INVESTIGATION OF DYNAMIC BRAKING OF ELECTRIC
VEHICLES POWERED BY PERMANENT MAGNET DC
MOTOR
L. Joni Polili
School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Nayang Technological University
Hall 7 #40-1-746 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637717
e-mail: H722663@ntu.edu.sg
Keywords: dynamic braking, two-quadrant chopper,
simulink model, speed-up time and braking time.
Abstract
Electric vehicle has become the major interest to replace
gasoline powered vehicle because the problem of ever
decreasing gasoline resources. Simulink (one of Matlab
toolboxes) was used to model EV system. Permanent magnet
DC motor dynamic model was derived. Two-quadrant
chopper model was developed. After combining both models,
simulation was conducted. Speed and current waveforms
were discussed. Control scheme was then designed and
implemented to the system, starting with current controller
and following with speed controller. Optimization of
controllers following with verification would complete the
overall model. Dynamic braking was presented by simulation
and waveform results were discussed. Reference speed and
load torque were varied and simulated. Speed-up time and
braking time were discussed. Conclusions were drawn at the
end of the paper.
1 Introduction
Facing the dilemma of decreasing of gasoline sources in the
world, scientists and researchers have been trying very hard
to find a new alternative energy source for vehicles. Between
1832 and 1839, Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the
first crude electric carriage. These two inventions started a
new era of Electric Vehicle (EV). EV is clean, emission free
and environment friendly. These facts are the major factor for
automakers around the world to invest large amount of effort
and capital in developing a new technologies for EV.
Nowadays, EVs have been used widely in USA, but with
limited production. In Singapore, EV is predicted to be an
ideal market because of its geographic size and climate that
support efficient performance of the batteries.
In this project, a popular simulation tool, Simulink (one of the
MATLAB toolboxes), will be used to design and analyst the
model for research objectives. Simulink is menu driven, user-
friendly simulation tool. Simulink is mostly used for
simulating dynamic systems. Its library provides all the
functional blocks for simulating different type of dynamic
systems. The very beginning step for using the simulink is to
model the system by either using mathematical expression or
circuit representation. In this project, both ways were used
complimentary to assist the design of the model.
2 Objectives
One of the technical issues in the EV design is the dynamic
braking. In gasoline vehicles, mechanical brakes are used to
reduce the speed of the vehicle, resulting in a significant
power loss. However, the EVs can be designed such that
power loss due to braking can be converted to electric energy
and then returned to the battery. In order to provide reverse
current to flow back to the battery, known as charging
process, a power electronic converter will be required. A two-
quadrant chopper will be a good choice to serve this purpose;
hence an effective and efficient dynamic braking will be
achieved. The research focus will be on developing a control
scheme for an effective dynamic braking.
3 Contributions
In modelling of permanent magnet DC Motor, it is clearly
shown that a Simulink model of DC motor was derived. This
model is more suitable for Simulink analysis of system with
power electronic library block used. Furthermore, it is simpler
and easier to understand than the model provided in the
library of Simulink under Additional Machines subfolder.
Moreover, it combines the method of mathematical
expression and circuit representation when modelling DC
motor.
After system model was completed, it was proven that larger
the reference speed larger the time taken to reach the required
speed. In addition, different type of speed response was
figured out for different type of load characteristic.
During braking (sudden drop of reference speed), it was
clearly seen that current was flowing back to the DC source
(battery) by observing current waveform. This enables some
form of recharging process in regenerating mode. Speed
response during braking was faster because the ability of two-
quadrant chopper to let the current reach negative value in the
system. For constant torque characteristic, the larger the load
torque, the faster the speed response during braking.
4. Methodology
4.1 Modelling of Permanent Magnet DC Motor
In steady state, DC motor can be represented as shown below:
Figure 1 DC motor dynamic model.
From the above model, equations can be derived as shown:
1 / ra
ia = (Va − k vω r ) (1)
sL AA / ra + 1
Te = k v I a (2)
1 Figure 3 Circuit configuration of two-quadrant chopper.
ωr = (Te − TL ) (3)
Js + Bm
L AF
kv = Vf (4)
Rf
From equations (1) to (4), model of shunt DC motor can be
derived. Equation (1) was replaced by real circuit model to
provide current to flow in two way direction. Simulink model
was then derived as shown in the following figure:
Figure 2 Shunt DC motor Simulink model.
The parameters of DC motor were chosen from design
specification given such that it delivered required power for
the motor to run at required speed. Additional parameters
required for simulation purpose were derived using equations
(1) to (4).
4.2 Modelling of DC to DC Converter
DC to DC switching converter, sometimes called chopper,
makes use of parameter called duty cycle to vary dc supply
level and therefore output speed. Duty cycle is defined as the
percentage of time in one period where the current is allowed
to flow into the load or the voltage is supply to the load. For
example, 50% of duty cycle will supply an average of half the
dc supply level.
Chopper is commonly divided into four types: step down
chopper, step up chopper, two-quadrant chopper and four-
quadrant chopper. Two-quadrant chopper would be used in
the research. It is basically combination of step down and step
up chopper. It is operated in two mode of operation. When
current is flowing to the load (positive), it acts as a step down
chopper. When current is flowing back to the supply
(negative), it acts as a step up chopper.
In the research, two-quadrant dc to dc converter will be used.
The configuration of basic dc to dc converter is shown below:
There are two switches S1 and S2 connected across a dc
voltage source ES. The switches open and close alternately in
such a way that when S1 is closed, S2 is open and vice versa.
S1 and S2 turn on time contribute to one period of switching.
Diode connected parallel with the switch would block the
current to flow downward but provided flowing upward. The
following figure shows the Simulink model of the chopper:
Figure 4 Two-quadrant chopper Simulink model.
IGBT and diode connected in parallel can be simplified and
represented as a single bidirectional ideal switch. IGBT
provides the current to flow downward while diode provides
the current to flow upward. Turn on voltage for diode is small
enough to be neglected. Hence, a bidirectional ideal switch
was chosen to model IGBT and diode in parallel. From block
diagram of Simulink library, ideal switch block diagram was
found and therefore used in the model.
The two switch used in two-quadrant chopper were controlled
by a gating signal supply to the switch. This gating signal is
either on or off in a periodical manner. To serve this purpose,
pulse generator block was used. Since the two switches were
turned on alternatively. It is more efficient to use only one
gating circuit, means one pulse generator. An inverter was
designed to invert the gating signal supplied for second
switch.
4.3 Modelling of System
Upon completion of motor and DC to DC converter, the open
loop system was simulated. The open loop system was shown
in the figure below:
Figure 5 Model for open loop system with linear load torque.
Two-quadrant chopper and DC motor model were grouped
into one subsystem and represented as a box shown above.
Input of two-quadrant chopper was gating signal and DC
source. Pulse generator was still used for open loop model.
Output of two-quadrant chopper was then connected to input
(armature field) of DC motor. Load torque input was then
connected to speed output. This was a model for linear torque
characteristic. Value of constant chosen was slope of linear
torque characteristic, i.e. 1.1106.
DC supply voltage was set to 1 pu and gating signal was set
to 50% duty cycle. Switching frequency was also set to 3
kHz. Simulation was run and the waveform of armature
current, developed torque and rotor speed were observed.
Gating circuit was designed to accept control input replacing
pulse generator as shown in the figure below:
Figure 6 Model of gating circuit.
Input of the gating would be an integer in order to match with
the output of PI controller. A range of 0~10 was chosen. This
range was used to specify the parameter of repeating
sequence block used in this model. Input was then compared
to triangular waveform with upper limit 10, lower limit 0 and
frequency 3 kHz. This will create a square wave. Hence, for
different integer value, different duty cycle resulted in the
output.
Before passing through the gating circuit, it would be going
through a PI controller. The controller was then modeled as
shown below:
Figure 7 Model of PI controller
Using classical method of control system design, proportional
constant and integrator constant were set. Further tuning was
made until overshoot was low enough (< 5% overshoot).
The following figure shows the overall system after speed
output and current output were fed back to the system:
Figure 8 Model of close loop system with current and speed
controller.
Using practical rules of thumb that time constant for outer
loop is 10 times greater than inner loop, speed controller
constants were defined. Further tuning was made for
optimization purpose and final value of proportional and
integral constant were defined.
4.4 Implementing Different Torque Characteristic to the
System
Besides linear torque characteristic, there are two others
torque characteristic, i.e. constant torque characteristic and
fan/pump torque characteristic. Torque input in the system
was changed to constant torque. Simulation was run and
speed output was then observed. The same procedures were
done for fan/pump torque characteristic.
4.5 Application of Dynamic Braking in the System
To observed application of dynamic braking, reference input
was changed to timer block from Simulink library. This block
can be set to different value at different simulation time.
Timer was set to 10% of reference speed after 0.5 second.
Simulation was conducted and output waveform was then
observed. Simulation was also conducted for different torque
characteristics with different reference speed. Waveform of
speed output was then observed.
5. Simulation Result
5.1 Open Loop System After optimisation, proportional constant and integral
constant of current controller were found to be 10 and 0.1.
The result of open loop system simulation was shown below:
During speed controller optimization, three different type of
response was observed as shown in the figure below:

Figure 10 Slow Response of speed output waveform.

Figure 11 Critically damped response of speed output

waveform.

Figure 9 Armature current (A), torque developed (Nm) and

speed (rad/s) waveforms. Figure 12 Under damped response of speed output waveform.
It was understood from the waveform above that current and From three different responses, critically damped system was
torque waveform has ripple. This was due to supply voltage chosen in order to have precise speed output and faster
passing through two-quadrant chopper with very fast response. The values of controller constants for this response
switching frequency. The current was forced to be increasing are 100 (proportional constant) and 15.45 (integral constant).
and decreasing as fast as the switching speed. Since armature
current and developed torque is linearly proportional to each 5.3 Load Torque Characteristic
other, developed torque would have the same ripple Linear torque characteristic simulation has been shown in
characteristic as armature current waveform would have. figure 17 above. With same reference speed, constant torque
Another phenomenon appeared in the observation of current simulation result was shown in figure 18 and fan/pump torque
waveform was that it went through a very large overshoot simulation was also shown in the next figure.
before stabilized. Armature current went through some
overshoot before it stabilized at 1 pu. Maximum overshoot
were calculated and it was 606%. This was unacceptable
since it will damage the motor.
In order to overcome this problem, it was necessary to
provide a feedback loop accompanied by a controller to
achieve a stable and reliable system.
5.2 Close Loop System
 Figure 13 Speed response of constant torque system with
ωr*=50 rad/s.
Figure 14 Speed response of fan/pump torque system with
ωr*=50 rad/s.
It was shown that speed response was faster for fan/pump
torque system because speed was squared and input to the
load torque. While for constant torque, load torque would
stay constant during simulation.
5.4 Dynamic Braking
The result of simulation (armature current and rotor speed)
was shown in the following figure:
Figure 15 Current waveform for linear torque system with
ωr*=50 rad/s and braking at 0.3s.
Figure 16 Reference speed and speed output waveforms with
waveform for linear torque system.
During the increase of speed, current input to the motor was
at highest value. This is to ensure fast increase of speed. It
would stay at the limit as speed increased. This limiting
current was resulted from application of saturation block in
the controller. If no limit was implemented, current would
have increased uncontrollably and therefore damaged the
motor.
After reference speed was reached, current would decrease to
a certain value such that speed can be maintained. This value
would be different for different torque characteristic and
different reference speed. Higher reference speed would have
higher value.
Once brake was applied and reference speed was reduced to
10%, current would suddenly decrease very sharp to the
lowest value it could reach. At this point of time, saturation
block would take a role in limiting the lowest value of
armature current can reach. But, without two-quadrant
chopper, armature current would not be able to flow in
negative direction. Hence, by means of two-quadrant
chopper, some energy would be saved and braking response
would be faster.
For different reference speed, different braking time was
observed. Higher reference speed before braking would result
in longer braking time. Longer braking time would mean
higher energy saved and therefore recharge back to the
battery. For simulation result shown in figure 19 above,
energy saved can be calculated as shown below.
Esaved = Power × tbrake = Ia2 × Ra × 0.8s
= (177A)2 × 0.0415Ω × 0.8s = 1040.1228 J.
After braking speed was reached, current would go back to
certain value in order to maintain braking speed. If braking
speed was zero, current would go back to zero and motor
would then stop rotating.
5.5 Reference Speed Variation
For linear torque characteristic, current and speed waveform
were shown below for different reference speed.
Figure 17 Output waveform of linear torque system with
different reference speed.
There were three phenomenon observed from the above
figures: [1] Speed-up time was slower for increase of
reference speed, [2] Steady state current was higher for
increase of reference speed, [3] Braking time was slower for
increase of reference speed.
For constant torque and fan/pump torque characteristics, the
same phenomenon appeared.
5.6 Different Load Torque value in Constant Torque
System.
For constant torque characteristic, load torque can be varied
and the output waveforms were shown below:
Figure 18 Output waveform of constant torque system with
different load torque.
From figure above, although reference speed was same,
speed-up time was slower for bigger load torque, but brake
time was a bit faster for bigger load torque. This was due to
higher moment of inertia for big load torque.
6 Conclusions
EV has become more and more popular alternative for non-
gasoline powered vehicles. One of its technical issues in the
EV design is the electronic dynamic braking. EV system has
been successfully modelled using Simulink and dynamic
braking was investigated. As model in the system, dynamic
braking was introduced by a sudden reduce in the reference
speed. This would alter the DC motor to operate as a
generator. The electric power generated was actually the
power loss during mechanical brake. By means of two-
quadrant chopper, electric power generated was returned back
to the source. The source was actually a rechargeable battery
therefore electric power generated was charged back to the
battery.
It was also shown that the time for the speed to reduce to the
desired speed was very fast (around 0.1 second for 50% rated
speed). This can be achieved because two-quadrant chopper
provides a negative current to flow back to the battery. The
speed of braking actually depends on how large the armature
current can reduce and it was limited by lower limit of rated
current the DC motor can take. For higher steady state current
(current before braking), it would have larger amount of
reduce current. Hence, the braking response would be faster.
This would not be very significant compared to one-quadrant
chopper. If one-quadrant chopper were implemented in the
system, lower limit of armature current would be zero since
no negative current would be able to flow. It would have
reduced the amount of reduced current by more than 50% and
the braking response would be very slow.
Speed response for different type of load torque implemented
in DC motor was presented in this research. Basically, three
common type of load torque characteristic would share
almost the same speed response. Fan/pump load torque
characteristic would have a little bit faster speed-up response.
This was due to non-linear relationship between speed and
load torque. It was also shown in the research that braking
time would also depend on reference speed before braking
happened. In other words, to brake from higher speed would
take longer time.
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