy growth and make the plants look lush.
Nitrogen (N), is a major constituent of several of the most important plant substances like
chlorophyll hence causes leaf growth.
Too much nitrogen will make the plants too lush and they may lodge (fall over) or make more
leaves than flowers/ seeds/ fruits..
Excess fertilizer leach below the root zone, will be inaccessible to the plants and end up in
the groundwater
Since the advent of the desh drohi GREEN REVOLUTION pollinating insects are
endangered and on the decline.
Without cross-pollination, 35 percent of the world’s crops and 93 percent of our wild plants
would cease to exist.
Organic farming practices can help save pollinator populations. Honeybees rely on these
bacteria for food processing, regulation of host immune system, and protection against
pathogens
There are more than 150 different chemical residues in Bee Pollen.. Chemical pesticides
are responsible for early death in wild and honey bees..
Imidacloprid is widely used for pest control in agriculture
Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid systemic insecticide which is a major cause of bee decline

and bee colony collapse disorder (CCD). Imidacloprid was the most widely used insecticide
in the world and it is made primarily by Bayer ..
Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide that acts as an insect neurotoxin and belongs to a

class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of
insects. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect
nervous system.
Specifically, it causes a blockage of the nicotinergic neuronal pathway. By blocking nicotinic

acetylcholine receptors, imidacloprid prevents acetylcholine from transmitting impulses
between nerves, resulting in the insect's paralysis and eventual death. It is effective on
contact and via stomach action..
Contact pesticides are usually sprayed on plants and kill bees when they crawl over sprayed
surfaces of plants or other areas around it.
The neonicotinoid family includes acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid, nitenpyram,
nithiazine, thiacloprid and thiamethoxam. Imidacloprid is the most widely used insecticide in
the world..
These chemicals hurt Queen bees which lower reproduction.
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2011/09/queen-bee-and-darwin-capt-ajit.html
Neonicotinoids (neonics) are a class of insecticides that share a common mode of action
that affect the central nervous system of insects, resulting in paralysis and death. Studies
show that neonicotinic residues accumulate in pollen and nectar of treated plants and
represent a potential risk to pollinators.
As a result of this and their pervasive use, there is major concern that neonics play a major
contributing role in pollinator declines.
Neonicotinods are also persistent in the environment, and when used as seed treatments,
translocate to residues in pollen and nectar of treated plants. A little as one seed is enough
to kill a songbird. These pesticides also contaminate waterways and are highly toxic to
aquatic organisms.
In February 2018, the European Food Safety Authority published a report indicating that
neonicotinoids pose a serious danger to both honey bees and wild bee
Plant propagation is the process of growing new plants from a variety of sources: seeds,
cuttings, and other plant parts. Plant propagation can also refer to the artificial or natural
dispersal of plants. Seeds and spores can be used for reproduction (through e.g. sowing).
Seeds are typically produced from sexual reproduction within a species, because genetic
recombination has occurred. A plant grown from seeds may have different characteristics
from its parents
Sexual Propagation -- The intentional reproduction of a new generation of plants by the

germination and growth of seeds that were created in the previous generation through the
fertilization of a plant ovary via the union of male and female sex cells. Results in a
genetically unique plant generation.
For comparison, asexual propagation is the reproduction of plants by means of division,

cuttings, tissue culture, etc. This process occurs in nature, but is a primary method for
reproducing many ornamental cultivars and the vast majority of fruits, berries, and nuts.
Clonal or asexual propagation results in a new generation of plants genetically identical to

the parent or source plant, thus carrying forward all desirable/known characteristics in a
predictable manner.
NARENDRA SINGH TOMAS IS INDIAs NEW AGRICULTURE MINISTER..
INSTEAD OF STATING THAT HE WILL DO ORGANIC FARMING AND SAVE INDIAs SOIL
AND WATER--THIS PATHETIC IDIOT SAYS " I WILL DOUBLE FARMERs INCOME".. THIS
MEANS HE WILL CONTINUE WITH CHEMICAL AGRICULTURE - THEN WHY THE FUCK
AM I WRITING ALL THIS ?
FINALLY THIS IS WHAT THE MODI GOVT IS ALL ABOUT -- MILKING VOTES.
MINISTERS HAVE BEEN CHOSEN BY PM MODI NOT BASED ON TALENT-- BUT THEIR
ABILITY TO BE SERVILE, GIVE EGO MASSAGE AND MILK VOTES..
AND JEW DARLING MODI BLAMES THE ITALIAN FAMILY .. HE IS WORSE..
ANOTHER USELESS FELLOW PRAKASH JAVEDEKAR GRINS LIKE A CHESHIRE BILLY

CAT AND SAYS " I WILL SAVE FIRE AND WIND"..
read all 5 parts of the post below--

capt ajit vadakayil

..
I HAVE HALF A MIND TO STOP THIS SOIL SERIES..
MODI HAS SELECTED THIS TOMAR FELLOW JUST BECAUSE HE TOLD " RAHUL
GANDHI IS NOT EVEN THE HAIR " ( FROM TAIL-- WE KNOW WHAT THIS MEANS )
OF MODI
THIS IS WHAT MODI WANTS..
ENDLESS SERVILITY AND EGO MASSAGE..

EVERY MINISTER UNDER MODI SURVIVES BY PRAISING HIM GHADI GHADI..
Govt is very serious about organic, gau-based agriculture.So,please do not stop writing. My
only concern is possibility of introducing israil gm seeds in organic farming like
'organic'canola available in Whole Foods ,USA
TIME WILL TELL
WHO HAS BEEN A GREATER TRAITOR TO THE WATAN-- GANDHI OR MODI..
REMEMBER GANDHI WAS A HERO..

TODAY IF THERE IS A NATIONWIDE REFERENDUM IN INDIA " WHO IS THE DESH
BHAKT AND WHO IS THE TRAITOR BETWEEN GANDHI AND GODSE " THE RESULT IS
A FOREGONE CONCLUSION..
EVERYTHING THAT MODI DOES AND HAS DONE TILL TODAY IS FOR HIMSELF..
JUST LIKE THAT CONMAN HALWAI DOCTOR GAURAV PRADHAN..
MODI WILL NOT CONVERT INDIA TO ORGANIC FARMING-- BECAUSE IN THE FIRST 4
YEARS THE YIELDS WILL BE LESS, BEFORE IT SKYROCKETS.. AND THAT MAY
AFFECT HIS NEXT ELECTIONS..
GUJJU NO 2 MODI IS STILL SINGING THE PRAISES OF GUJARATI HUMPLESS COWS..

HE WANTED TO GIVE MONGOLIA THSE USELESS COWS..
THOUSANDS OF SUGGESTIONS HAVE GONE FROM THIS BLOGSITE -- THIS

GREEDY IMMORAL FELLOW MODI HAS NOT ACKNOWLEDGED EVEN ONE ..
ALL THIS IS ON RECORD..

CAPT AJIT VADAKAYIL WILL WRITE THE LEGACY OF GUJJU NO 2.. THE WAY I HAVE
WRITTEN FOR GUJJU NO 1
capt ajit vadakayil

..
https://indianexpress.com/article/india/punjab-one-time-farm-debt-waiver-amarinder-pm-modi
-5767605/
Repeat of past ..Loan waiver.
A LOT OF PUNJAB FARMERS WHO SEEK WAIVERS DRIVE SUVs.
LOAN WAIVER IS CANCER
THE ONLY WAY OUT IS ORGANIC FARMING, WHERE SOIL BECOMES LESS THIRSTY.
MODI IS NOW LIKE THE DOG WHO GETS IMPRESSED BY HIS OWN FARTS.. MODI
KEEPS GIVING SHABAASSI TO HIMSELF, HOW HE COLOURED WHITE UREA PRILLS
GREEN WITH NEEM EXTRACT..
MODI DOES NOT REALIZE THE HARM UREA HAS DONE TO INDIAs SOIL AND
WATER..
BEFORE THE GREEN REVOLUTION INDIA HAS 6 FEET THICK TOP SOIL--WHILE THE
REST OF THE NATIONS HAD SIX INCHES THICK TOP SOIL..
IT TAKE 500 YEARS OF ORGANIC FARMING TO BUILD ONE INCH OF TOP SOIL
THICKNESS.
IN JUST 55 YEARS OF CHEMICAL FARMING ( GREEN REVOLUTION ) INDIA HAS lOST

5 FEET OF TOP SOIL..
90% OF OUR LAKES HAVE DISAPPEARED.
YET MODI AND TOMAR ARE PLANNING TO CONTINUE WITH CHEMICAL FARMING
FOR ANOTHER 5 YEARS ..
BEFORE GREEN REVOLUTION THERE WERE NO FARMERs SUICIDES IN INDIA..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2017/05/nitrate-water-pollution-chemical.html
ALL OUR CANALS ARE ILL CONCEIVED.. WE MUST NEVER ALLOW WATER TO
EVAPORATE WHILE TRANSPORTING WATER VIA CANALS..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2015/11/foam-froth-on-bangalore-lakes-capt-ajit.html
IN THE PAST 5 YEARS OF MODI GOVT, GROUND WATER HAS BEEN SUCKED DRY..
NO PRIORITY HAS BEEN GIVEN TO WATER HARVESTING.. INSTEAD MODI IS ONLY

MILKING VOTE BY CHOOTIYA SHORT TERM SCHEMES..
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2017/05/ground-water-resources-of-india-capt.html
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2017/05/groundwater-resources-of-india-part-2.html
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2014/03/vanishing-lakes-rain-water-harvesting.html
ALL ABOVE LINKS HAVE BEEN SENT TO PMO AND MODI AT LEAST 50 TIMES.. ALL
THIS IS ON RECORD..
GUJJU NO 1 AND GUJJU NO 2 ARE GUILTY OF TRYING TO KILL BHARATMATA..
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ludhiana/many-takers-for-phagwara-technique-of-pad
dy-direct-seeding/articleshow/69717917.cms
THIS BASTARD ADVOCATES CHEMICAL FARMING WITH GMO SEEDS..
IT IS A LIE THAT AEROBIC RICE IS HIGH YIELDING..

THIS DIRECT SEEDING METHOD , ALLOWS THE FIELD TO BE RUN OVER BY WEEDS..
THE KOSHER DEEP STATE HAS GIVEN LYING PROPAGANDA THAT PEOPLE WHO
CULTIVATE RICE USING FLOODED FIELDS RELEASE METHANE -- BALLS !
WE FLOOD RICE FIELDS TO KILL ALL WEEDS AND PESTS.. HERBICIDES AND
PESTICIDES ARE ELIMINATED.. THIS IS ORGANIC FARMING..
READ ALL 5 PARTS OF THE UNFINISHED POST BELOW-- I HAVE ABANDONED IT..
MODI WANTS GM FOODS AND CHEMICAL FARMING TO KEEP HIS JEW MASTERS
HAPPY.. HE HAS CHOSEN A SUITABLE AGRICULTURE MINISTER FOR THIS.. AND A
SUITABLE USEFUL IDIOT NAMED PRAKASH JAVEDEKAR TO HEAD THE
ENVIRONMENTAL MINISTRY..
https://www.cfr.org/blog/india-needs-second-green-revolution
TELL THIS DEEP STATE AGENT ELIZABETH C ECONOMY THAT WE HAVE STOPPED
TAKING ADVISE FROM WHITE PEOPLE..
WE HAVE SUFFERED ENOUGH WITH WHITE AND GREEN REVOLUTION..
WE HAVE WOKEN UP..
MODI WANTS GM FOODS AND CHEMICAL FARMING TO KEEP HIS JEW MASTERS
HAPPY..HE HAS CHOSEN A SUITABLE AGRICULTURE MINISTER FOR THIS.. AND A
SUITABLE USEFUL IDIOT NAMED PRAKASH JAVEDEKAR TO HEAD THE
ENVIRONMENTAL MINISTRY..
IF MODI CONTINUES WITH HIS KOSHER DEEP STATE AGENDA , WE THE PEOPLE
WILL DRIVE HIM AWAY TO ISRAEL..
MODIs LEGACY LIES WITH CAPT AJIT VADAKAYIL.. I KNOW THE "INHE HATAAYE
HAMEIN LEH AAYIYE " EPISODE OF 1976..
THE POUND OF FLESH FOR JEWS HAS BEEN EXTRACTED FROM BHARATMATAs
CHEST WITH CHEMICAL FARMING/ GMO SEEDS/ HUMPLESS COW WHO GIVE TOXIC
A1 MILK....
READ ALL 5 PARTS OF THE UNFINISHED POST BELOW--
capt ajit vadakayil

..
Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light
stimulates the opening of the stomata. Light also speeds up transpiration by warming the
leaf.
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures because water evaporates more rapidly
as the temperature rises. At 86°F, a leaf may transpire three times as fast as it does at
68°F.
When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of water out of the leaf happens more rapidly.
When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf becomes increasingly humid thus
reducing the rate of transpiration. When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried away
and replaced by drier air.
A plant can continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss is made up by replacement water
from the soil. When absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate of
transpiration, loss of turgor rigidity caused by pressure of water against cell walls occurs
and the stomata close.
This immediately reduces the rate of transpiration (as well as of photosynthesis). If the loss
of turgor extends to the rest of the leaf and stem, the plant wilts.
The volume of water lost in transpiration can be very high. It has been scientifically
estimated in USA that over the growing season, one acre of corn plants may transpire
400,000 gallons of water. As liquid water, this would cover the field with a lake 15 inches
deep.
IN HIS FIVE YEARS AS PM, MODI HAS CRIMINALLY NOT CARED FOR EVAPORATION
LOSSES AND GROUND WATER LOSSES..
INSTEAD OF RULING, AND TAKING LONG TERM DECISIONS , MODI IS ALREADY

MILKING VOTES FOR HIS THIRD TERM...
PRECIPITATION AND IRRIGATION ARE THE TWO PRIMARY SOURCES OF WATER

THAT PLANTS USE. PLANT LEAVES AND SOIL SURFACES TEMPORARILY RETAIN
SOME PART OF THE WATER APPLIED TO THE FIELD, BUT THIS PART READILY
EVAPORATES.
WHAT REMAINS PERCOLATES INTO THE SOIL. PLANTS EXTRACT THE INFILTRATED
WATER THROUGH THEIR ROOTS AND TRANSPORT IT UP TO THEIR LEAVES FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
IN ADDITION TO WATER, PLANTS NEED CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2 ) AND LIGHT FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS. IN ORDER TO TAKE IN CO2 FROM THE ATMOSPHERE, PLANTS
OPEN THEIR STOMATA, tHE MICROSCOPIC PORES ON THE UNDERSIDES OF
LEAVES.
IT IS DURING THIS TRANSPIRATION PROCESS THAT THEY LOSE WATER TO THE

ATMOSPHERE. .
CONMAN SADGURU JAGGI VASUDEV HAS PLANTED MILLIONS OF TREES ( WITHOUT

GOVT PERMISSION OR GUIDANCE ) WHICH SUCK OUT GROUND WATER AND
EVAPORATE THEM BY TRANSPIRATION ..
FOR THIS FOUL EFFORT MODI GAVE HIM PADMA VIBHUSHAN AWARD..
CONAN SRI SRI RAVISHANKAR POURED ENZYMES ( SIC) INTO YAMUNA ( IN REALITY
SOUR FERMENTED VINEGAR OF ROTTEN FRUITS/ VEGGIES )..
FOR THIS EFFORT MODI GAVE HIM PADMA VIBHUSHAN..

WHY DO THESE CONMEN GODMEN WITH ZERO TECHNICAL BRAINS, THINK THEY
ARE ENVIRONMENTALISTS ?
I CAN PUT A THOUSAND BASIC QUESTIONS ON SOIL AND WATER TO THIS

GRUESOME TWOSOME AND THEY WONT BE ABLE TO ANSWER EVEN ONE SINGLE
QUESTION..

Organic Farming 5 - Vadakayil

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Organic Farming 5 - Vadakayil

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BEFORE THE GREEN REVOLUTION KERALA GREW RICE WITHOUT ANY CHEMICAL

FERTILISERS/ HERBICIDES AND PESTICIDES.. NOBODY USED UREA YET THE

FIRST LET ME WARN PM MODI

PM MODI, LISTEN UP-- WHAT IS APPLICABLE TO ISRAEL IS NOT APPLICABLE TO

SO IN YOUR EAGERNESS TO WRANGLE A KOSHER NOBEL PRIZE DONT KILL

WE THE PEOPLE STILL WONDER IF MODI WORKS FOR ISRAEL OR INDIA...

WHY DOES PRAKASH JAVEDEKAR HAVE TO GRIN LIKE AN IMBECILE ?

IF UREA IS PUT FOR NO REASON, IT DESTROYS THE WATER RESOURCES WITH

THE PRIZES GIVEN TO THE FATHER OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION MS

THE CONTENTS OF THIS 5 PART BLOGPOST ( ONLY 60% COMPLETE ) MUST BE

PUT THE LINK BELOW IN THE "EDUCATIONAL POLICY SUGGESTION" WEBSITE..

DIGRESSION: ON CHEMICAL TANKERS WE ARE EXPERTS IN TESTING EVEN THE

BUT WITH MICROBES DEAD DUE TO CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS/PESTICIDES , PURE

EVEN PLASTICS CAN BE DEGRADED IN SOIL BY THE APPROPRIATE MICROBES.

THIS BASTARD MS SWAMINATHAN BELONGS TO JAIL.

DURING FLOODS IN KERALA IMPROPER SEPTIC TANKS CAUSED SHIT TO RUN

82 % DISEASES ARE WATER BORNE.

90 % OF DISEASES ORIGINATE IN THE GUT AS PER 6200 YEAR OLD CHARAKA

Encephalitis is inflammatory disease spread by bite of infected mosquitoes. Culex mosquito

Gastroenteritis is caused by different viruses including rotaviruses, adenoviruses,

LOSS OF MCIROBES IN THE SOIL HAS AFFECTED HUMAN HEALTH.. WHO IS

A BASTARD NAMED MS SWAMINATHAN, WHOM WE HONOR AS THE “FATHER OF

CHOOTITA BUGGER PC CHACKO TOLD ON TV BEFORE 2019 LOK SABHA

BOTH THESE REVOLUTIONS NEARLY KILLED BHARATMATA ..

MODI IS WORKING 21 HOURS A DAY.. WE DON’T GET IMPRESSED , IF WORKING

Pest management in organic farming is achieved by using appropriate cropping techniques,

Organic farming is characterized by higher diversity of arthropod fauna and conservation of

Successful IPM programs in organic farming have the following components:--

BURNING CROP STUBBLE DESTROYS ALL WEEDS AND PESTS – IN ADDITION TO

BURNING CROP STUBBLE DESTROYS ALL WEEDS AND PESTS – IN ADDITION TO

BURNING CROP STUBBLE DESTROYS ALL WEEDS AND PESTS – IN ADDITION TO

The role of beneficial species on pests is of relatively greater importance in organic

BURNING CROP STUBBLE DESTROYS ALL WEEDS AND PESTS – IN ADDITION TO

Biopesticides are characterized by having minimal or no risk to the environment, natural

BURNING CROP STUBBLE DESTROYS ALL WEEDS AND PESTS – IN ADDITION TO

BURNING CROP STUBBLE DESTROYS ALL WEEDS AND PESTS – IN ADDITION TO

BURNING CROP STUBBLE DESTROYS ALL WEEDS AND PESTS – IN ADDITION TO

Emphasis is placed on renewable resources and the management of self-regulating

Reliance on external inputs, whether chemical or organic, is reduced as far as is practically

B. Soil Fertility and Soil Health in Sustainable Farming Systems

d) Soil health indicators --

C. Goals of a Sustainable Soil Fertility Management Program--

D. Components of a Sustainable Soil Fertility Management Program: The Means to

Important factors influencing the mineralization rate include:

Sustainable Agriculture Practices--

2. Key indicators of soil health include

a) SOM has three main constituents. these are:

B. Soil Cultivation in Sustainable Agriculture

2. Services provided by tillage

5. Limitations of conservation tillage systems

C. Cover Crops in Sustainable Agriculture--

d) Composition of the cover crop residue

D. Composts and Animal Manures in Sustainable Agriculture Fertility

3. Other considerations of compost use---

E. Soil Amendments and Supplemental Fertilizers in Sustainable Agriculture--

F. Crop Rotation and Crop Sequencing in Sustainable

2. Rotation and sequencing considerations

The goals of a sustainable soil health management program are --

Biotic components are typically sorted into three main categories:---

Producers, otherwise known as autotrophs, convert energy (through the process of

Consumers, otherwise known as heterotrophs, depend upon producers (and occasionally

Soil’s Four Components--

Thus soil consists of four basic components:--

When added to the soil, it yields:-