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Keywords: dynamic braking, two-quadrant chopper, functional blocks for simulating different type of dynamic
simulink model, speed-up time and braking time. systems. The very beginning step for using the simulink is to
model the system by either using mathematical expression or
circuit representation. In this project, both ways were used
Abstract complimentary to assist the design of the model.
Electric vehicle has become the major interest to replace
gasoline powered vehicle because the problem of ever 2 Objectives
decreasing gasoline resources. Simulink (one of Matlab
toolboxes) was used to model EV system. Permanent magnet One of the technical issues in the EV design is the dynamic
DC motor dynamic model was derived. Two-quadrant braking. In gasoline vehicles, mechanical brakes are used to
chopper model was developed. After combining both models, reduce the speed of the vehicle, resulting in a significant
simulation was conducted. Speed and current waveforms power loss. However, the EVs can be designed such that
were discussed. Control scheme was then designed and power loss due to braking can be converted to electric energy
implemented to the system, starting with current controller and then returned to the battery. In order to provide reverse
and following with speed controller. Optimization of current to flow back to the battery, known as charging
controllers following with verification would complete the process, a power electronic converter will be required. A two-
overall model. Dynamic braking was presented by simulation quadrant chopper will be a good choice to serve this purpose;
and waveform results were discussed. Reference speed and hence an effective and efficient dynamic braking will be
load torque were varied and simulated. Speed-up time and achieved. The research focus will be on developing a control
braking time were discussed. Conclusions were drawn at the scheme for an effective dynamic braking.
end of the paper.
3 Contributions
1 Introduction
In modelling of permanent magnet DC Motor, it is clearly
Facing the dilemma of decreasing of gasoline sources in the shown that a Simulink model of DC motor was derived. This
world, scientists and researchers have been trying very hard model is more suitable for Simulink analysis of system with
to find a new alternative energy source for vehicles. Between power electronic library block used. Furthermore, it is simpler
1832 and 1839, Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the and easier to understand than the model provided in the
first crude electric carriage. These two inventions started a library of Simulink under Additional Machines subfolder.
new era of Electric Vehicle (EV). EV is clean, emission free Moreover, it combines the method of mathematical
and environment friendly. These facts are the major factor for expression and circuit representation when modelling DC
automakers around the world to invest large amount of effort motor.
and capital in developing a new technologies for EV.
After system model was completed, it was proven that larger
Nowadays, EVs have been used widely in USA, but with
the reference speed larger the time taken to reach the required
limited production. In Singapore, EV is predicted to be an
speed. In addition, different type of speed response was
ideal market because of its geographic size and climate that
figured out for different type of load characteristic.
support efficient performance of the batteries.
During braking (sudden drop of reference speed), it was
In this project, a popular simulation tool, Simulink (one of the
clearly seen that current was flowing back to the DC source
MATLAB toolboxes), will be used to design and analyst the
(battery) by observing current waveform. This enables some
model for research objectives. Simulink is menu driven, user-
form of recharging process in regenerating mode. Speed
friendly simulation tool. Simulink is mostly used for
response during braking was faster because the ability of two-
simulating dynamic systems. Its library provides all the
quadrant chopper to let the current reach negative value in the percentage of time in one period where the current is allowed
system. For constant torque characteristic, the larger the load to flow into the load or the voltage is supply to the load. For
torque, the faster the speed response during braking. example, 50% of duty cycle will supply an average of half the
dc supply level.
4. Methodology Chopper is commonly divided into four types: step down
chopper, step up chopper, two-quadrant chopper and four-
4.1 Modelling of Permanent Magnet DC Motor quadrant chopper. Two-quadrant chopper would be used in
In steady state, DC motor can be represented as shown below: the research. It is basically combination of step down and step
up chopper. It is operated in two mode of operation. When
current is flowing to the load (positive), it acts as a step down
chopper. When current is flowing back to the supply
(negative), it acts as a step up chopper.
In the research, two-quadrant dc to dc converter will be used.
The configuration of basic dc to dc converter is shown below:
Figure 1 DC motor dynamic model.
From the above model, equations can be derived as shown:
1 / ra
ia = (Va − k vω r ) (1)
sL AA / ra + 1
Te = k v I a (2)
Upon completion of motor and DC to DC converter, the open Using classical method of control system design, proportional
loop system was simulated. The open loop system was shown constant and integrator constant were set. Further tuning was
in the figure below: made until overshoot was low enough (< 5% overshoot).
The following figure shows the overall system after speed
output and current output were fed back to the system:
Figure 5 Model for open loop system with linear load torque.
Two-quadrant chopper and DC motor model were grouped Figure 8 Model of close loop system with current and speed
into one subsystem and represented as a box shown above. controller.
Input of two-quadrant chopper was gating signal and DC
source. Pulse generator was still used for open loop model. Using practical rules of thumb that time constant for outer
Output of two-quadrant chopper was then connected to input loop is 10 times greater than inner loop, speed controller
(armature field) of DC motor. Load torque input was then constants were defined. Further tuning was made for
connected to speed output. This was a model for linear torque optimization purpose and final value of proportional and
characteristic. Value of constant chosen was slope of linear integral constant were defined.
torque characteristic, i.e. 1.1106. 4.4 Implementing Different Torque Characteristic to the
DC supply voltage was set to 1 pu and gating signal was set System
to 50% duty cycle. Switching frequency was also set to 3 Besides linear torque characteristic, there are two others
kHz. Simulation was run and the waveform of armature torque characteristic, i.e. constant torque characteristic and
current, developed torque and rotor speed were observed. fan/pump torque characteristic. Torque input in the system
Gating circuit was designed to accept control input replacing was changed to constant torque. Simulation was run and
pulse generator as shown in the figure below: speed output was then observed. The same procedures were
done for fan/pump torque characteristic.
4.5 Application of Dynamic Braking in the System
To observed application of dynamic braking, reference input
was changed to timer block from Simulink library. This block
Figure 6 Model of gating circuit. can be set to different value at different simulation time.
Input of the gating would be an integer in order to match with Timer was set to 10% of reference speed after 0.5 second.
the output of PI controller. A range of 0~10 was chosen. This Simulation was conducted and output waveform was then
range was used to specify the parameter of repeating observed. Simulation was also conducted for different torque
sequence block used in this model. Input was then compared characteristics with different reference speed. Waveform of
to triangular waveform with upper limit 10, lower limit 0 and speed output was then observed.
frequency 3 kHz. This will create a square wave. Hence, for
different integer value, different duty cycle resulted in the
5. Simulation Result
output.
Before passing through the gating circuit, it would be going
through a PI controller. The controller was then modeled as
shown below:
5.1 Open Loop System After optimisation, proportional constant and integral
constant of current controller were found to be 10 and 0.1.
The result of open loop system simulation was shown below:
During speed controller optimization, three different type of
response was observed as shown in the figure below:
References
[1] Bausiere, R. , Labrique, L. , Seguier, G. 1993. Power
electronic converters : DC-DC conversion.
Berlin : Springer-Verlag.
[2] Krause, P.C. 1986. Analysis of Electric Machinery. New
York : McGraw-Hill.
Figure 18 Output waveform of constant torque system with
different load torque. [3] MathWorks, Inc. 1998. The student edition of Simulink :
dynamic system simulation for MATLAB : user's
From figure above, although reference speed was same, guide. Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall.
speed-up time was slower for bigger load torque, but brake
time was a bit faster for bigger load torque. This was due to [4] Mościński, J. 1995. Advanced Control with MATLAB
higher moment of inertia for big load torque. and SIMULINK. New York : E. Horwood.
[5] Ogata, K. 2002. Modern Control Engineering. Upper
6 Conclusions Saddle River , N.J. : Prentice Hall, Inc.
[6] Ong, Chee-Mun. 1998. Dynamic simulation of electric
EV has become more and more popular alternative for non-
machinery : using MATLAB/SIMULINK. Upper
gasoline powered vehicles. One of its technical issues in the
Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall PTR.
EV design is the electronic dynamic braking. EV system has
been successfully modelled using Simulink and dynamic [7] Slemon, G.R. 1992. Electric Machines and Drives.
braking was investigated. As model in the system, dynamic Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
braking was introduced by a sudden reduce in the reference
[8] Slemon, G.R. Straunghen, A. 1984. Power
speed. This would alter the DC motor to operate as a
semiconductor drives. New York : Wiley.
generator. The electric power generated was actually the
power loss during mechanical brake. By means of two- [9] Wildi, T. 2002. Electric Machines, Drives, and Power
quadrant chopper, electric power generated was returned back Systems. Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall.
to the source. The source was actually a rechargeable battery
[10] Websites:
therefore electric power generated was charged back to the
http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectrica.
battery.
htm “The history of electric vehicles”
It was also shown that the time for the speed to reduce to the
desired speed was very fast (around 0.1 second for 50% rated
speed). This can be achieved because two-quadrant chopper
provides a negative current to flow back to the battery. The
speed of braking actually depends on how large the armature
current can reduce and it was limited by lower limit of rated
current the DC motor can take. For higher steady state current