Engineering Knowledge Detailed Notes

ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE INDEX
ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE
(Prepared by Rohan D’souza)
Sr. No CONTENTS Page Nos.

1. PUMPS & PUMPING SYSTEMS 02-29
2. DISTILLATION SYSTEMS 30-44
3. DECK MACHINERY 45-66
4. GENERATORS & ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION 67-84
5. MARINE POWER PLANTS 85-131
6. STEAM TURBINE SYSTEMS 132-139
7. PROPELLER & PROPELLER SYSTEM 140-154
8. ENGINE ROOM WATCHKEEPING 155-162
COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA (i)
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ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE PUMPS & PUMPING SYSTEMS
PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEMS

Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Positive Displacement Pumps
a) Reciprocating Pump
b) Rotary Pump
(i) Gear Pump
(ii) Screw Pump
3. Centrifugal Pump
a) Performance Characteristic Curves
b) NPSH & Cavitation
4. Axial Flow Pump
5. Emergency Fire Pump
6. Cargo Pumping Arrangements on Tankers
a) Oil Tanker (COP’s)
b) Chemical Tanker (Submerged Pump / FRAMO)
c) Gas Tanker (Deep well pump)
7. Bilge System
8. Ballast System
INTRODUCTION
 A pump is a device used to raise liquids, from a low point to a high point, by
adding to the energy of a liquid causing an increase in its pressure and
enabling it to flow. It usually creates a vacuum in its suction side, enabling
atmospheric pressure to force further liquid into the suction side.
 The pumping system consists of a suction branch, a pump and a discharge
branch together with any relief arrangements and possibly some means of
interconnection between two or more pumps.
 The pump only adds to the energy of the fluid. But the energy required to
bring the fluid to the pump is an external one and in most cases, it is
provided by the atmospheric pressure.
 If the liquid is above the pump’s centerline, then it will flow to the pump by
gravity and atmospheric pressure. If the liquid is below the centerline of the
pump, it will flow to the pump only under atmospheric pressure.
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COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA
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POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

 A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed
amount and forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge
pipe. In this way, one or more chambers will be alternatively filled and
emptied.
 In these pumps, liquid or gas is displaced from suction to the discharge by
the mechanical variation of the volume of the chamber or chambers.
 All positive displacement pumps are self-priming pumps.
 These may be of the following types:
A) Reciprocating Pump
A reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump where the fluid is
displaced by the movement of the piston. A constant volume of liquid is drawn
into the cylinder through the suction valve on the suction stroke and is
discharged under positive pressure through the delivery valve on the discharge
stroke. Reciprocating pumps are self priming pumps as they can displace the
air in the suction piping. Based on their working principle, they are further
classified as Single acting and Double acting. Single acting pumps have single
suction and discharge stroke in one cycle whereas Double acting pumps have
two suction and discharge stokes in one cycle.
Reciprocating Pump
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 Principle:
Reciprocating pump operates on the principle of pushing of liquids by a

piston that executes a reciprocating motion in a closed fitting cylinder.
 Components:
1. Piston – or plunger, that reciprocates inside a closely fitted cylinder.

2. Cylinder liner – It is fitted inside the cylinder casing. Piston reciprocates
inside the cylinder liner.
3. Crank and connecting rod – it is operated by a power source which gives
rotary motion to the crank. With the help of the connecting rod,
reciprocating motion of the piston is achieved.
4. Suction valve – it is located at the top of the suction chamber. The
suction valve moves against the spring and lets the liquid inside the
cylinder. Double acting pump will have two such valves. These are Non-
return valves.
5. Delivery valve – it is located on the delivery side of the pump through
which liquid is delivered to the accumulator. Double acting pump will
have two such valves. These are Non-return valves.
6. Suction & Discharge Pipe - One end of the suction pipe remains dipped in
the liquid and the other end connected to the inlet of the cylinder. One
end of the delivery pipe is attached to the delivery side of the pump and
the other end at the discharge point.
7. Gland Seal – it contains a set of packing, gland and tightening nut. The
packing controls the leakage of liquid along the shaft. The packing is held
in place by the gland.
8. Relief Valve – it is fitted on the discharge pipeline to control or limit the
excess pressure in the pump in case of an inadvertent closure of the
delivery valve. The pressure is released by allowing the pressurized liquid
to flow through an auxiliary passage back to the suction side.
9. Accumulator – the pressure fluctuates during the discharge of
reciprocating pumps, which cause vibration and shock to the pump and
its fittings. Accumulator or air vessel is provided to dampen these
fluctuations.
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 Working:
1. Reciprocating motion of the piston is obtained through a connecting rod
and crank mechanism from a power source. Onboard ships, these pumps
are powered by an electric motor. They can also be powered by air,
steam or diesel engine.
2. When the crank moves from the inner dead centre to the outer dead
centre, the piston will be pulled inwards and a vacuum (suction) will be
created in the cylinder. The suction valve remains open and delivery valve
remains shut.
3. If the level or liquid to be pumped is below the pump centerline, the
initial strokes of the piston will draw out air from the suction pipe into
discharge pipe. The vacuum in the suction line causes the liquid to rise
into the suction pipeline under atmospheric pressure.
4. When the crank moves from the outer dead centre to the inner dead
centre, the piston forces the liquid out of the cylinder under pressure
through the discharge valve into the discharge line. In this case, the
delivery valve remains open and suction valve remains closed.
5. Pumping will continue in subsequent strokes of the piston. The delivery
pressures will however be fluctuating. Hence, an air vessel or
accumulator is provided on the delivery line in order to reduce the
pressure fluctuations.
6. Double acting pumps work in a similar way but have two suction and two
delivery valves. There are two suction and two discharge strokes per
cycle.
 Advantages:
1. They have a self priming ability. They can handle high suction lifts and can
develop very high pressures when pumping relatively smaller amounts of
liquid. Hence, they can be used effectively as priming pumps, engine
room bilge pumps, cargo hold bilge pumps, etc.
2. They have an ability to handle large portion of air, vapour or gas which
enable them to deal with volatile or hot liquids. Hence, they can be used
as cargo striping pump for oil, chemical or gas tanker.
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Disadvantages:
1. It has low discharge capacity and cannot be used for pumping large
quantities of liquid.
2. They do not have a smooth pumping action (pulsating flow). Hence, they
may need additional fittings like accumulators, to reduce shock.
3. Construction is complicated due to the presence of suction valve, delivery
valve, air vessel and relief valve. This makes the initial cost high. Also, high
wear in parts make maintenance costs high.
4. It is difficult to pump viscous fluid using this pump.
B) Rotary Pumps
 Rotary pump is a positive displacement pump that moves the liquid by using
rotating elements of various shapes, contained in closely fitted casing. The
liquid is forced through the pump cylinder or casing by means of screws,
gears, vanes or similar means.
 Because of the practically airtight fit of the impellers in the casing, their
rotation creates a partial vacuum in the suction line when the pump is
started and thus permits the pump to be used with a suction lift.
 Unlike the centrifugal pump, these are positive displacement pumps and
entirely independent of velocity of flow and centrifugal force.
 Rotary pumps can handle almost any liquid that contains hard and abrasive
solids, including viscous liquids.
 These self-priming pumps are capable of creating a high vacuum and give a
steady flow, without any pressure pulsations.
 Rotary pumps do not require suction and delivery valve arrangement as in
reciprocating pumps. The rotors are actuated by relative rotation of the
driving shaft. They can be driven by diesel engine, steam turbine, electric
motor or manually.
 Rotary pumps are designed to operate at moderate speeds. Operating at
high speeds will cause erosion and excessive wear, which will increase the
clearances and affect the performance of the pump.
 Based on the construction, rotary pumps can be classified as Gear pumps,
screw pumps, vane pumps, etc. Out of these, gear pumps are most common
rotary pumps used onboard ships.
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(i) Gear Pump

 Principle: As each tooth in one gear comes out of mesh from the other gear,
it creates a suction effect on the suction side which pulls in the liquid. The
liquid is then carried around the casing by the gears, and the oil is forced out
through the discharge pipe under pressure.
Gear Pump
 Components:
1. Static pump casing – it houses the gears and the bearing blocks. Gears
rotate inside this casing. Cover plates are fitted at the front and rear
ends. Two pressure seal rings are provided between the casing and cover
plates. One side of the casing forms the suction side and the other side
forms the delivery side.
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2. Two meshing gears – These are two toothed wheels that mesh together
fitted closely inside the pump casing. The ‘driver gear’ is driven by a
power source and it meshes into the ‘idler gear’ to rotate it in the
opposite direction.
3. Bearing blocks – Two bearing blocks with bearing bushes support the
gears.
4. Gland/Oil Seal – It prevents the leakage of oil along the pump shaft. A
circlip retains the oil seal in position.
5. Relief Valve – Like in any positive displacement pump, a relief valve is
provided to prevent over-pressure. The pressure is released by allowing
the pressurized liquid to flow through an auxiliary passage back to the
suction side.
 Construction and Working:

1. In gear pumps, two toothed wheels mesh together closely fit inside the
pump casing. Initially the air or gas is trapped between each pair of two
consecutive teeth and same is dragged along the casing from suction to
discharge side till no more air is left on the suction side. There is no back
flow of air due to very less clearance between the gear teeth and casing.
2. As all the air is removed, vacuum is created and after all the air is
expelled, liquid from the tank is drawn up into the suction line.
3. Subsequently, this liquid will now be trapped between each pair of two
consecutive teeth and dragged circumferentially along the casing into
the discharge side and pumping of the liquid will commence under
pressure. The liquid does not pass between the two gears.
4. Usually the pump is electric motor driven, where the electric motor
causes the ‘driver gear’ to rotate.
5. Control of flow rate is achieved by a by-pass valve which can be adjusted
to get the required flow rate or by controlling speed of the prime mover.
The pump being a positive displacement pump, is provided with a relief
arrangements to prevent over-pressure.
6. A number of such pumps in series can be used to develop high pressures.
Such pumps are efficient (very little losses) and smooth running. They
are used as lube oil pumps, boiler fuel oil pump, FO transfer pumps, etc.
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 Advantages:
1. They are self priming and reversible (bi-rotational).
2. They can pump viscous fluids much easily than a centrifugal pump.
3. Under a low head, these pumps can pump out liquid faster than an
equally matched reciprocating pump.
4. Electric motor can be smaller compared to a centrifugal pump.
5. They are simple in construction, quiet, smooth running and reliable.
 Disadvantages:
1. They have a smaller capacity than centrifugal pumps and hence can be
only used for moderate pressures and flow rates.
2. They are not suitable for pumping thin liquids like water as slip is high.
3. They are not suitable for solids or abrasive media as they have meshing
parts.
4. They rely on precision clearances and have several rotating elements,
which makes them more expensive than a centrifugal pump.
(ii) Screw Pump (two screws)

 Principle: The meshing helical screws rotate in close relation to each other
creating pockets in the helices. These pockets move axially and have the
same effect as a piston moving constantly in one direction.
 Components: The main components of the screw pump are the meshing
helical screws, external drive gear (timing gear), pump casing, gland seal
and relief valve.

1. Like gear pump, the screw pump has screws instead of gears meshed
together. Both the screws have shafts that are provided with gears. Each
screw shaft has a right and a left hand screw.
2. One gear will drive the other gear, which will turn the screws. These
gears are also called timing gears that drive the two screws in phase.
(unlike gear pumps where one gear drives the other)
3. This ensures that correct clearance is maintained at all times between
the screws, thereby preventing overheating and possible seizure.
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4. As the intermeshing screws rotate, their close relation to each other

creates pockets in the helices, and the trapped air in these pockets is
pumped out to the discharge side. There cannot be a back flow of air due
to the small clearances between the screws and the casing.
5. This creates a vacuum on the suction side and the liquid is drawn into the
pump. Liquid that is wrapped around the screw and the casing is
transported axially to the discharge side.
6. Relief valve prevents build up of excessive pressure due to obstruction
on discharge line and thus protects the pump against possible damage.
7. Screw pumps are mainly used as Main Engine Lube Oil Pump.
Screw Pump
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 Advantages:
1. They are self-priming, quiet, smooth running and reliable.
2. They are particularly useful in draining tanks of high vapour pressure
liquids as they can pump both liquid and vapour without loss of suction.
3. They are suitable for operating at high rotational speed and can thus be
driven by electric motor.
4. They can handle high viscosity fluid and also fluids mixed with heavy
solids and floating debris.
5. They have a strong and compact design making them easy to install and
maintain. They also have a long lifetime.
 Disadvantages:
1. They have a smaller capacity than centrifugal pumps and cannot be used
to pump liquids in large quantities.
2. They are not suitable for thin liquids like water as the slip is high.
3. They are relatively costly because of close tolerances and clearances.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
 Principle: Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion

of rotational kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow.
The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or electric motor. The
fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is
accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or
volute casing, from where it exits.
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 Components:
1. Impeller – it is connected to the pump shaft and works in a volute casing.
The impeller rotates and imparts kinetic energy to the liquid. It is made of
aluminum bronze.
2. Volute casing – it is the pump’s casing that encloses the impeller. The
kinetic energy of the pump is converted into pressure energy in the
casing. The casing wear ring is provided where the shaft enters the
casing. This is to prevent the wearing of casing. Casing is made of gun
metal and cast iron and the wear ring is made of brass
3. Pump shaft – It is connected to the drive mechanism which can be steam
turbine, diesel engine, electric or hydraulic motor. Shaft is made of
stainless steel.
4. Gland Seal – It comprises of a set of packing, gland and tightening nut.
The packing controls the leakage of liquid along the shaft. The packing is
held in place by the gland. It allows a small amount of leakage to provide
lubrication and cooling to the packing. The leakage is controlled by
tightening the gland. Gland packing is made of Teflon, graphite, etc and
gland is made of bronze or cast iron.
Centrifugal Pump
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1. A centrifugal pump consists of an impeller, which has blades rotating
inside a fixed casing. The impeller is driven by a suitable prime mover, like
an electric motor, at high speeds.
2. As the impeller rotates, water enters at the centre (eye of the impeller)
from the suction line and is thrown outwards by the blades, due to
centrifugal force. Thus, water leaves the impeller at a high velocity
(kinetic energy). This kinetic energy of the liquid is converted into a
pressure head (potential energy) either by the Volute shaped casing or
by means of ‘diffuser’ blades fixed in the casing.
3. Fluid that is discharged under pressure leaves the impeller producing a
drop in pressure behind it at the eye of the impeller. This causes fluid
from the suction pipe to flow into the pump under atmospheric pressure
and subsequently that fluid also gets discharged like the earlier one.
4. This way the fluid in the pump acts like a piston moving outwards and
causing a drop in pressure behind it. Now if there is no liquid at the eye
of the impeller, the pumping will not take place.
5. Centrifugal pumps are therefore not self-priming and will work only
when there is fluid in the eye of the impeller. If the pump is taking
suction from a higher tank, this is not a problem. However, if the suction
is from a level lower than the pump, then the pump casing must be
‘primed’ (i.e. filled with liquid). This can be done by opening a sea suction
valve or by opening a valve from another tank which is full.
6. Some pumps have a ‘priming pump’ or ‘air pump’ fitted to draw out air
from the suction branch and thus make the liquid rise to the eye under
atmospheric pressure. Some ships use the ‘Central Priming system’
where all the pumps are connected to a central vessel, which is kept
under partial vacuum, to prime all the pumps.
7. If centrifugal pumps are used as bilge or ballast pumps, an automatic
engage and disengage type air pump may be fitted for priming.
Alternatively, the pumps can be also primed using outside seawater
which is at a higher level. Similar method can be used to strip a cargo
tank by priming from another tank where the liquid is at a higher level.
8. Centrifugal pumps can be single stage pumps with one impeller or multi-
stage pumps with two or more impellers for increased pressure.
9. Centrifugal pumps are mainly used where high volume liquid flow is
needed. For example, cargo pumps, ballast pumps, etc.
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Priming of Bilge Pump using Reciprocating Priming of Ballast Pump taking suction
Air Pump from Sea Chest
Advantages:
1. They are suitable for pumping large quantities of liquids, at comparatively
lower pressures. However, pressure head can be increased by multi-staging
of pumps.
2. Flow rate is easily adjustable via valve at the outlet of the pump or via
rotational speed.
3. It does not require a pressure relief valve like positive displacement pumps.
4. It provides a continuous delivery which is non-pulsating.
Disadvantages:
1. It is not a self-priming pump. Hence, they may not work when there is a
suction lift or will need extra priming pump. It is prone to losing suction, if
not adequately primed.
2. It is not reversible like the gear pump. It cannot deal with high viscous fluids.
3. It is not suitable for pumping to very high levels head due to lower pressure.
4. It cannot be left running dry otherwise gland seal may be damaged due to
overheating. Also it may cause problems such as shaft misalignment, casing
wear ring damage, impeller damage, etc.
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5. They are prone to damage due to cavitation.

6. Several stages are necessary at high delivery pressures.
7. Flow rate is dependent on the delivery pressure.
a) Performance Characteristic Curves of a Centrifugal Pump
Q-H Curve: Flow rate Q (m3/hr) is plotted against discharge head H (m)
Q-η Curve: Flow rate Q (m3/hr) is plotted against pump efficiency η (%)
Q-H Curve and Q-η Curve
From the above graph, we can have the following conclusions:

 If the pump discharge head is smaller, the flow rate of the liquid is higher
and therefore pumping of liquid is faster and vice-versa.
 If the pump is run at normal duty flow rate by maintaining normal duty
discharge head, the liquid will be pumped utilizing least possible rate of
energy by the pump i.e. the efficient of the pump will be maximum.
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b) Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):

 NPSH is the difference between the absolute pump inlet pressure and the
vapour pressure of the liquid, expressed in m of head of liquid. An insufficient
NPSH may result in cavitation, which is undesirable. Let us understand this in
detail:
 The heights to which a liquid can be raised with depend upon the following:
1. Volatility of the fluid – Higher the volatility, lesser will be suction exerted by
pump. So pump has to be placed lower (closer) to the fluid level to draw in
such liquid.
2. Pressure exerted on the free surface of the liquid – if pressure on liquid
surface is exerted by Inert Gas (i.e. pressure is more than atmospheric
pressure), the pump can be placed relatively higher up from the liquid level.
If there is vacuum in the tank (i.e. pressure less than atmospheric pressure),
pump will have to be closer to the closer to the liquid level.
3. Friction losses – this will occur when the liquid flows at the suction branch,
at the entrance and at bends, etc.
 If H0 = pressure (head) exerted on the surface of liquid in a tank,

H1 = loss of head due to friction in suction line,
H2 = loss of head due to volatility of liquid,
H3 = loss of head in raising liquid to the pump suction
Then, only if H0 is more than (H1

+ H2 ± H3) the liquid will rise up
to the pump. However, the
liquid can be discharged
effectively and without
cavitation of the pump only if
this ‘left over head’ called
‘Available NPSH’ is greater than
the ‘Required NPSH’ of the
pump.
Available NPSH is calculated as NPSHA = H0 – H1 – H2 ± H3
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 Required NPSH is given by pump

manufacturer after conducting trials on
the pump. (as shown in the image
alongside)
 To avoid cavitation of the pump, the

available NPSH must always be kept
higher than the required NPSH by
reducing the flow rate or by increasing
the pressure acting on the surface of the
liquid (H0) Required NPSH curve – provided by the pump
manufacturer
Let us now take an example where losses due to friction (H1) and due to volatility
of liquid (H2) are both zero. Also, assume that there is no pressure from the tank
atmosphere on the surface of the liquid. (H0 = 0)
Therefore, NPSHA = H0 – H1 – H2 + H3 = 0 – 0 – 0 + X = X (m)

Hence when the cargo level in the tank is at X, a flow rate of upto X 1 can be
maintained without fear of cavitation since NPSHA ≥ NPSHR
When the cargo level in the tank is lowered to Y, NPSHA is reduced to Y (m).
Hence, a flow rate of upto Y1 must now be maintained to prevent cavitation so
that NPSHA ≥ NPSHR.
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Thus we see, at lesser flow rate, the pump requires a lesser NPSH. Therefore,
when an oil tank of a tanker is being stripped; to prevent cavitation and vibration
of the pump and yet strip the cargo tank almost dry, we reduce the flow rate of
the pump as the level of liquid falls. The pump now discharges at slow flow rate
but at the same time it does not cavitates as the value of required NPSH is made
much lesser and is easily provided even by the reduced liquid level in the tank. If
available NPSH is lesser than the required NPSH, increasing the inert gas pressure
will delay the time when the pump will start cavitating.
Cavitation:
 Cavitation of the pump occurs when the pump suction contains air (gas) or
when the pump is running faster than the designed speed.
 The lowest pressure point in a pump occurs at the inlet of the pump
impeller. Due to local pressure reduction, part of the fluid may evaporate
generating small vapour bubbles. These bubbles are carried along by the
fluid and implode instantly when they get into areas of higher pressure.
 Such formation and collapse of bubbles is very rapid and is known as
cavitation of the pump. It can generate very high pressure hammer blows
which results in pitting, noise, vibration, and fall off in the pump efficiency.
Cavitation over long period will damage the pump impeller and casing.
 Cavitation can be recognized by a strongly increased noise level of the pump
with a simultaneous reduced flow rate.
 For a safe and cavitation free operation, the pump should be run at
designed speed and throttling of the suction valve should be avoided. The
flow rate must be so controlled that the available NPSH must always be
equal to or preferably greater than the required NPSH.
AXIAL FLOW PUMP
 Principle: It is similar to the working of a propeller in a closed duct. A screw

propeller rotates at high speed to create an increase in pressure by causing
an axial acceleration of liquid within its blades. The velocity increase in then
converted into pressure by suitably shaped outlet passages & guide vanes.
 Components: Propeller, diffuser, pump casing, pump shaft, gland seal,

thrust bearing and bearing housing.
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Axial Flow Pump

1. These pumps are classed with centrifugal pumps, although centrifugal
force plays no part in the pumping action. When seawater has to pass
through large condensers, axial flow pumps are used. It ensures
sufficient speed and adequate flow of water.
2. The screw propeller creates an increase in pressure by causing an axial
acceleration of liquid within its blades. This is then converted to straight
axial movement by suitably shaped outlet guide vanes.
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3. When conditions like large capacity and relatively low discharge head
have to be met, a horizontal or vertically arranged axial pump is most
suited.
4. It is mainly used as a sea-water circulating pump for main condenser,
where flow rate has to be large and discharge head is low (as pumping is
from sea to sea). These pumps are also used for the duties of heeling and
trimming of ships. This is because the pump is of reversible flow and high
through-put type.
5. The pump is efficient, simple in design and available in wide range of
capacities. A mechanical seal prevents leakage where shaft leaves the
casing. Prime mover may be an electrical motor, diesel engine or a steam
turbine.
6. Since these pumps are used for seawater circulation, the casing and
guide vanes are made of gunmetal, impeller of aluminum bronze and
shaft of stainless steel.
 Advantages:
1. Under low head, higher throughput can be achieved in comparison with

an equally matched centrifugal pump.
2. Electric motor for the pump can be of a smaller size.
3. The pump is reversible.
4. The pump will idle and offer little resistance, when flow is induced
through it by external means.
 Disadvantages:
1. They are not suitable for suction lift.

2. They do not handle highly viscous fluids well.
3. They are not well-suited for handling media with solids, but can be
used when designed with the proper impeller type.
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EMERGENCY FIRE PUMP

 Emergency Fire pump is provided onboard, independent of the main fire
pump, to be used in emergency or in case of failure of the main fire pumps.
 SOLAS requires that the arrangement of fire pumps and their sources of
power shall be such as to ensure that in passenger ships of 1,000 GT and
upwards, in the event of a fire in any one compartment all the fire pumps
will not be put out of action. In passenger ships of less than 1,000 GT and in
cargo ships, if a fire in any one compartment could put all pumps out of
action, there shall be an alternative means consisting of an emergency fire
pump complying with FSS Code with its power source located outside the
space where the main fire pumps or their power sources are located.
 Below are the requirements of Emergency Fire Pump as per FSS Code:
1. Emergency fire pump shall be of a fixed independently driven power-
operated pump.
2. The capacity of the pump shall not be less than 40% of the total capacity
of the fire pumps and in any case not less than the following:
a) 25 m3/hr - for passenger ships less than 1000 GT & cargo ships of 2000
GT & upwards
b) 15 m3/hr - for cargo ships less than 2,000 GT.
3. Emergency fire pump shall be capable of supplying two jets of water to
the satisfaction of the Administration.
4. When the pump is delivering the quantity of water required, the pressure
at any hydrant shall be not less than minimum pressure required by
SOLAS chapter II-2.
5. Any diesel driven power source for the pump shall be capable of being
readily started in its cold condition down to the temperature of 00C by
hand (manual) cranking. If this is impracticable, or if lower temperatures
are likely to be encountered, heating arrangement may be provided for
ready starting.
6. The diesel driven power source should be started at least 6 times within
a period of 30 min and at least twice within the first 10 min.
7. Any service fuel tank shall contain sufficient fuel to enable the pump to
run on full load for at least 3 hours and sufficient reserves of fuel shall be
available outside the machinery space to enable the pump to run on full
load for an additional 15 hours.
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 SOLAS also has a few requirements for the space in which the emergency
fire pump and its power source is located. They are as follows:
1. The boundaries of the space containing the emergency fire pump shall
not be common with those of machinery space where main fire pumps
are located. If the boundaries are common, they must be insulated as per
requirements on structural fire protection.
2. No direct access shall be permitted between this space and machinery
space.
3. Ventilation arrangements for this space shall be such as not to allow
ingress of smoke from machinery space fire.
 The suction lift of any pump is limited, and for this reason, the emergency
fire pump is usually at a maximum of 6m from the water level at light draft
or installed below the water level, so that it may supply water under all
conditions of list, trim, roll and pitch. Where the pump is fitted above the
water level at light draft, a priming arrangement is fitted.
Emergency Fire Pump
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CARGO PUMPING ARRANGEMENTS ON TANKERS

a) Oil Tanker (COP’s)
 Normally 3 to 4 centrifugal pumps (COPs) are placed in the pump room,
each connected to a manifold on deck.
 Each pump has a prime mover placed in the engine room adjacent to the
pump room. Shafts passing through the bulkhead separating the engine
room from the pump room should have shaft seals to prevent ingress of
cargo vapours into the engine room.
 Rate of pumping is high until a low level is reached. To prevent the pump
from losing suction, usually a priming arrangement is provided in the suction
side of the pump. This allows for better drainage of the tank. The remaining
quantity that cannot be pumped out using the main pumps can be stripped
using stripper pumps. These are usually reciprocating pumps.
 Pumps are either run alone or in parallel. The discharge rate is regulated by
throttling the discharge valve.
 There may be a provision of connecting the cargo pumps to the ballast
system through a spool piece or similar arrangements.
Pumping arrangement of an Oil Tanker

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b) Chemical Tankers (Submerged Cargo Pump e.g. FRAMO Pump)
 Chemical Tankers are usually fitted with submerged pump i.e. one
submerged pump in each cargo tank. Some may even be fitted with
deepwell pump for each cargo tank.
 Submersible or deepwell pumps are used to eliminate the hazards of toxic
vapours / flammable vapours escaping from pump glands into a pumproom.
 Since the pumps are physically located inside the tanks, there is no need of
long, costly piping on the suction side. It also reduces the problems due to
air ingress in suction lines.
 The submerged pump is driven by a prime mover such as a hydraulic motor,
which is located inside the tank. The hydraulic motor itself is driven by
hydraulic pressure produced by hydraulic pumps located elsewhere.
 With reference to the figure below, the hydraulic motor operates the
centrifugal pump that is placed inside the cargo tank. The motor receives
pressurized oil from pipe (1) and returns the oil into pipe (2) of the three
concentric pipes as shown in the figure. Outer concentric pipe (3) acts as a
cofferdam which separates the hydraulic lines and the contents of the cargo
tank thereby reducing the possibility of any mixing of the two.
 To check if any hydraulic oil or the cargo has leaked into the cofferdam,
operator has to pressurize the cofferdam with inert gas or compressed air
at valve (T) and let the contents blow out at blow valve.
 To let this pump discharge almost all cargo, the pump suction is positioned
very close to the bottom of the suction well. Again before pump is stopped,
the discharge line deck valve is closed and pump discharge line contents are
drained through the riser line (stripping line) by opening the riser valve and
pressuring the standing liquid column with inert gas or compressed air
(depending on the cargo) by opening valve (P).
 Two seals are provided on the pump – one on the pump shaft to prevent
leakage of cargo known as the cargo seal and the other one on the motor
hydraulics to prevent leakage of hydraulic oil known as the oil seal.
 In fully submerged pumps, the pumped product passing around the
hydraulic motor acts as a coolant to its windings and bearings.
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Submerged cargo pump of a chemical tanker
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c) Gas Tankers (Deepwell Pumps)

 Liquefied gas cargoes are usually at very low temperatures. Hence, hydraulic
means cannot be used for the prime mover. Instead, deepwell pumps are used.
 Fully refrigerated or
semi-pressurized gas
tankers mainly use
deep well pumps,
operating alone or in
series with a deck-
mounted booster
pump. Use of a
booster pump will
depend on discharge
pressure requirement
of the shoreline.
 Deepwell pumps are of the centrifugal type and are fitted inside the tank. The
pump is connected to a long shaft that is driven by a flame-proof electric motor
fitted on deck. The shaft is connected to the impeller that is located close to
the bottom of the tank. The pump can be a single stage or multi stage pump.
 The long shaft is made of material which will not be affected by the cargo. (E.g.
stainless steel). There are suitable bearings which would reduce the friction.
The low temperature of the cargo is utilized for keeping the bearings cool.
 Some amount of cargo is usually left behind, that serves to keep the tank cool.
 The pump’s motor is protected by means of mechanical seals preventing any
ingress of vapour or liquid.
 Some fully pressurized ships discharge cargo by pressurizing the tank to be
discharged with cargo vapours by running compressor from the shore tank or
some other cargo tank
to the tank being
discharged. The liquid
rises to the Booster
pump fitted on deck
which further assists in
transferring the cargo
to shore.
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Deepwell Pump
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BILGE SYSTEM
 The bilge system is used to remove small quantities of fluid that have leaked
or condensed into a dry space. The system serves the machinery spaces,
cargo holds, cofferdams, voids, stores, tunnels and pump rooms.
 Each space has its own piping but the pump is likely to be shared.
 Bilge system consists of a line termed as the ‘bilge main’, passing along one
side and around the forward and aft ends of the engine room. Branches are
arranged from the bilge main.
 The bilge main is arranged to drain any watertight compartment other than
ballast, oil or water tanks and to discharge the contents overboard.
 The number of pumps and their capacity depend upon the size, type and
service of the vessel and is governed by Classification Society Rules, national
requirements and SOLAS requirement.
 All bilge suctions must be fitted with suitable strainers, which in the E/R
would be mud boxes positioned at floor plate level for easy access. Each
bilge suction branch is controlled by screw down, non-return valve (SDNRV).
 The emergency bilge suction or bilge injection valve is used to prevent
flooding of the ship. It is a direct suction from the lowest point in the
machinery space bilge and is connected to the largest capacity pump(s)
such as the main sea water circulating pump.
 An emergency bilge pump is required for passenger ships but may also be
fitted as an extra on cargo ships. It is used in an emergency for pumping
water out of the ship when a compartment is flooded due most likely to hull
damage. It must be completely independent unit capable of operating even
if submerged. A centrifugal pump with a priming device is usually used,
driven by an electric motor housed in an air bell. The power is arranged from
the emergency generator.
 The entire bilge pumping and piping arrangement is to some extent inter-
connected so that each pump can act as an alternative or stand-by for
another. Engine room bilges may be connected to the cargo hold bilges or
may be separate systems.
 The E/R bilges are normally transferred to a bilge holding tank from where
they will be pumped overboard through the Oily Water Separator.
 Bilge & ballast systems may be interconnected so that each can perform the
other’s function in an emergency, i.e. a ballast pump could be used to pump
out a flooded E/R. They may be connected by means of a crossover v/v.
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BALLAST SYSTEM
 Ballast operations are important during loading and unloading of cargo. On
arrival at a load port, large amount of ballast needs to be discharged rapidly
from the ballast tanks for loading operation.
 Ballast tanks are located throughout the ship. They are named according to
their location such as Forepeak tank, aft peak tank, DB tanks or wing tanks.
 Large capacity centrifugal pumps are used for ballasting and deballasting
operations. Certain ballasting and deballasting operations can be carried out
by gravity. Tanks above the waterline can be drained and tanks below the
water line can be filled by gravity. Tank to tank transfer can also be done
gravity if there is level difference between them.
 Ballast system varies from ship to ship. But operating principles remain the
same. The ballast system is arranged for the water to be drawn from any
tank or the sea and discharged to any other tank or the sea as required.
 While pumping from a particular tank, all other tank valves must be shut
except the tank involved. It is important to carefully set up the line before
starting the pump. Once the operations have commenced, it must be
confirmed that the correct tank is being ballasted or deballasted.
 During deballasting, it must be ensured that the pump does not run dry
when the tank gets empty. For stripping the tanks dry, educators driven by
seawater are usually provided. These can be run even when tank is dry.
 Where a tank or cargo space can be used for ballast or dry cargo, then
either ballast or bilge connection will be required. Therefore, the system
must be arranged so that only the appropriate pipeline is in service and the
other must be securely blanked or closed off.
 Low or high sea suctions are provided to give freedom of using either of
them. Low sea suction is used most of the time and thus prevent pump
loosing suction during heavy rolling and pitching and high sea suction is
used, if the under keel clearance is less (i.e. near the port) and hence there
are less chances of dirt getting into the piping system.
 During ballasting and deballasting, due consideration should be given to the
stability of the vessel and the resultant stresses created.
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ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE DISTILLATION SYSTEMS
DISTILLATION SYSTEMS
Contents:
1. Introduction to Distillation systems

2. Production of water by Boiling Process
(a) Fresh Water Generator / Low Pressure evaporator
(b) Flash Evaporator
3. Production of water by means other than Distillation
(a) Reverse Osmosis – Single Pass system
(b) Reverse Osmosis – Double Pass system
4. Domestic Water Supply (Hydrophore System)
5. Treatment of Fresh Water intended for drinking
INTRODUCTION TO DISTILLATION SYSTEMS:
 Distillation is the production of pure water from sea water by evaporating

and re-condensing of the water vapour produced. Distilled water is
produced as a result of evaporating sea water by a boiling or flash process.
 This evaporation enables the reduction of the 32000 ppm of dissolved solids
in sea water down to the one or two ppm in the distilled water.
 The fresh water capacity of the ship by design is kept at a bare minimum;
just enough for the safe operation, since storing too much water would
reduce the cargo carrying capacity. In merchant ships, freshwater is taken
from shore services when the ship is in port, and this is cheap and easily
available. When the ship is at sea, a fresh water generating plant is used to
make up for domestic water supply.
 Boiler feed is almost always used from the distilled water generated
onboard. Shore water could have ‘hardness’ salts, which will cause scale and
reduce the heat transfer rate leading to excessive thermal stresses and tube
failure, besides increasing the fuel consumption. Hence, it is preferably not
used as boiler feed water.
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PRODUCTION OF WATER BY BOILING PROCESS
(A) Low Pressure Evaporator / Fresh Water Generator
Principle:
 The Fresh Water generating plant uses the waste heat from the Main
engine’s jacket cooling water, to boil and evaporate sea water (brine). Since
the Main Engine’s jacket cooling water is not at a sufficient temperature to
boil water under atmospheric conditions, vacuum is created in the shell of
the Fresh Water Generator so that the boiling point of water can be
reduced. This evaporated water vapour is now condensed by means of a
condenser and thus we can get almost pure distilled water, which is ideal for
Boiler feed purposes, as well as make-up for domestic tanks.
Working:
 The operation takes place in two stages. In the first stage, the evaporation
of sea water takes place. In the second stage, clean vapour is condensed to
form fresh water. Thereafter, the produced fresh water in stored in a tank.
 In the evaporator, sea water is boiled using heat energy from a heating coil,
and by reducing the pressure in the evaporator shell, boiling can take place
at about 400C to 600C.
 The seawater from the ship’s services is first circulated through the
condenser and then part of the outlet is provided as feed to the evaporator.
 Hot diesel engine jacket water is passed through the heating coils and
because of the reduced pressure in the evaporator, the sea water boils.
 The water vapour produced rises and passes through a water separator or
Demister which prevents sea water droplets from getting carried over along
with the water vapour.
 In the condenser, the water vapour condenses to form pure water, which is
drawn off by a Distillate Pump and transferred to the FW storage tank.
 The sea water feed to the evaporator is regulated by a flow controller, and
excess feed is returned overboard.
 A brine ejector draws out the excess brine from the evaporator and an air
ejector is used to create a vacuum in the shell. Normally both ejectors are on
the same line using seawater as the driving medium.
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Components:
1. Evaporator – It is a shell and tube heat exchanger where the evaporation of

sea water takes place. The tubes are made of aluminum brass and the shell
is made of mild steel lined with a rubber protective coating.
2. Condenser – It is also a shell and tube heat exchanger where sea water
flows through the tubes and the water vapour flows around the tubes. The
evaporated water vapours get condensed in the condenser to produce the
distillate.
3. Baffle Plate – A curved baffle plate is located just above the evaporator to
prevent sea water from getting carried over along with the water vapour.
For the same purpose, a water separator or demister may also be used.
4. Ejectors – An air ejector is fitted to evacuate air from the shell to maintain
vacuum at 76cm Hg. A brine ejector is fitted to continuously pump out the
collected brine from the evaporator. Both ejectors are seawater driven.
5. Distillate Pump – It takes suction from the collecting plate below the
condenser tubes and discharges the fresh water to tanks through the flow
meter. It is a centrifugal pump driven by an electric motor.
6. Salinometer – It works on the principle that conductivity of water increased
with the dissolved impurities like salt. It continuously checks the salinity of
the produced water and displays the salinity in ppm of chlorides. If the
salinity is above the set limit (usually 10ppm), it triggers an alarm and
redirects the water back to the evaporator, preventing contamination of
the made water.
7. Flow meter – It is located at the discharge side of the distillate pump,
indicating the volume of water flowing through it. The operator can check
the output of the FWG for a given time by checking the flow meter readings.
8. Sight Glass – It is located on the evaporator shell from where the boiling of
water and fine mist can be seen. Another sight glass is also provided on the
suction side of the distillate pump to see the flow of water to the pump.
9. Vacuum gauge – It is fitted to measure the vacuum inside the shell. The
vacuum pressure below the atmospheric pressure is indicated in cms of Hg
(mercury). 76mm Hg indicated 100% vacuum.
10. Shell temperature gauge – It is a normal temperature gauge which can
measure upto 1000C. It measures the temperature inside the evaporator
shell maintained in vacuum. This indicates the boiling temperature of the
water inside the shell.
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Low Pressure Evaporator / Fresh Water Generator
Starting the Fresh Water Generator:

1. Before starting the FWG, open the ejector pump sea suction, pump
discharge and the overboard valve of the fresh water generator. Open the
condenser sea water inlet and outlet valves.
2. Start the ejector pump to provide seawater to both the ejectors and the
condenser. Ensure that vacuum breaker valve at the top of the condenser is
closed. Wait for the vacuum to build up to atleast 95% of the rated value.
3. Crack open the feed inlet valve and allow the seawater to flow to the
evaporator.
4. Open the heating water outlet valve fully. Open the heating water inlet
valve slowly to about 1/4th initially. This will cause the vacuum to drop
slightly and shell temperature to rise.
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5. Observe the evaporator top through the sight glass. Once you see fine mist
rising, it means the feed water has started evaporating. The vacuum will
settle at around 74mm Hg once everything is stabilized.
6. Observe the condenser bottom through the sight glass provided. Once you
see water at the bottom, switch on the Salinometer and open the air purge
valve on the distillate pump. Keep the discharge valve shut.
7. Start the distillate pump and let the water drain out through the air purge
valve as the salinity will be initially high. Once the salinity comes down to
below 2 ppm, the water is ready to be stored. Open the distillate pump
discharge valve and close the air purge valve on the distillate pump in order
to collect the produced water in the storage tank. Check the flow meter to
ensure that the FWG is running normal.
8. Gradually increase the feed water supply to the evaporator and the heating
water to the evaporator to increase the fresh water production.
During the Operation:

Monitor the following parameters to ensure that the FWG is running trouble free:
1. Vacuum pressure – Shell vacuum pressure must be normally around 75mm
Hg. If the vacuum drops, the fresh water production will reduce.
2. Shell temperature – It should be maintained between 45-48 degree Celsius.
Higher shell temperature will reduce the fresh water production.
3. Heating water temperature - The normal heating water temperature should
be around 800C and outlet temperature should be 720C. The temperature
difference between the inlet and outlet indicate the efficiency of the
evaporator.
4. Cooling Water temperature - The optimum condenser cooling water inlet
and outlet temperature should be 240C and 290C respectively. The
temperature difference between the inlet and outlet indicate the efficiency
of the condenser.
5. Salinity check – Salinity displayed in ppm of chlorides must be preferably
kept less than 3 ppm for the distilled water produced. Excess salinity will
normally be caused by leakage of seawater in the condenser.
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Stopping the Fresh Water Generator:

1. Close the heating water inlet and outlet valves.
2. Stop the distillate pump and switch off the Salinometer.
3. Stop the ejector pump and close suction and discharge of the ejector pump.
4. Open the vacuum breaker valve provided at the top of the condenser in
order to release the vacuum.
5. Once the vacuum is released, open the drain valve at the bottom of the
evaporator in order to drain the water in the evaporator.
Safety Measures for FWG:
 Never attempt to open any part of the FWG without releasing the vacuum.
It could result in damage to machinery or personnel.
 Never bypass the Salinometer or switch off the alarm. If salinity increases
without warning, the entire tank will get contaminated with the salt water.
 Never operate the FWG within 20 NM off the coastline as the water may be
polluted by toxic and chemical waste from industries, sewers, etc.
Advantages:
 It can use heat from main engine jacket water without any additional
expense for heating.
 Lesser scales are formed as evaporation is done at lower temperature.
Fresh Water Storage Tanks:
 Fresh water tanks are made of steel with an efficient coating of a suitable
primer and usually an epoxy coating over it.
 At 6-monthly intervals, water should be completely pumped out and
replaced, to prevent stagnation of water. Surfaces may be hosed down to
clean them.
 Every 12 months or as per Flag or Company requirements, the tanks must be
emptied, inspected, followed by cleaning and re-coating if required.
Washing with sodium hypochlorite solution is normally recommended,
followed by fresh water washing.
 Normally, ships are provided with separate tanks for domestic use (FW
tanks P & S) and boiler feed use (distilled water tank).
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(B) Flash Evaporator:
 In this type of an evaporator, the water is heated in one compartment and

then released into a second compartment in which the pressure is
substantially lower, causing some of the water to flash into vapour. Hence,
this type of evaporator is known as a flash evaporator.
 The temperature at which water boils is related to its pressure. E.g. 1000C is
the boiling temperature if the pressure is atmospheric pressure. (1.013 bar).
This principle is employed in the flash evaporator where heated seawater is
led into a vessel maintained at sub-atmospheric pressure which causes the
water to flash into steam which is condensed in the condenser.
 The condenser is made of tubes which are circulated with seawater. The sea
water from the outlet of the condenser is heated in a heater and sent as the
feed to the evaporator.
 When the heated seawater enters the evaporator which is in vacuum, part
of it flashes into vapour and rest of it in left in the evaporator as brine to be
extracted by the brine pump. Baffles are suitably placed and the vapours are
passed through demisters to prevent carry-over of saline droplets to the
condenser.
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 The vapours are condensed to pure water in the condenser and thereafter
removed by a distillate pump to be transferred to storage tanks.
 Air extraction fan or air ejector is provided to extract air and other
incondensable from the condenser and to maintain the evaporator in
vacuum for the flashing to occur.
 The arrangement for continuous monitoring for purity of the distillate is
similar to those in the Low pressure evaporator described earlier.
PRODUCTION OF WATER BY MEANS OTHER THAN DISTILLATION
Reverse Osmosis – Single Pass & Double Pass system

 Osmosis is the natural migration of water, from one side of a semi-
permeable membrane, into the solution on the other side, due to Osmotic
pressure.
 The principle – when two solutions of different concentration are separated
by a semi-permeable membrane, the less concentrated solution will flow
towards the more concentrated solution side of the membrane.
 ‘Reverse osmosis’ is the reverse of the above phenomenon of Osmosis. It is
a water filtration process, which makes use of semi-permeable membrane
where salt water on one side of the membrane is pressurized by a pump and
forced against this membrane.
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 Pure water passes through but the semi-permeable membrane rejects the
salt ions present in the sea water. Only about 30% of the seawater actually
passes through the membrane. The remaining 70% sea water flushes the salt
ions and other impurities off the membrane surface, and is discharged back
into the sea.
 The pressure required to force the pure water through is called osmotic
pressure. Depending on the plant size, pressure of around 40-70 bar is
applied to the seawater to force the pure water molecules through the
membrane. Higher the salinity of seawater, higher is the required pressure.
 As continuous supply of seawater is used as feed, the salinity of feed is
steady, and therefore, the osmotic pressure required to force fresh water
through is also steady, and steady pressure is taken from a continuously
running pump.
 For production of large amounts of pure water, the membrane area must be
large and it must be tough enough to withstand the pump pressure.
 Unlike the boiling process, this method does not require the ship’s
propulsion plant to be running. In ships that could be steaming away from
ports for long periods or waiting for long periods at outer anchorage or
deep sea (for further instructions), the vessel may have Reverse Osmosis
plant which can produce fresh water continuously even when the Main
propulsion plant is not in use.
 The semi-permeable membrane may be provided by a bunch of cartridge as
shown below:
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 Two types of reverse osmosis systems are generally used onboard ships,
single pass system and double pass system. In single pass system, the
seawater is passed through the membrane only once to produce clear
water. In double pass system, the clean water from the first pass is passed
through a second membrane for further purification.
(a) Single Pass System:
 In single pass system, the seawater feed supply is pumped through

cartridge filters by a low pressure booster or feed pump.
 Pre-treatment of the feed water is essential in order to minimize the fouling
of the membranes. A chemical dosing system ensures that the feed water is
satisfactorily treated before it comes in contact with the membranes.
 After the filters, the flow passes through the high pressure pump and then
to the membrane stack.
 The permeate is then filtered and sterilized and pumped to the storage
tank. The salt concentrate is drained out from the membrane stack and
thrown overboard.
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(b) Double Pass System:

 The double pass arrangement is identical to the single pass system, except
that the permeate from the first pass is used as the feed for the second
pass.
 In the second pass, the permeate of the first pass is passed through another
membrane stack using a high pressure pump.
 The permeate from the second pass is of very good quality with a low total
dissolved solids (TDS) content.
 The concentrate from the second pass is also of high quality and hence is
used to dilute the original sea water feed.
 A further advantage of double pass system is that in case of failure of one
stage, the unit can continue to produce water although the product will be
of lower quality.
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DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY (Hydrophore System)

 The fresh water to be used onboard is normally supplied by the Fresh Water
Hydrophore system shown below:
 The Hydrophore ensures that the water is supplied in sufficient amount and
at sufficient pressure for onboard usage. It is used to maintain the pressure
of water supplied to the different parts of the ship at various heights, to
keep constant pressure of water in all lines and all floors of the ship.
 The Hydrophore system is equipped with two units of self-priming
centrifugal pumps to allow for sufficient redundancy. The system is so
designed so as to maintain system pressure & delivery capacity at all times.
 The Fresh water Hydrophore is basically a pressurized vessel, used to store a
large quantity of fresh water at a pressure of about 2.2 to 3.0 bar, and this
supplies water to the entire ship.
 Ashore, we normally use water tanks at certain height or ‘head’ to supply
water under pressure. Onboard the ship, this pressure is created by using
compressed air from the ship’s service line.
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 The fresh water pump (Hydrophore pump) supplies water to the

Hydrophore and it automatically cuts in and out to maintain the water level,
by means of pressure switches.
 Insufficient air in the Hydrophore will make the pump run more frequently,
while excess air in the Hydrophore will lead to compressed air passing into
the water line possibly creating an air-lock in the system or air may be blown
through the taps along with water.
 Hot water is supplied by means of a Calorifier, which is basically a water
heater with a thermostat to maintain a desired hot water temperature,
which may be varied as per the need. Too high a temperature could pose a
danger due to scalding, while too low a temperature would be undesirable
as heat loss takes place in the pipeline, and the final temperature at the tap
would thus be even lower.
 Water to be used for drinking purposes should be treated, to keep it pure
and clean. This can be very easily achieved by using Chlorinators / UV lamps
which is said to kill bacteria and render the water safe. The filter takes care
of any dirt or other impurities, which are undesirable.
 Hydrophore systems are simple to operate and maintain and highly reliable
systems.
TREATMENT OF FRESH WATER FOR DRINKING:

 Due to the low temperature of operation in low pressure evaporators, the
fresh water produced by such a FWG may be harmful to drink as it may
contain bacteria. It may not even contain the minerals that are needed.
Therefore, it needs to be treated, in order for it to be potable. The
treatment of fresh water can be done using the following methods:
1. Chlorine Sterilization: The sterilization by chlorine is recommended and

it may be done by an excess dose of chlorine provides by sodium
hypochlorite in a liquid form or by adding calcium chloride granules. The
chlorine content may be upto 0.2 ppm, for it to be effective. The water is
then de-chlorinated in a bed of activated carbon to remove the excess
chlorine. Any colour, taste and odour, which were present in the water,
will also be removed by the carbon.
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2. Silver Ion Sterilization: In this method, silver ions are injected into the
distillate, by means of a silver anode. This method of sterilization is
effective since silver is toxic to the bacteria present in the water. Unlike
chlorine, the silver ions do not evaporate. The amount of silver ion
released into the water is controlled by the current and the silver ion
content may be upto 0.08 ppm, for it to be effective.
3. Ultraviolet Light Sterilization: A temporary but immediately effective

sterilization is by means of UV light. Chlorine and silver ion methods
although long lasting, change the taste of the water and require efficient
carbon filtration to remove the odour. UV light on the other hand does
not cause any physical or chemical change in the water. This method
uses UV lamps to produce short wave radiations that destroy the
bacteria, viruses and other organisms in the water. This method is usually
used on the discharge side of the water storage tank so that the water is
sterilized immediately before use.
4. Sterilization by Ozone: Use of ozone for sterilization is very effective. It

is an effective oxidant. However, the equipment is costly and has high
running cost.
 An example of treatment of fresh water produced by the FWG is shown in

the flowchart below. The system may be different on different ships. The
end result should however be that the produced water made available for
drinking is slightly alkaline, sterilized, clear and good in taste.
From Fresh Chlorination

Neutralization De-Chlorinator
Water (sodium
(carbon)
Generator hypochlorite)
For drinking
Dolomite Filter Fresh
use OR to
UV Sterilization (Mineraliser) Water
Drinking water
(Ca / Mg) Storage
tank
Tank
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Reasons for drop in FWG capacity:
1. Loss of vacuum due to vacuum breaker open or leaking.

2. Loss of vacuum due to low pressure of air ejector.
3. Condenser fouled with scales or tubes choked.
4. Jacket cooling water temperature & evaporator shell temperature low.
5. Evaporator tubes for jacket cooling water fouled.
6. Distillate pump not in good working condition.
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ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE DECK MACHINERY & HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
DECK MACHINERY & HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Introduction:
 Deck machinery includes a variety of equipment found on deck. The type of
deck machinery available varies with the type of ship. A tanker will have a
completely different type of deck machinery to aid the cargo operation, in
comparison to a General cargo vessel or a container vessel which will have
container handling cranes or cargo handling derricks and hatch covers.
 Deck machinery mainly includes the following:
1. Mooring equipment (Winches)
2. Anchor handling equipment (Windlass)
3. Cargo handling equipment (Cranes and Derricks)
4. Hatch covers
 Other items may include Lifeboats, rescue boat, liferafts and their davits,
watertight doors, stabilizers, bow and stern thrusters, etc.
 Three forms of power are currently in use to operate the various deck
machinery. They are steam, hydraulic and electrical.
WINDLASS
A ship’s windlass is designed primarily for handling the anchor, but it is frequently
use for handling lines and warps as well. It may be powered by a steam engine,
hydraulic motor or electric motors. Present ones are mostly electro-hydraulic.
Construction
 The horizontal windlass is a specialized winch, consisting of a primary shaft,
intermediate shaft and two main half shafts with corresponding pinions and
gear wheels. The motor is connected to a train of gearing that drives one or
more chain sprockets, called ‘wildcats’ or ‘cable lifter’ through sliding clutch
arrangement.
 The chain lifting unit consists of a rigid framework. The cable lifter or wildcat
is usually made with five whelps (like 5 tooth sprocket) around its
circumference of the size and pitch to suit the links of the anchor cable. The
fitting of the wildcats and chains is important. Wildcats are made of high
grade of cast steel. The cable-lifters are not fixed on the shaft but are
mounted freely to allow them to rotate independent of the shafts.
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 A screw operated steel band brake is fitted around a brake drum on the
outer edge of the rim of the cable lifter for controlling speed of the cable
when paying out the cable, and for locking it stationary when required.
 Each end of the intermediate shaft is extended to carry a warping drum.
 Many ships have a combination windlass mooring winch / warping head
systems fitted. In such a system, the same control lever can be used for the
windlass operations by engaging the main wheel gear on the wildcat and for
mooring winch operation by engaging the respective winch gear to the
required mooring winch.
 The basic dimensions and scantlings of an anchor windlass depends on the
anchor weight and chain size. The choice of the anchor windlass will depend
upon the size of the vessel, nature of the service and the desired anchor
handling and stowage arrangements. Classification Societies mainly govern
the regulations regarding this.
 After the anchor is heaved up completely and housed in the hawse pipe, the
electric motor may still be rotating because of rotational inertia. This may
result in excessive stresses coming on the equipment. Slipping clutches are
commonly fitted between the prime mover and gearing to avoid the inertia
of the prime mover to get transmitted to the machinery parts, in cases such
as anchor reaching the end in the hawse pipe while motor is still rotating.
Working
 In an electro hydraulic windlass, an electric motor is used to run the
hydraulic pump which in turn rotates the primary shaft. The rotation of the
primary shaft will lead to the rotating of the intermediate shaft which will
eventually drive the main half shafts when the main gear wheel is engaged.
 For heaving anchor, the motor must be started and the main gear wheel
must be first engaged. Brake must be released only on the concerned cable
lifter. The cable must be slightly heaved to remove the bow stopper. Once
the bow stopper is removed, the anchor must be hove in with controlled
speed. After anchor is housed fully, the brake must be tightened and bow
stopper put in place before disengaging the main gear wheel.
 For anchoring under power (as done in deep waters), the main gear wheel
must be first engaged using the motor and the brakes must be released on
the concerned chain lifter. The cable must be slightly hove in to allow
removal of bow stopper & anchor must be lowered all the way using power.
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 For letting go of the anchor, the main gear wheel must be first engaged
using the motor, brakes on the concerned wildcat released and cable
slightly hove in to allow the removal of the bow stopper. The anchor must
be lowered upto the required level. Brakes must be applied and the main
gear wheel disengaged. The anchor is now ready to let go by just releasing
the brakes & letting the anchor go down by gravity, without use of power.
 When the vessel has been anchored or anchor is raised and housed in the
hawse pipe, the bow stopper must be put in place to take the strain. The
brakes must be applied on the cable lifter and the main gear wheel
disengaged.
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Class Requirements for Windlass:

1. Windlass must be of adequate power to match the cable strength.
2. Windlass must be of adequate size as per the vessel’s size and requirement.
3. One cable lifter must be provided for each anchor and connected to the
drive shaft with braking ability.
4. Torque limiting device (e.g. slipping clutch) must be provided for electrically
operated windlass.
5. The hull supporting structure of anchor windlass must be sufficient to
accommodate the operating and sea loads.
6. The windlass is to be capable of exerting, for a period of 30 minutes, a
continuous duty pull corresponding to the grade of chain cable. The mean
speed of the chain cable during hoisting of the anchor and cable is to be at
least 9 mtr/min (which comes to about 3 minutes per shackle).
7. The windlass is to be also capable of exerting, for a period of not less than 2
minutes, a pull of not less than 1.5 times the continuous duty pull. The speed
of hoisting in this period can be lower.
8. Where a chain cable stopper is not fitted, the brakes must have a braking
capacity of 80% of the breaking strength of the chain cable without any
permanent deformation of strength members and without brake slipping.
Where a chain cable stopper is fitted, 45% of the breaking strength may
instead be applied.
9. Chain cable stopper, if fitted, along with its attachments is to be designed to
withstand, without any permanent deformation, 80% of the specified
minimum breaking strength of the chain cable.
10. Windlass must be permanently marked with the size and other details of the
chain and maximum anchorage depth, in metres.
11. Each windlass must be tested after installation onboard to demonstrate
satisfactory operation of braking, clutch functioning, lowering and hoisting,
proper riding of the chain over the cable lifter, proper transit of the chain
through the hawse pipe and the chain pipe, and proper stowage of the
chain and the anchor. The mean hoisting speed must be measured and
verified. The braking capacity is to be tested by intermittently paying out
and holding the chain cable by means of the application of the brake.
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Maintenance of Mooring Equipment:

Correct operation of the mooring equipment onboard is indeed important for the
overall safe operation of a vessel in port. Mooring is a critical operation where any
unforeseen event could prove dangerous and even fatal at times. In order to
implement safety of the crew and the ship, it is imperative for ship’s personnel to
maintain high standards of integrity of the mooring equipment. It is best done by
incorporating the maintenance of mooring equipments as part of the ship’s PMS.
Maintenance of the mooring mechanisms onboard include the following –
1. Checks Prior Mooring – After an extended sea passage or a passage

undertaken in heavy seas and prior to mooring operation, always check for
any physical damages, leakages, free movement of the operative levers,
brake linings condition, salt deposits, etc.
2. Greasing of Moving Parts – All rotating parts of the mooring equipment,
which would include rollers, fairleads, winch drums, windlass worm-wheels,
etc. must be moved and lubricated on a regular basis.
3. Check Brake Liners – Regular inspections must be made of the winch /
windlass brake linings for wear and tear. Oil, moisture, heavy rust and salt
deposits on the brake linings could seriously reduce the brake holding
capacity of the winch.
4. Check Brake Drums - Whenever brakes are opened up for any reason,
ensure that the brake drum is thoroughly checked / examined for build-up of
rust or other worn out brake material.
5. Check Brake Linkages – The brake linkages should be checked for free
movement. If the linkages are not free, there would be a loss of brake
holding capacity. It would create a wrong impression to the operator that
the brake has been applied fully, but in reality it has not.
6. Inspect Gear / Hydraulic Oil – Inspect the gear oil regularly through the
inspection cover in the winch / windlass. Whitish color of the liquid means
the liquid is contaminated and requires to be changed immediately. Use the
replacement oil that is recommended by the manufacturers.
7. Regular Visual Inspection - Ensure that regular inspection of the synthetic
mooring hawsers, heaving lines, messenger ropes, etc. is carried out for
damages, chaffing, kinks, etc. Also make sure that each mooring rope
carries a certificate from the manufacturer. Also, ensure that each mooring
rope is conspicuously marked with a number corresponding to the
certificate.
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8. Proper Marking and Labeling - Marking the mooring equipment is another

important aspect for a safe and effective operation. The ship’s officers
should ensure that the bollards, fairleads, rollers, etc. are marked with their
SWL’s. Additionally, the winches and windlass shall be marked for rotating
direction (heave/pay out), braking capacity, test dates and ID numbers
corresponding to the certificates carried onboard.
WINCHES FOR CARGO HANDLING

 Any winch that is to be used for cargo handling must be capable of
performing three basic functions. These are:
(1) Raising and lowering the boom head to the proper elevation.
(2) Ability to swing (slew) the boom.
(3) Hoist or lower the load.
 Most cargo winches are generally driven by electric motors, hydraulic or
steam powered. In case of tankers where electric motors are not allowed in
the hazardous area, steam is normally used.
 Mechanical band brakes are provided on cargo winches that work as
holding devices, rather than stopping devices. In an emergency, such as that
of a power failure with a suspended load, the mechanical brakes may be
used to lower the load to the deck level. The brake bands are lined with a
brake lining, similar to that used for windlass brakes.
HATCH COVERS
 Hatch covers are designed to be weathertight. The function of a hatch
cover and its coamings is to prevent any penetration or ingress of water into
a vessel’s cargo hold. Hatch covers are designed to fit in such a manner
where steel-to-steel contact is continuously achieved between the hatch
cover and the coaming which will allow maximum penetration of the rubber
gasket by the compression bar.
 Hatch covers are exposed to very harsh conditions, especially salt laden air,
the frequent waves and contamination by cargo during cargo operations.
The time available for maintenance is less, since maintenance cannot be
done when the hatches are loaded with cargo, and also when cargo
operations are in progress. While sailing in ballast, maintenance depends to
a large extent on good weather conditions.
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 Lack of maintenance causes a steady deterioration in performance, and the

possibility of costly delays in port, when hatch covers are not able to be
operated.
 Many types of mechanically operated hatch covers can now be found at sea.
They can be broadly categorized as follows:
1. Portable or lift-away hatch covers – in this type, each cover is
independently lifted to open or close the hatch. The lift-away hatch
covers are generally removed by lifting tackle or spreader using the
ship’s or shore’s crane.
2. Rolling type steel hatch covers – in this type, covers will roll over the
hatch coaming track with the rollers fitted on the hatch cover which will
perform the opening or closing operation.
3. Hydraulic folding type steel hatch covers – in this type, cover works on
hydraulic pressure with ram and cylinder which will perform the open or
close operation.
 Regulations regarding hatch covers imposed during The Load Line
Conference of 1966 require hatch covers to be able to withstand load of 1.74
tons/m2 due to sea water, and have a minimum scantling of 6mm for the
tops of the hatch covers.
 The IACS has increased the strength standards by creating its Unified
Requirements S21 in 1998.
Rolling Type Hatch Cover:

 The single pull hatch cover consists of a number of transverse panels which
span the hatchway and are linked together by chains. In the closed position,
the panel sides sit firmly on a horizontal steel bar attached to the top of the
hatch coaming.
 Just inside the side plate is a rubber gasket housed in a channel on the
underside of the hatch cover which rests on a steel compression bar to form
a weather tight seal. When closed, the covers are held on to the seals by
series of peripheral cleats.
 Rollers are arranged on the sides of the covers to facilitate opening and
closing. To open a single pull cover, the securing cleats are first freed and
each panel is raised off its compression bars by hydraulic jacks. The
eccentric wheels once locked in position, the jacks can be removed and the
cover can be pulled backwards or forwards as required.
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 The rail arrangement on both sides at the end of the hatch coaming is
designed to turn the panels so that they are left stacked upright in the space
provided.
 An alternative arrangement uses a fixed chain drive on the periphery of the
hatch, complete with its own electric or hydraulic motor.
Maintenance of Hatch Covers:

1. Bearing pads must be checked for mechanical damage and a thin layer of
grease must be applied to its contact surfaces.
2. Grease must be applied to the pins of the chain sprocket and wire sheaves.
Chain and wire must be checked for corrosion and deformation.
3. Hatch cover seals must be checked for wear and mechanical damage, shape
and elasticity. They must also be checked for cracks, leaks and stains.
4. Hydraulic hose, piping and couplings must be checked. All other checks
required for the hydraulic systems must be carried out.
5. Drain pipes and drain valves must be checked to ensure that they are not
clogged and that the float moves freely.
6. Cleats (including Quick acting cleats) must be checked for proper
functioning and greased as required.
7. Coaming and guide rail must be checked for deformation and wear.
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8. Steel structure of the hatch cover must be checked for deformation and
corrosion. Affected areas must be de-scaled and painted.
9. Once in a year, the wheels must be overhauled to check the surface of the
bush and pin. If worn out more than 1mm in thickness, they must be
replaced.
10. Drive boxes and electrical enclosures must be checked for water tightness.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
 Most ship processes require objects or substances to be moved from one
location to another or a force to be applied to hold, shape or compress a
product. Such activities are performed by prime movers. Most prime movers
are electrical or diesel devices. However, there are other means of providing
prime movers. Enclosed fluids can also be used to convey energy from one
location to another and, consequently, to produce rotary or linear motion or
apply a force. Fluid-based systems using liquids as transmission media are
called ‘Hydraulic systems’.
 Different hydraulic systems are
designed to suit different
applications. However, the basic
circuit of a hydraulic system
remains somewhat the same.
This is shown in the figure
alongside.
 The main components of a hydraulic system are:

1. Hydraulic pump: To convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
2. Control Valve: To control this hydraulic energy. In the figure above,
motor speed is controlled by adjusting valve A.
3. Hydraulic cylinders: To convert hydraulic energy into linear force/motion.
4. Hydraulic motors: To convert the hydraulic energy into continuous rotary
motion.
5. Hydraulic fluid: It is held in a reservoir tank.
6. Ancillary equipment: This includes filters, heat exchangers, tanks, pipes,
relief valves, etc to complete the practical circuits.
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Types of Hydraulic systems:

1. Open-loop circuit: It takes oil from the tank and pumps it into the hydraulic
motor. A control valve is positioned in parallel with the motor. When it is
open, the motor is stationary; when it is throttled or closed the motor will
operate. The exhaust oil returns to the tank. This method can provide step-
less control, i.e. smooth changes in motor speed.
2. Live-line circuit: It maintains a high pressure from which the control valve
draws pressurized oil to the hydraulic motor (in series with it), as and when
required.
3. Closed-loop circuit: In this type, the exhaust oil is returned directly to the
pump suction. Since the oil does not enter an open tank, the system is
considered closed.
 Low-pressure systems use the open-loop circuit and are simple in design as
well as reliable. The equipment is, however, large, inefficient in operation
and overheats after prolonged use.
 Medium-pressure systems are favoured for marine applications, using either
the open or closed circuit.
 Where considerable amounts of hydraulic machinery are fitted, the live-line
circuit supplied by a centralized hydraulic power system would be most
economical.
Uses of Hydraulic Systems:

1. Providing variable speed drives through hydraulic motors for cargo pumps.
2. Providing power for deck machinery.
3. Providing power for actuating devices and remote control of valves.
Advantages of Hydraulic systems:

1. It is a convenient method of transferring power over relatively long
distances from say, a central pump room to remote operating sites in the
ship. Where necessary, it also provides complete local control operations.
2. It allows for fully variable speed control of both linear and rotary motion,
with smooth take up of load, in all cases power is continuously transmitted
whilst speed changes take place.
3. High static forces or torques can be achieved and maintained indefinitely.
4. It is a safe & reliable system even in most difficult environmental conditions.
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5. Overload conditions are safeguarded by using a relief valve to limit

maximum output torques or forces.
6. It provides significant cost savings as an alternative solution for many
requirements.
Disadvantages of Hydraulic systems:

1. It is messy and therefore the areas around the system may not always be in
good order, neat and clean.
2. As the system is under high pressure, there are chances of major accidents.
3. Leaks in hydraulic system can be the cause of major fires and/or explosions.
Hydraulic Oil Properties:
 Oils are preferred as they provide good lubrication where it is required.

 Hydraulic oils may be straight mineral oils or special additive oils where their
properties are enhanced by additives.
 Their properties include oxidation stability, film strength, rust prevention,
foam resistance, demulsibility and anti-wear characteristics. All these
properties enable the fluid to stand up to the high operating temperatures
and pressures. Pour point depressants are used to prevent freezing in low
temperature conditions.
Hydraulic Oil Deterioration and Contamination:
 Hydraulic oils which are basically mineral oils will degenerate very slowly
over time due to oxidation. Factor that encourage oxidation are heating,
presence of air, metal and corrosion products. Oxidation causes increase in
oil viscosity and sludge deposition. Oxidation leading to the formation of
acidic products can cause corrosion resulting in early deterioration of the oil.
 Contamination could be due to various reasons. Water promotes corrosion
and must be excluded from the system. Rust that is detached can cause
jamming of the valves as well as early deterioration of oil. Sea water can
enter the system through the shaft seals of deck machinery and via the
system coolers. Fine metal wear particles and rust can act as abrasives
causing further wear. These are removed by fine filters. To prevent
contamination, it is necessary to use clean hoses, funnels and oil containers
for filling and topping up reservoir tanks.
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Hydraulic Oil Filtration:

 Hydraulic filters provide inbuilt protection and minimize hydraulic system
breakdowns which are quite often caused by contamination.
 Filters are fitted for both low and high pressure hydraulic applications.
 Efficient filtration helps to prevent system failure and makes a significant
contribution to low cost of ownership.
 The filters used in the hydraulic system should be subjected to periodic and
routine cleaning and maintenance. Its life will primarily depend on the
system pressures, level of contamination and nature of the contaminants.
 Mainly three categories of filters are fitted in the system. They are –
1. Return line filter – It may reduce the amount of dirt ingested through the
cylinder and seals from reaching the tank.
2. Suction or Intake filter – It is fitted before the pump to prevent entry of
random contaminants into the pump and thus prevent the pump
damage.
3. Discharge or Pressure filter – It is sometimes used at pump outlet to
prevent entry of contaminants generated in the pump into other
components such as valves, cylinders, etc.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM FOR WINDLASS / WINCHES
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Working
 The hydraulic system for windlass and mooring winch consists of a reservoir
tank that contains the hydraulic fluid (oil). The fluid level in the tank is
indicated by a level gauge and the fluid temperature by a thermometer.
 A pump circulates the hydraulic fluid and is driven by an electric motor
running at a constant speed. The pump draws suction from the reservoir
tank through the suction filter, which prevents random entry of foreign
particles into the system.
 The hydraulic fluid gains pressure entry in the pump. The pressurized fluid
passes through the pressure (discharge) filter located at the pump outlet
which prevents entry of contaminants generated in the pump into the
valves and cylinders.
 The filtered high pressure fluid passes through the cooler where heat is
dissipated. Then, it passes through a control valve, which controls the fluid
flow to the hydraulic motor.
 High pressure hydraulic fluid drives the hydraulic motor. This motor
converts the pressure energy of the hydraulic fluid into rotary mechanical
force thus driving the windlass or winch system.
 Fluid from the hydraulic motor returns to the reservoir tank through the
return line filter that reduces the amount of dirt generated.
 When the winch/windlass is not in use, the fluid passes through the control
valve, bypasses the hydraulic motor and returns to the reservoir tank. This
way, the fluid is circulated through the system even if the hydraulic motor is
not in operation. The hydraulic fluid in the pipelines to and from the motor
always flows in the same direction.
Isolation of the system: Before carrying out any maintenance on the windlass
hydraulic unit, the entire system should be isolated. This is to prevent any mishaps
or accidents which may cause injury or loss of life and even damage the
machinery. Following actions must be carried out in order to isolate the system:
1. Stop the hydraulic pump if it is running.
2. Switch off the electric circuit breaker and control room circuit breaker.
3. Shut off the pump suction and discharge valves and return line valves.
4. If required, drain the oil from the system.
5. Display ‘Men at Work’ warning board.
6. Ensure anchors are lashed; bow stopper is in place and brakes applied.
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Heating and Cooling of Hydraulic Oil:

 Keep Oil Warm: Before the deck machinery is to be actually used, start the
Hydraulic Pumps at least 15 minutes in advance and allow at least one winch
to run idling at slow speed. This will keep the oil warm by circulating.
 Cooling of oil: It is required when the system is run for long periods and oil
needs to be cooled by air/sea water or fresh water to maintain correct
operating temperature of the oil and efficient operation of the entire
hydraulic system.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM FOR HATCH COVERS:
 The working of the hydraulic system for the hatch covers is similar to that
explained for the windlass / mooring winches. Hydraulic fluid from the
reservoir tank is drawn by the hydraulic pump and used to power the driving
cylinders, motors or rotary actuators with suitable mechanical linkages or
cables to achieve the moving or lifting action.
 The hydraulic pump may be a fixed displacement pump, the output of which
is bypassed until required for cylinder operation.
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 Protection is provided by relief valve which protect the system against over
pressurization. Also, there are check valves to prevent the covers from
falling under their own weight due to loss of hydraulic pressure.
CENTRALIZED HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT:

 In centralized hydraulic power system, a number of pumps deliver oil to a
main pressure line. From this line, it is possible to run any number of pumps
provided there is sufficient quantity of oil.
 Flow control valves are provided on each motor so that they do not over-
speed. Relief valves are provided to prevent over pressurization.
 Hydraulic oil used is high grade mineral oils with additives to ensure
lubricity, anti-foaming and corrosion resistance.
 A separate oil cooler ensures heat dissipation in the hydraulic circuit.
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Maintenance of Hydraulic Systems:

 Daily or during every operation, inspect pump seals, pipe connections for
leakages. Check for oil level in the reservoir tanks. Check the temperature
and pressure of the hydraulic oil and if any deviation from normal values.
Check the running hydraulic pumps for correct functioning. Check the
ammeter reading of the pump.
 Every month, check and clean hydraulic oil filters or replace them as per
Maker’s recommendations.
 Every 6 months, collect hydraulic oil samples and send the same ashore for
laboratory analysis.
 Every dry-dock, complete overhaul of the power pack which includes
replacement of the seals, as per Continuous Survey of Machinery (CSM).
 Additionally for hatch covers, check the hydraulic cylinder rod surface is
clean before operation and every 3 months, check the cylinder for oil
leakage. If there is any, replace the oil seal. Every year, check the stop valve
and check valve for internal leakage.
TROUBLE SHOOTING:
Faults Causes Remedies

High Oil 1) Fouled cooler 1) Clean the cooler.
Temperature 2) Oil quantity is less 2) Top up oil to prescribed limit
Oil Level Low 1) External Leakages 1) Rectify the leakage and refill
Oil Leakage 1) Seals worn out / damaged 1) Repair seal rings or packings.
2) Gland ring is loose 2) Tighten the gland.
3) External leakages 3) Rectify the leakage and refill.
Abnormal Noises 1) Air in the system 1) Purge out the air

2) Filter is clogged 2) Clean the filter
3) Pump shaft seal worn out 3) Renew the shaft seal.
Pressure 1) Filter is clogged 1) Clean the filter

fluctuation 2) Air in the system 2) Purge out air
3) Hydraulic pump defective 3) Overhaul the pump
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Viscosity of hydraulic oil:

 Maintaining viscosity of hydraulic oil during operation is very important. If
oil becomes too thin, then adequate lubrication may not be provided for the
working components or internal leakage rates may increase until a
reduction in the performance level is noticeable.
 On the other hand, too much viscosity may increase resistance offered to oil
circulation. This is why sometimes we need to heat up the cold oil before
starting the hydraulic machine. Thus, maintaining the temperature of oil and
thus the viscosity is important.
Air in Hydraulic system:

 Air in any hydraulic system must be avoided. Air being compressible gives
incorrect balance between units, time lags and irregular operation, which
can be dangerous. Air in the system is indicated by jerky operations and
possible ‘jumping’ at the pressure gauges.
 Purging must be done at cocks provided in the system. If there is excess air
in the system, the system must be drained totally, followed by re-charging.
Dirty oil:
 This will lead to malfunction of the system. It will choke the filters leading to
the reduction of overall system pressure. It can also cause jamming and
malfunction of the valves and problems of corrosion.
Maintaining temperature:
 Heat kills hydraulic systems. That is why hydraulic oil coolers are widely used
to remove excess heat generated by energy losses in a system. Coolers are
often designed to maintain the oil temperatures within a limited range. This
helps to maintain the recommended viscosity of oil, ensuring mechanical
components are well lubricated and hydraulic devices run at peak efficiency.
 Letting oil temperature rise beyond recommended limits can reduce the life
of a system due to poor lubrication, higher internal leakage, a higher risk of
cavitation and damaged components. It also degrades the hydraulic oil and
also damages various seals.
 Keeping temperatures down also helps ensure the oil and other
components last longer. Maintaining the recommended temperature
improves efficient of the system and reduces service and repair costs.
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HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATOR:
 It is a simple hydraulic device which stores energy in the form of fluid
pressure. The fluid pressure energy is being achieved by the accumulator
with the help of an external force. This external force could be compressed
gas, compression of a spring or lifting a weight within the cylinder. Thus,
accumulators can be spring loaded piston type, diaphragm type, bladder
type, gas loaded piston type, etc.
 The stored pressure inside the accumulator may be released suddenly or
intermittently as per the requirement. In the case of a hydraulic lift or
hydraulic crane, a large amount of energy is required when the lift or crane
is moving upward. This energy is supplied from the hydraulic accumulator.
But when the lift is moving in the downward direction, it does not require a
huge amount of energy. During this particular time, hydraulic fluid pumped
from the pump is stored in the accumulator for future use.
 If there were no accumulator, the hydraulic pump would be continuously
running to cater to the need for valve operation. The pump will frequently
start and stop, which affects the pump’s performance and its health. Also,
the accumulator stores energy which can be used in an emergency where
there is no other means of power supply. It can be compared with the use
of capacitors in electrical circuits.
Construction & Working:

 An accumulator usually has a cylindrical chamber, which has a piston in it.
This piston is either spring loaded or some calculated weight is kept on it or
even pneumatically pressurized.
 The hydraulic pump pumps the fluid into the accumulator, which is nothing
but a sealed container. The volume of the container is fixed and cannot be
changed. But the quantity of hydraulic fluid being pumped inside the
container is increasing continuously. So the pressure of the hydraulic fluid
inside the container starts to increase.
 The inlet of the cylinder is connected to the pump, which continuously
supplies hydraulic fluid under pressure to the cylinder. The outlet of the
cylinder is connected to the machine (which may be a lift or a crane).
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 Considering the weighted ram type

accumulation as shown in the
figure alongside, the ram is at its
lower most position in the
beginning. The pump supplies
hydraulic fluid under pressure
continuously. If the hydraulic fluid
under pressure is not required by
the machine, it will be stored in the
cylinder. This will raise the ram.
When the ram is at its upper most
position, the cylinder is full of hydraulic fluid and the accumulator has stored
the maximum amount of pressure energy.
 When the machine (the crane or the lift) requires a large amount of energy,
the accumulator will supply this energy and the ram starts to move down.
 When the operations are completed, the pump pressurizes the oil into the
accumulator which stores the oil under pressure for further use.
 The pump pressurizes the fluid inside the container only till the ram is lifted
completely or the spring is compressed totally, after which the pump stops
automatically (or sometimes manually).
 Other types of accumulators
use the same principle. But
instead of the weight over the
ram, they use gas pressure
over the diaphragm or piston,
spring over piston, gas filled
bladder, etc.
Troubleshooting: Main problem is lack of proper functioning. For this, ensure firm
connection between the accumulator and the system. If there is any hydraulic
fluid leakage between the connections, tighten those and ensure there is no
leakage. If pre-charged gas pressure is low, this could be due to damage in the
diaphragm or due to leakage from valves or seals. For this, disconnect the
accumulator from the system. Inspect and replace the valve / seal ring if they are
damaged. Check for diaphragm damage and replaced if it is damaged. Assemble
all parts together and ensure firm fittings. Also check that no foreign bodies are
present inside the accumulator. Now recharge the gas as per maker’s instructions.
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HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS:
 A hydraulic system is generally concerned with moving, gripping or applying
force to an object. The devices which actually achieve this objective are
called actuators. An actuator is a component of a machine that is
responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example
by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover".
 An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy. The control
signal is relatively low energy and may be electric voltage or current,
pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or even human power. Its main energy
source may be an electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic
pressure. When it receives a control signal, an actuator responds by
converting the signal's energy into mechanical motion.
 A hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic
power to facilitate mechanical operation. The mechanical motion gives an
output in terms of linear, rotary or oscillatory motion. As liquids are nearly
impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator can exert a large force. The
drawback however is its limited acceleration.
 Linear actuators (like cylinder or ram) are used to move an object or apply a
force in a straight line whereas rotary actuators (like rotary vane) are used
to rotate an object. Hydraulic actuators can be split into two basic types:
1) Ram type actuator

 The hydraulic cylinder consists of a
hollow cylindrical tube along which a
piston can slide. The term single
acting is used when the fluid pressure
is applied to just one side of the piston.
The piston can move in only one
direction, a spring being frequently
used to give the piston a return stroke.
The term double acting is used when
pressure is applied on each side of the
piston; any difference in pressure
between the two sides of the piston
moves the piston to one side or the
other. Ram type actuator – Single Acting
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 Ram type of hydraulic cylinders is

generally used for providing the
vertical motion such as lifting the
load in vertical direction. Usually ram
type of hydraulic cylinders are widely
used for pushing action. Hydraulic
jacks are the best example of ram
type of hydraulic actuators. An
example of horizontal motion is the
ram type actuator used in the 2-Ram
or 4-Ram hydraulic steering gear.
 Ram types of hydraulic cylinders are
also used in automobile hoist and
Ram type actuator – Double Acting
elevators.
 Another type is the telescopic cylinders that are designed with a series
of steel or aluminum tubes of progressively smaller diameters nested within
each other. They provide an exceptionally long output travel from a very
compact retracted length. The largest diameter sleeve is called the main or
barrel. The smaller inner sleeves are called the stages. The smallest stage is
often called the plunger or piston rod. The danger exists that a permanent
deformation of the outer sleeve could occur and thus ruin a telescopic
actuator. For this reason, care must be taken to avoid shock pressures in
a hydraulic system using telescopic cylinders.
Often such hydraulic systems are equipped with
shock suppressing components, such as hydraulic
accumulators, to absorb pressure spikes.
2) Vane type actuator

 Rotary vane actuator is the hydraulic equivalent of an electric motor. It is
used to achieve a rotary motion.
 The rotary design is based upon a single moving part which eliminates
additional parts required to convert linear motion to rotary motion. Hence,
minimal maintenance is required.
 It consists of a fixed vane known as the stator and a moving vane known as
the rotor. The hydraulic fluid pressure will set the vane in rotary motion and
the return fluid will be returned back.
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 By using a variable displacement

reversible flow pump, the rotary
vane can be made to move both
clockwise and anti-clockwise.
 The actuator shaft (that needs
to be rotated) is placed in the
centre such that the rotary
motion of the vanes will cause
the rotation of the shaft.
 Rotary vane type actuator is the
most compact and efficient
actuator design available. Best example is the rotary vane actuator used for
steering gear. It is also used for quarter-turn valve or other valve operation
on pipelines, emergency shutdown systems, etc.
Rotary Vane Type Actuator
--------------XXXXXX--------------
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ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE GENERATORS, ALTERNATORS & ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
GENERATORS, ALTERNATORS & ELECTRICAL

DISTRIBUTION
The Marine Electrical equipment on ships comprises of:
a) Power Generation equipment
b) Motors, Distribution systems
c) Portable tools and equipment.
A) POWER GENERATION EQUIPMENT

This mainly comprises of: (i) D.C. Generators (ii) A.C. Generators
D.C. Generators are not common and mostly alternators are used.
Whatever may be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to
electrical power. An AC generator produces alternating power. A DC generator
produces direct power.
PRINCIPLE:
Both of these generators produce electrical power, based on same fundamental
principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. According to this law, when
a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines of force, due to which
an EMF is induced in the conductor. This EMF will cause a current to flow if the
conductor circuit is closed. Hence, the most basic two essential parts of a
generator are:
1. A magnetic field
2. Conductors which move inside that magnetic field.
D.C. GENERATORS:
A basic D.C. Generator comprises of the following parts:

1. Yoke: It is the outer frame which is made of cast iron or steel. It provides
mechanical strength to the whole assembly and also carries the magnetic
flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are even in number and are joined to the yoke
with the help of bolts or welding. They carry the field winding. Pole shoes
are fastened to the poles. They support the field coils.
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3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper and placed on each pole and
connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized,
they form alternate North and South poles.
4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of the machine. It is cylindrical in
shape with slots to carry armature winding. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
5. Armature windings: Copper coil are usually used which rests in armature
slots. The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from
the armature core.
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is
made through a commutator-brush arrangement. The function of
a commutator, in a DC generator, is to collect the current generated in
armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a DC motor, commutator helps in
providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a
set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The
commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or
graphite. When the commutator rotates, the brushes ensure that the
physical contact is maintained to collect or supply the current.
D.C. GENERATOR
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WORKING:
 The armature (rotor) of a DC generator is driven between opposite
magnetic poles, by its engine in the correct direction at its rated RPM
(speed). A D.C. field current is then supplied to its field windings.
 This field current enables the poles to produce a sufficiently strong
magnetic flux which is spread uniformly over the armature surface.
 The armature conductors which are set in motion, cut the magnetic flux and
hence electric power is produced in the armature winding as per Faraday’s
Law of Electromagnetic induction. The direction of flow of the induced EMF
is as per Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
 This direct current generated reaches the commutator segments from
where it is picked up by the carbon brushes.
 This generated electrical power is connected to the Main Switchboard
where voltage is brought up and adjusted to 220 volts. The breaker on the
switchboard is then closed and power is distributed to other equipments.
A.C. GENERATORS (ALTERNATORS)

A.C. generator or alternator (as it is usually called) is a 3 Phase machine that
operates on the same fundamental principles of electromagnetic induction as a
D.C. generator. They comprise of field windings and armature windings. However,
it differs from D.C. Generators as the magnetic poles in AC Generators are on the
rotor and the armature windings are on the stator. The rotating poles create the
magnetic fields.
The essential parts of an AC Generator are:

1. Rotor: It consists of the field Winding and Poles. The field windings are
wound on the poles of the rotor. The number of poles is always even. All the
poles are identical and symmetrically fitted on the rotor with alternate
polarities. (N-S-N-S and so on)
2. Stator: The armature is the stator in case of a AC generator. It has slots in its
internal periphery and armature windings made of copper are placed in
these slots.
3. Slip Rings & Brushes- The DC supply is given to the rotor winding through
the slip rings and brushes arrangement.
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WORKING:
 The rotor is driven by the engine in the correct direction and at a rated
speed (RPM). DC field current is then supplied to its field winding through
the slip rings and brushes arrangement.
 The poles produce sufficiently strong magnetic flux. Since the poles are
rotating, the magnetic field is also rotating.
 The armature conductors in the stator winding cut the magnetic flux of the
rotating poles. Therefore, electric power is produced in the stator windings
in accordance with Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
 The voltage and current are generated first in one direction and then other
to produce a 3 Phase alternating current. This output from 3 conductors is
delivered to 3 separate Bus Bars on the main switchboard from where
various supplies are taken.
 The generator runs at a constant speed so that the frequency which is
directly proportional to speed remains constant at 50 Hz to 60 Hz.
 The value of the voltage generated depends on the number of turns in the
coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field
rotates.
A.C. GENERATOR / ALTERNATOR

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POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ON SHIPS
 The electrical power distribution system on board a ship is designed so as to

provide a secure supply to all loads with adequate built in protection for the
equipment and operating personnel. The general scheme of a ship’s
electrical power system is common to nearly all ships.
 Both the auxiliary and emergency services are supplied by the Main
generators during normal operating conditions. In event of emergency, only
the emergency services are supplied by the Emergency generator.
 The below figure shows a typical electrical distribution system of a vessel.
 The main generators are connected to the main bus bar via air circuit
breakers. The main bus bar supplies 440V directly, 220V via transformers
and 24V DC via transformers and rectifiers.
 The main bus bar is connected to the emergency switch board via the tie-
breaker. Emergency generator is also connected to the emergency switch
board.
 Arrangements are also made for shore supply to be connected.
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EMERGENCY GENERATOR SUPPLIES TO:
1. Navigation equipment
2. Navigation lights
3. Radio equipment
4. Engine and Fire Alarm system
5. Emergency fire p/p
6. Steering motor (one only)
7. Emergency lights
WHY AC MOTORS PREFERRED OVER DC MOTORS
1. They are safer and cheaper

2. Lesser maintenance
3. Non-sparking
4. Less chances of overheat
5. Robust construction
PARALLEL OPERATION OF GENERATORS:

 Depending upon the capacity and the electrical load, more than one
alternator can be connected to the common Bus bars. The connecting
process is called ‘Synchronising’ i.e. enabling the parallel operation of the
alternators.
 Following conditions must be fulfilled for paralleling the Alternators:
1. Voltage must be same.
2. Frequency must match.
3. Phase sequence must be correct.
 In short, the incoming alternator should have the same parameters as the
running alternator(s). If the speed of the incoming machine is different, the
‘governor control switch’ should be used to adjust the speed.
 Departure from the above conditions will result in the formation of power
surges and unwanted electro-mechanical oscillation of rotor which will
damage the equipment.
 To carry out the paralleling operation, following devices are provided:
1. Synchroscope
2. Lamps (Dark/Bright)
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 Following are the steps to carry out with paralleling using a synchroscope:
1. Check voltages are same.
2. Check frequency of incoming generator is same as running generator.
3. Put on synchroscope and see that pointer turns slowly in clockwise
direction (may require to adjust speed of incoming generator using the
‘governor control switch’ for this).
4. When the pointer is at 11 o’clock position, close the breaker of incoming
generator.
5. Now the load is equally distributed among the generators.
 Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators

1. For maintenance or inspection, one machine can be taken out from
service and the other alternator can keep up for the continuity of supply.
2. Load supply can be increased.
3. During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the
other will operate in nearly full load.
4. High efficiency and operating cost is reduced.
5. Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.
6. Reliability of the whole power system increases.
FUSES
Fuses provide protection against heavy current. A fuse is in the form of a thin
metal wire or slim flat. It opens the circuit in which it is placed by melting or
blowing when the current through it exceeds a design value for a design time due
to the heat developed by the passing current. ‘Fuse element’ is the part of the
fuse that actually melts and opens the circuit. Two main types of fuses are used.
Rewireable
 It is the simplest and cheapest fuse.
 It is made of tinned copper wire. It is easier to replace damaged wire.
 It is available for various current ratings.
 When heavy current (more than rated value) passes, heat is produced that
melts the fuse and faulty circuit is isolated from the supply.
 They are used for relatively small loads.
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Cartridge
 These are totally enclosed ceramic tubes filled with Quartz powder.
 The fuse wire is of silver.
 These are highly safe and precise in operation.
 Arc produced due to fusing operation is immediately quenched by quartz
powder within the enclosure.
 Heavy Duty Cartridge fuses are also called HRC (High Rupturing Capacity)
fuses. These are widely used in Motor Switch board, Generator Switch
board, Lighting Switch board, Battery, etc.
Factors for fuse selection are:

1. Current rating – rated current means the maximum current that can flow
through the fuse continuously without interrupting the circuit i.e. without
fusing.
2. Voltage rating – The voltage rating of a fuse is a function of its capability to
open a circuit under an over-current condition. It must be at least equal to
or greater than the circuit voltage.
3. Breaking capacity - Breaking capacity or interrupting rating of a fuse is the
maximum available current, at the rated voltage that the fuse can safely
blow/melt without physically breaking. The breaking capacity of the fuse
must be greater than the potential fault (short circuit) current of the circuit.
Fusing Current and Fusing Factor:

 Fusing current of a fuse is the minimum current that will melt the fuse
element. It depends on the length, diameter, cross-sectional area of the
fuse element and type of enclosure.
 Fusing factor is the ratio of minimum fusing current to the rated current of
the fuse. HRC fuses have a fusing factor of 1.45. This means that the
minimum fusing current of a 10A fuse will be (10 x 1.45) 14.5 A.
Disadvantages of Fuses:
 Fuses are used only for protection against heavy fault currents due to short
circuit and hence fuses are not suitable for protection against overheating,
leakage of current, reverse power, under voltage, unbalanced loads etc.
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CIRCUIT BREAKERS
 Circuit breaker is an automatic device for stopping the flow of current in an
electric circuit as a safety measure.
 They are normally used for connection and disconnection of power. They
provide protection of circuits from overheating, short-circuit, overload and
single phasing.
 Relays are provided in the Circuit breaker which trip the breaker in case of
fault and isolate the circuit.
 They are normally used for generators, Main Switchboard, big equipments
and other heavy loads.
Types of Circuit Breakers:

1. Based on Type of Supply: AC or DC
2. Based on System working Voltage: Low or High Voltage
3. Based on Power: Single phase or 3 phase.
4. Based on type of operation: Air Circuit Breaker (ACB), Air Blast Circuit
Breaker (ABCB), Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB) and SF6 circuit breaker.
Single Phase CB’s for domestic use:

1. MCB: Miniature CB
2. MCCB: Moulded case CB
Care to be taken when Handling Circuit Breakers

 The mechanical linkages in circuit breakers are much complicated. No
attempts should be made by people who don’t have suitable training and
experience. Only maintenance works such as cleaning and lubricating can be
done with qualified people following the manufacturer’s instructions.
 The fixed and moving main contacts are made of copper alloys and coated
with silver. The contact faces should not be scrubbed, scraped or filed on
any account even if they are burnt severely. Mild pittings can be removed
using tools recommended by manufacturers. Severe damages shall be
referred to manufacturers who may do realignments and refilling.
 The arc chutes need to be inspected for any broken parts, erosion of splitter
plates, cleaned and maintained periodically.
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Typical Circuit Breaker on AC Generator:

 AC Circuit breaker of the generator is of the air break type. The breaker can
be opened or closed in a 3 phase circuit manually or automatically.
 The breaker can be made to open automatically when a fault like under
voltage, under frequency, over frequency, over load, short circuit, reverse
power, etc. occurs in the circuit it controls.
 An interlock can be provided in the circuit to prevent generator circuit
breaker from closing when the shore supply circuit breaker is in closed
position.
 If the voltage or current is within the normal prescribed limits, the circuit
breaker remains in closed position and passes current through it. But when
the voltage or current exceeds the preset value due to some fault, it
actuates the corresponding relay. This relay in turn gives trip command to
the circuit breaker. When trip command is given, the moveable contact of
the circuit breaker moves away and thus interrupts the circuit. All this
happens automatically in about 30 millisecond to protect the system.
 An arc is produced due to the sudden interruption of the circuit. It has to get
extinguished as soon as possible. Arc quenching media like air, oil, vacuum,
SF6, etc. quenches the arc produced. (Air in case of air circuit breakers)
 Arc splitter and arc runner help in fast quenching of the arc.
 Once the fault is cleared, the circuit breaker is closed manually or by
remotely by giving close command by means of a closing coil.
Parts of a Circuit Breaker Arc Quenching
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BATTERIES
 A battery is a convenient means of storing electricity. It is used on many
ships as an instantly available emergency supply. It may also be used on a
regular basis to provide a low-voltage D.C. supply to certain equipment.
 To provide these services, the appropriate size and type of battery must be
used and should be regularly serviced.
 Two main types of battery are used on board ship i.e. lead-acid batteries and
the alkaline-type batteries, together with various circuits and control gear.
(1) Lead-acid battery

 The lead-acid battery is made up of a series of cells. One cell consists of a
lead peroxide positive plate and a lead negative plate both immersed in a
dilute sulphuric acid solution. The sulphuric acid is the 'electrolyte’.
 A wire joining these two plates will have a potential or voltage developed
across it and a current will flow. This voltage is about 2.2V initially with a
steady value of about 2V. A grouping of six separate cells connected in
series will give a 12V battery.
 In the charged condition the battery contains lead, lead peroxide and
sulphuric acid. During discharge, i.e. when providing electrical power, some
of the lead peroxide and lead will change to lead sulphate and water. The
sulphuric acid is weakened by this reaction and its specific gravity falls.
 When the battery is charged, i.e. electrical power is put into it, the reactions
are reversed to return the plates to their former material and the water
produced breaks down into hydrogen gas which bubbles out.
(2) Alkaline battery

 The basic cell of the alkaline battery consists of a nickel hydroxide positive
plate and a cadmium and iron negative plate immersed in a solution of
potassium hydroxide. The cell voltage is about 1.4V. A grouping of five cells
is usual and it gives about seven volts.
 In the charged condition, positive plate is nickel hydroxide & negative plate
is cadmium. During discharge, oxygen is transferred from one plate to the
other without affecting specific gravity of the potassium hydroxide solution.
The negative plate becomes cadmium oxide and positive plate becomes less
oxidised nickel hydroxide. Charging the battery returns the oxygen to the
positive plate.
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Battery selection
Both the types of battery are widely used at sea for the same basic duties. The
choice between the two will be based upon their respective advantages and
disadvantages:
a) The lead-acid battery uses fewer cells to reach a particular voltage. It is
reasonably priced but has a limited life. It does, however, discharge on open
circuit and requires regular attention and charging to keep it in a fully
charged condition. If left in a discharged condition for any period of time, a
lead-acid battery may be ruined.
b) The alkaline battery retains its charge on open circuit and even if discharged
it can be left for long periods without any adverse effect. Although more
expensive it will last much longer and requires less attention. However, a
greater number of cells are required for a particular voltage because of the
smaller nominal value per cell.
Maintenance of Batteries
 Regular maintenance of batteries is mandatory to increase the life of a
battery. It also helps identify and rectify problems at an early stage itself.
 To be available when required, batteries must be maintained in a fully
charged condition. Where lead-acid batteries are used this can be achieved
by a ‘constant trickle charge’. Otherwise, for both types of battery, a regular
charge-up is necessary.
 For a lead-acid battery, the state of charge can be checked by measuring the
specific gravity of the liquid using a hydrometer. A sample of electrolyte is
taken from each cell in turn and its specific gravity is measured. All values
for the individual cells in a battery should read much the same. The specific
gravity reading must be corrected for the temperature of the electrolyte.
The value for a fully charged lead-acid battery is 1.280 at 15°C.
 For an alkaline battery, the specific gravity does not alter much during
charge and discharge but gradually falls over a long period: when a value of
1.160 is reached, it should be replaced.
 The electrolyte level should be maintained just above the top of the plates.
Any liquid loss due to evaporation or chemical action should be replaced
with distilled water.
 The battery terminals should be kept clean and smeared with a petroleum
jelly. The small vents in the cell caps should be clear at all times.
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 A battery must be kept clean and dry. If dirt deposits build up or spilt
electrolyte remains on the casing, stray currents may flow and discharge the
battery. Corrosion of the casing could also occur.
 Cell voltage readings are useful if taken while the battery is discharging. All
cells should give about the same voltage reading. This test method is of
particular value with alkaline batteries, where specific gravity readings for
the electrolyte do not indicate the state of charge.
 Batteries must be stored or recharged in well ventilated areas away from
sparks and open flames. These areas must be posted with ‘Flammable, No
Smoking’ signs.
 Damaged lead acid batteries must be kept in properly labeled acid-resistant
structures.
 Only chargers that are designed for the particular battery must be used.
 Lead acid battery vent caps must be kept securely in place.
 Acid must not be stored in hot locations or in direct sunlight.
 Non-metallic containers and funnels must be used.
Safety precautions while handling batteries:

 If acid gets into your eyes, immediately flush with water for 15 minutes and
then promptly seek medical attention.
 If acid gets on your skin, rinse the affected area immediately with large
amount of water. Seek medical attention if required.
 If acid solution is spilled or splashed, neutralize it with baking soda and rinse
the spill area with clean water.
 Personal or portable eye wash stations may be installed in the area
immediate to the battery charging site.
 Safety goggles, face shields, acid resistant gloves, apron, etc. must be used
while handling batteries.
Maintenance Free Batteries

True to its name, ‘Maintenance free batteries’ require less maintenance. They use
a calcium alloy of lead which reduces the amount of electrolysis and since the
amount of free electrolyte around the plate is also much higher, the plates are
immersed in the electrolyte for a long period of time. Therefore, there is no need
to add distilled water during the battery’s normal service life.
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A.C. SYSTEMS
 Equipment for A.C. systems is smaller and lighter because of the higher
voltage and therefore lower currents.
 Miniature circuit breakers (MCB’s) are used for currents up to about 100 A
and act as a fuse and a circuit breaker. The device will open on overload and
also in the event of a short circuit. Unlike a fuse, the circuit can be quickly
remade by simply closing the switch. A large version of this device is known
as the 'moulded-case circuit breaker' (MCCB) and can handle currents in
excess of 1000 A. Preferential tripping and earth fault indication will also be
a part of the A.C. distribution system
 In an A.C. system, three-phase alternators are arranged for parallel
operation and require a considerable amount of instrumentation. This will
include ammeters, wattmeter, voltmeter, frequency meter and a
synchronising device. Most of these instruments will use transformers to
reduce the actual values taken to the instrument.
 The ammeter measures the current, voltmeter measures the potential
difference and the wattmeter measures the power being used in a circuit.
 Various trips may be provided in the event of prime mover failure to ensure
that the alternator does not act as a motor.
 For paralleling of two A.C. alternators, a synchroscope is used nowadays.
The synchroscope has two windings which are connected one to each side
of the paralleling switch. A pointer is free to rotate and is moved by the
magnetic effect of the two windings. When the two voltage supplies are ‘in
phase’ the pointer is stationary in the 12 o'clock position. If the pointer is
rotating, then a frequency difference exists.
 For paralleling, firstly, both voltages must be equal as seen on Voltmeters.
Secondly, the frequencies must be brought into phase. The synchroscope in
practice usually moves slowly in the clockwise direction and the paralleling
switch is closed as the pointer reaches the 11 o'clock position. This results in
the incoming machine immediately accepting a small amount of load.
 A set of three lamps may also be provided to enable synchronising. The
sequence method using lamps has a key lamp connected across one phase
with the two other lamps ‘cross-connected’ over the other two phases. If
the frequencies of the machines are different, the lamps will brighten and
darken in rotation. The correct moment for synchronising is when the key
lamp is dark and the other two are equally bright.
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EMERGENCY GENERATOR SUPPLY

 In the event of a main generating system failure, an emergency supply of
electricity is required for essential services. This may be by a generator or an
accumulator battery. Most merchant ships have emergency generator.
 The unit is diesel driven and located outside of the machinery space.
 A switchboard in the emergency generator room supplies the various loads.
 SOLAS requires the emergency generator to be driven by a suitable prime
mover with an independent supply of fuel having flashpoint of not less than
43°C. The emergency generator must be started automatically upon failure
of the main electrical supply and shall be automatically connected to the
emergency switchboard.
 The emergency generator must be able to carry its full rated load as quickly
as is safe and practicable, subject to a maximum of 45 seconds.
 Emergency switchboard must supply to emergency lights, navigation lights,
radio communication, internal communication, fire detection and fire alarm
system, manually operated call points, ship’s whistle, one of the fire pumps,
emergency fire pump,
automatic sprinkler
pump (if any), steering
motor (usually one),
emergency bilge pump,
watertight doors, alarm
systems, etc. This must
be supplied for 36 hours
in a passenger ship and
for 18 hours in a cargo
ship.
 Emergency generator
must also be provided with a transitional source of emergency electrical
power. This shall consist of an accumulator battery suitably located for use
in an emergency which shall operate without recharging while maintaining
the voltage of the battery throughout the discharge period within 12% above
or below its nominal voltage and be of sufficient capacity to supply
automatically in the event of failure of either the main or emergency source
of electrical power. It must be able to provide the required supplies for
atleast 30 minutes.
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EMERGENCY GENERATOR MANUAL START

 Modern systems are arranged to start up the emergency generator
automatically when the main power supply fails.
 According to general requirement, at least two modes of starting an
emergency generator should be available. The two modes should be –
battery start and hydraulic or pneumatic (air) start.
 The system should be checked regularly and operated to ensure its
availability when required.
 Fuel tanks should be kept full, ample cooling water should be in the radiator
cooling system, and the starting equipment should be functional.
 Batteries should be fully charged or air receivers full, depending on the type
of starting system.
 Following is the procedure for starting the emergency generator manually:
1. Open Vent cover and Start Emergency generator room blower (if not
started on auto).
2. Put Power switch on “Manual”
3. Check the fuel level from the gauge glass.
4. Check LO Sump level and radiator / cooling water level.
5. Turn flywheel with handle to ensure free rotation.
6. Start manually depending on type of system (Battery, Hydraulic/Air)
7. For battery, select the battery and start using the button provided. For
hydraulic start, open the valve from hydraulic accumulator to generator
and push the spring loaded valve to start the generator.
8. Keep the generator running for 10-15 min and check all parameters such
as smoke colour, cooling water and LO temp., voltage & frequency, etc.
9. Once satisfied with operation, stop the generator and put back on AUTO.
10. After stopping the generator, pressurize the hydraulic accumulator to
desired pressure and close the valve from accumulator to generator.
PROCEDURE FOR TESTING OF THE AUTOMATIC START

1. For automatic start, the tie breaker which connects Emergency Switch
Board (ESB) and Main Switch Board (MSB) needs to be opened. This can be
done from the MSB or the ESB panel. The interlock which is provided will
automatically disconnect the Main Power from supplying to the ESB and the
emergency generator will start automatically with the help of batteries and
will supply essential power to those systems connected to the ESB.
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2. Once the test is complete, the tie breaker is closed again and due to the
interlock, the emergency generator will come off load.
3. Now, the switch must be put on manual and the emergency generator must
be stopped by pressing the STOP button.
4. Finally, the emergency generator must be left in the AUTO mode.
NAVIGATION LIGHTS CIRCUIT

 The supply to the navigation lights circuit must be maintained under all
circumstances and special provisions are therefore made.
 To avoid any possibility of accidental open circuits, the distribution board for
the navigation lights supplies no other circuit.
 A changeover switch is provided for an alternative source of supply in the
event that the main supply fails.
 If the navigation lights fail, a visual or audible indication must be given.
 A navigation lights circuit is shown in the figure below.
 Two sources of supply are available from the changeover switch.
 A double pole switch connects the supply to each light circuit, with a fuse in
each line. A relay in the circuit will operate the buzzer if an open circuit occurs,
since the relay will de-energize and the trip bar will complete the buzzer circuit.
 A resistance in series with the indicating lamp will ensure that the navigation
lights operate
even if indicating
lamp fails.
 The main supply
failure will result
in all the indicating
lamps
extinguishing but
the buzzer will not
sound. The
changeover
switch will then
have to be moved
to the alternative
supply.
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EMERGENCY AIR COMPRESSOR

 Emergency air compressor is used for starting auxiliary engine at the time of
an emergency or when the main air compressor has failed.
 It is a small compressor independently driven by a prime mover having
power supply from emergency switch board. They can also driven by diesel
engines.
 It must be fitted to press up the emergency air bottle and to start auxiliary
engine of a dead ship.
 It has no connection with the main air bottle.
-----------XXXXXXX-------------
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ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE MARINE POWER PLANTS
MARINE POWER PLANTS
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE:
An internal combustion engine is one, in which fuel is burnt within the combustion
chamber of the engine. Combustion of fuel and conversion of produced heat
energy into mechanical energy takes place within the cylinder.
Internal combustion engines are of two types:
A) Compression Ignition Type: In diesel engines, the air in the cylinder is

compressed to a high pressure, and thus attains a high temperature. Fuel oil
is injected, through a fuel valve and it ignites, since the air is above its self
ignition temperature.
B) Spark Ignition Type: In petrol engines, the compression ratio is

comparatively lower, thus the air does not reach the self ignition
temperature of the fuel. The fuel is therefore ignited by an electric spark.
Stages in the operation of a Diesel Engine
The main stages are as below:
1. Supply of fresh air to the cylinder (scavenging)

2. Compression of air, so that temperature of air rises to the Self Ignition
temperature of the fuel.
3. Fuel injection.
4. Expansion of the hot high pressure gases (Power stroke)
5. Removal of combustion products (Exhaust)
The above stages of operation can be performed in a –
 4-Stroke engine, where the above sequence takes place in four separate
strokes i.e. two revolutions of the engine.
 2-Stroke engine, where the above sequence takes place in only two strokes
i.e. one revolution of the engine.
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BASICS OF DIESEL ENGINES:
Piston Stroke: Swept Volume:

This is the distance travelled by the This is the volume swept by the piston
piston from the Top Dead Centre during one stroke. Swept volume is
(TDC) to the Bottom Dead Centre the product of the piston area and
(BDC) or vice-versa. Stroke is stroke.
determined by length of the crank.
Clearance Volume: Compression Ratio:

This is the volume at the top of the This is the ratio obtained by dividing
cylinder when the piston is at TDC. the volume at BDC (swept volume +
The clearance volume space forms clearance volume) by the volume at
the combustion chamber. TDC (clearance volume)
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Natural Aspiration: Scavenging:

This is a term used with reference The process of blowing out waste gases of
to an engine drawing air into the combustion by low pressure air and refilling the
cylinder from atmosphere cylinder with fresh air is called scavenging.
directly without any external Depending on the location of air inlet and
means such as a pump or blower. outlet, we can have cross scavenging, loop
scavenging or uniflow scavenging.
Supercharging or Turbocharging:
In a diesel engine working cycle, after the
removal of exhaust gases, if additional
supply of air is forced into the cylinder
than what the engine can ‘naturally
aspirate’, then the cylinder is said to be
‘supercharged’ and the process is called
as ‘supercharging’.
Modern marine engines, two stroke and
four stroke, use ‘turbochargers’ that are
rotary air compressors driven by a
turbine, which make use of the energy
contained in the exhaust gases. This
enables great increase in power with a
small increase in fuel consumption.
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2 – STROKE ENGINES:
 Two stroke engine is an internal combustion engine of compression ignition

type. Combustion of fuel takes place by mixing fuel with air which is
compressed to reach a high temperature.
 In a two-stroke engine, the four "cycles" of internal combustion engine
theory (intake, compression, ignition, exhaust) occur in two strokes of the
piston i.e. one complete revolution or 3600 rotation of the crankshaft. In a
four-stroke engine, these require four strokes of the piston i.e. two
complete revolutions or 7200 rotation of the crankshaft.
 In a two-stroke engine, more than one function occurs at any given time
during the engine's operation. This means fuel is injected and exhaust valve
is opened for every revolution.
 The two stroke cycle is described below:
1. Intake: Intake begins when the piston is near the BDC. Air is admitted to the
cylinder through ports in the cylinder wall (there are no intake valves). All
two-stroke Diesel engines require artificial aspiration to operate, and will
either use a mechanically driven blower or a turbocharger. In the early
phase of intake, the air charge is also used to flush out any remaining
combustion gases from the preceding power stroke, a process referred to
as scavenging. This is the suction stroke.
2. Compression: As the piston rises, the intake charge of air is compressed,
thereby raising its pressure and temperature. This is the compression stroke
and it continues till the piston reaches the TDC.
3. Ignition: Just before reaching the TDC, fuel is injected in the compression
chamber by the fuel injector, atomized into tiny droplets. These droplets
heat up very quickly and start to burn as the piston passes over TDC. The
self-ignition occurs due to the extremely high pressure and temperature of
the air. The expanding gas from the fuel burning forces the piston down the
cylinder, turning the crankshaft. This is the expansion or power stroke.
4. Exhaust: As the piston moves downward in the cylinder, it will reach a point
where the exhaust port is opened to expel the high-pressure hot
combustion gases. This is the exhaust stroke. If uniflow scavenging is
adopted, the cylinder will have an exhaust valve at the top which will open.
Continued downward movement of the piston will expose the air intake
ports (scavenge ports) in the cylinder wall, and the cycle will start again.
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Scavenging / Intake Compression Igniting / Firing Exhaust
TWO STROKE CYCLE
Two Stroke Timing Diagram: A timing diagram shows the position of valve
opening and closing along with the working cycle. This knowledge helps in
troubleshooting problems related to combustion. It will also help in improving the
engine performance.
Two-Stroke Engine – Timing Diagram

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4-STROKE ENGINES:
 The four stroke cycle is so called because it takes four-strokes of the piston
to complete the processes needed to convert the energy in the fuel into
work.
 The cycles in a 4-stroke engine are the same as that of a 2-stroke engine.
However, there is only one power stroke in two revolutions. The timings of
the cycle are therefore different from the 2-stroke engine.
 The four-strokes of the piston are known as the suction stroke, the
compression stroke, the power stroke, and the exhaust stroke. (Remember
it as: "suck, squeeze, bang & blow.") The four strokes are described below:
1. Suction Stroke: The crankshaft is rotating clockwise and the piston is

moving down the cylinder. The inlet valve is open and a fresh charge of air is
being drawn or pushed into the cylinder by the turbocharger.
2. Compression Stroke: The inlet valve has closed and the charge of air is
being compressed by the piston as it moves up the cylinder. This causes the
pressure and temperature of the air to increase. This is the compression
stroke. By the time the piston is approaching the TDC, the pressure is over
100 bar and temperature over 500°C.
3. Power Stroke: Just before TDC, fuel is injected into the cylinder by the fuel
injector. The fuel is "atomized" into tiny droplets. Because they are very
small, these droplets heat up very quickly and start to burn as the piston
passes over TDC. The expanding gas from the fuel burning in the oxygen,
forces the piston down the cylinder, turning the crankshaft. This is called the
power stroke.
4. Exhaust Stroke: As the piston approaches the BDC, the exhaust valve starts
to open. As the piston now moves up the cylinder, the hot exhaust gases
are expelled from the cylinder. As the Piston approaches TDC, again the
inlet valve starts to open and the cycle repeats itself.
 A 4-stroke engine has air inlet and exhaust valves. Opening and closing of
these valves in a proper sequence draws in air and expels out combustion
products.
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4-Stroke Diesel Engine Cycle
4-Stroke Diesel Engine Cycle
4-Stroke Diesel Engine Timing Diagram

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2-STROKE V/S 4-STROKE ENGINES – ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
TWO-STROKE (ADVANTAGES) FOUR-STROKE (DISADVANTAGES)

More power output at same swept Less power output as one power stroke
volume. per every two revolutions.
Better starting efficiency as every Inefficient starting.
revolution has a power stroke.
Early detection of abnormal conditions, Abnormal conditions cannot be
due to slow speed running. detected easily.
Governor does not require special care Extra care is required for the governor
due to slow speed. as running speed is medium to high.
Simple reversing mechanism. No Reversing is not so simple. Reduction
reduction gear required. gears are required.
Lower mean temperature of all working Higher mean temperature and exhaust
parts. temperature.
Lighter flywheel. Heavier flywheel.
Low LO consumption. Higher LO consumption.
Lower noise level. Higher noise level.
Less side thrust on cylinder liner due to More thrust on the cylinder liner and
crosshead and easier cylinder head complicated cylinder head
maintenance. maintenance.
TWO-STROKE (DISADVANTAGES) FOUR-STROKE (ADVANTAGES)

Lower Mean effective pressure (MEP) Higher mean effective pressure for
for same specific fuel oil consumption. same specific fuel oil consumption.
Poor scavenging efficiency since no Better scavenging efficiency since it has
separate stroke for scavenging. a separate stroke for scavenging.
More chances of a scavenge fire. Less chances of a scavenge fire.
More air consumption and longer air Reduced air consumption and air
compressor running time during compressor running time.
manoeuvring.
They are heavier and bigger in size. They are smaller in size. Hence, more
Hence, lesser cargo space. cargo space.
Vibration problem due to long stroke. Vibration is not considerable.
More overhauling time. Reduced size means less time for
overhauling.
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2-Stroke V/S 4-Stroke – Other differences
2-STROKE ENGINES 4-STROKE ENGINES

Cross-head type piston. (Piston is Trunk type piston. (Piston is directly
connected to crosshead by crosshead connected to the crank shaft by the
bearing which is connected to crank connecting rod.)
shaft by connecting rod.
Cylinder head does not have inlet valve. Cylinder head has inlet and exhaust
valves.
Cam shaft speed is same as crankshaft Cam shaft speed is half the crankshaft
speed. speed.
 4-stroke engines are normally used on generators as the 4-stroke engines

are smaller in size and can be easily accommodated. Also, they run at high
RPM which is needed to obtain the required frequency. If they are to be
used as Propulsion engines, they require reduction gear to reduce RPM.
 2-stroke engines are preferred as propulsion engines as the engine RPM is
low and for low RPM, a propeller of a greater diameter can be fitted. This
will increase the propeller efficiency. Also, longer stroke of a 2-stroke engine
means more time for combustion. Hence, lower quality of fuel can be also
used. Due to longer stroke, more power is produced.
TURNING GEAR
 The turning gear is a reversible electric motor driven worm gear, which is
connected to the Flywheel of the engine, and helps in turning the engine
slowly. It is used when carrying out repairs and any operation involving the
running gear. It provides a slow speed drive which enables positioning of
the engine parts for over-hauls.
 The turning gear is used for turning the engine for a few revolutions, just
prior to starting after a long interval. (such as prior departure from port)
 This is a safety check to ensure that the engine is free to turn, and that no
water leakage has taken place in the cylinders. The indicator cocks are
opened when the turning gear is operated, so that any leakage of water can
be easily observed. This precaution is also taken every time the engine is
started after any maintenance work.
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 Since the turning gear electrical load current can be observed, any abnormal
rise in current would mean that something is wrong with the running gear.
 There is an interlock in the control system which prevents the engine from
being started if the turning gear is engaged.
 Propeller clearance must be ensured before engine is turned on turning
gear.
ENGINE INDICATOR
 It is a measuring device used to check the performance of the main engine.
 It consists of a spring loaded piston on which the spring is compressed in
proportion to the cylinder pressure acting on it. This piston moves a pen or
stylus, attached to an arm through a parallel link mechanism.
 A card with a sensitized surface is wrapped around the indicator drum.
 The indicator cock for the chosen cylinder is first blown through, to clear it
of carbon and the indicator is then connected to it.
 The cord on the indicator drum is attached to some form of engine stroke
synchronising mechanism from the cross-head or a cam.
 The indicator cock is now opened and the indicator pen is held against the
card, tracing a diagram for one cycle of the engine.
 Pressure is recorded on the vertical scale according to the stiffness of the
spring whereas corresponding cylinder swept volume is recorded on a
horizontal scale due to rotation of the drum by its cord.
 By closing the indicator cock, a horizontal line representing the atmospheric
pressure is added to the diagram. This can act as a pressure datum line.
 Four types are indicator diagram can be obtained.
1. Power card: It is the measurement of the variation of pressures in a
cycle. It is taken with the drum rotation in phase with the piston
movement. It is used to calculate the power produced or the mean
indicated pressure for the cylinder.
2. Compression diagram: It is taken in a similar manner to the power card
but with the fuel shut off from the cylinder. The height of this curve
shows the maximum compression pressure. Low compression would
indicate wear of cylinder liner, faulty piston rings, insufficient scavenge
air pressure or leaky exhaust valve.
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3. Draw Card: It is also called out of phase diagram. It is taken in a similar

manner to the power card with fuel pump engaged but with the
indicator drum turned 900 i.e. perpendicular to piston stroke. It shows
more clearly the pressure changes during fuel consumption. Fuel timing
or injector faults may be detected from its shape.
4. Light or weak spring diagram: It is again similar to the power card & in
phase with the engine, but with a light compression spring fitted to the
indicator, showing pressure changes during exhaust and scavenge to an
enlarged scale. It is used to detect faults in these operations.
Engine Indicator
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MAIN ENGINE STRUCTURE – 2 STROKE ENGINES
Main parts of a 2-Stroke engine are:
1. Cylinder Head
2. Cylinder Liner / Jacket
3. Piston and piston rod
4. Stuffing Box
5. Top end bearing
6. Connecting Rod
7. Bottom end bearing
8. Main bearing
9. Crankshaft
10. Fuel Pump
11. Camshaft
12. Tie Rods
13. Air inlet port (Scavenge ports)
14. Exhaust port
15. Cross head
16. Cross head guides
17. ‘A’-frame (Monobox frame)
18. Bedplate
Mountings on the Cylinder Head:

3-4 Fuel valves (modern engines)
One Relief Valve
One Air starting valve
One indicator cock
Main Engine Structure: 2-Stroke Engine
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SCAVENGING
 Scavenging is the process of replacing the spent charge after combustion,
with a fresh supply of air. Efficient scavenging is essential to ensure a
sufficient supply of fresh air for combustion.
 In a 4-stroke engine, there is adequate overlap between air inlet valve
opening and exhaust valve closing. In a 2-stroke engine, the overlap is
limited to a few degrees of crank angle, thus intermixing of exhaust and
fresh air takes place.
 In a 4-stroke engine, each cycle of all 4 stages occupies two revolutions of
the crankshaft. Thus, removal of the exhaust gases from the cylinder
presents no problem. In a 2-stroke engine, on the other hand, replacement
of exhaust gases by fresh air occupies only a comparatively short period and
complicated arrangement are required for scavenging the cylinder and
recharging it with air.
 In any engine at a given speed, an increase in the weight of air available for
combustion allows a greater quantity of fuel pressure and the engine
torque are increased. The power output of an engine can, therefore, be
increased in relation to its weight and size by pressure charging i.e. by
supplying the cylinder with more air than it would normally take at
atmospheric pressure.
 There are three types of scavenging:
1. Cross Flow Scavenging
2. Loop Flow Scavenging
3. Uniflow Scavenging
1. Cross Flow Scavenging

In cross flow scavenging engines,
the scavenge ports (air inlet ports)
and the exhaust ports are arranged
on the periphery of the lower end
of the cylinder liner and opposite to
each other, as shown in the figure
alongside. In this method, there is a
greater degree of intermixing of
exhaust gases and fresh air.
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2. Loop Flow Scavenging

Due to the greater degree of intermixing of
exhaust and fresh air in the Cross flow type, the
Loop type evolved. The loop scavenge engines
have air inlet and exhaust ports around the
periphery of lower end of the cylinder liner. The
exhaust ports are placed on top of the inlet ports
and fresh air is directed upwards in a loop and
flows out through the exhaust ports. This
improved the scavenge efficiency.
3. Uniflow Scavenging
As the stroke length increased, it
was found that the above
methods of scavenging were not
able to adequately remove the
exhaust gases. Thus, the uniflow
type of scavenging was found to
be the most efficient, wherein the
fresh air enters the cylinder from
the lower part of the liner and
flows upwards and drives out the exhaust through a centrally mounted
exhaust valve. This design is now found on most modern engines. It is called
uniflow because the fresh air and exhaust gases do not change direction in
passing through the cylinder. The poppet valve (exhaust valve) in the
cylinder cover is controlled mechanically or hydraulically from a camshaft.
TURBOCHARGING
 The mass of fuel that can be burnt in the engine cylinder depends on the
mass of air present in the cylinder at the end of compression. Hence, by
increasing the pressure of the scavenge air in the engine, a greater mass of
air for compression can be supplied. That means more fuel can be burned,
which produces more power.
 When an extra pressure of air is supplied, so that more fuel can be burned,
the engine is said to be ‘supercharged’.
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 A turbo-blower or turbocharger is an air-compressor, which is driven by the

exhaust gas. The single shaft has an exhaust gas turbine on one end and the
air compressor on the other end. The rotation of turbine side as a result of
the exhaust gases flowing over it turns the blower and supplies air to the
scavenge side. Suitable casing design and shaft seals ensure that the two
gases do not mix.
 Air is drawn from the machinery space through a filter and then compressed
and sent to the Scavenge space via an air cooler.
 There are two basic designs of turbochargers. One in which the exhaust
gases are led directly to the turbine called the Pulse type, and the other, in
which the exhaust is collected in an Exhaust receiver, where the pressure
pulses are damped out. This type is called the constant pressure type.
 The constant pressure type is more efficient and commonly used. The
drawback is the reduction of air quantity during slow speed operation,
which can be overcome by means of an auxiliary blower.
Exhaust Gas Turbocharger
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Advantages of turbocharger are:

1. Higher plant efficiency.
2. No separate power source required.
3. More efficient than other forms of supercharging.
Turbocharger Breakdown:
In the event of damage to the turbocharger, the engine should be stopped, to
prevent progressive damage. If it cannot be immediately repaired due to lack of
time, the rotor of the damaged unit must be locked and immobilized as per
manufacturer’s instructions. The engine can now be run at a reduced speed.
Turbocharger Fouling:
Excessive deposits sometimes build up on the nozzles, rotor and stator blading of
the turbochargers and it is generally difficult to remove them. The most critical
factor governing their formation is exhaust gas temperature. If the temperature
exceeds about 4500C, deposits mainly from fuel combustion products build up
quickly. Running at overload increases exhaust temperatures and makes deposit
formation more likely than normal load and normal temperature conditions. The
fuel may sometimes be contaminated with salt water, and sodium salts are
formed during combustion and deposited on the blades. If the turbine side
cleaning is not carried out then the fouling may lead to back pressure & surging
resulting in breakage of turbine blades.
Turbocharger Turbine Washing:

 The Cleaning of the Turbine side and blower side is carried out at regular
interval of time to remove carbon, soot, and other exhaust deposits. The
cleaning of turbocharger is carried out when the engine is running.
 If deposition is mainly due to ash from fuel, turbine can probably be cleaned
by water washing or probably by water or steam injection during low-load
running. Certain engines are permanently fitted with steam connections for
this purpose.
 The cleaning methods are usually effective because the sodium salts that
frequently bond the deposits together are highly soluble in water. Washing
is less effective for carbon containing deposits, for which a chemical solvent
or manual cleaning may be necessary.
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 For water washing, the engine speed is reduced until the temperature of
the exhaust inlet falls below 420°C. Fresh Water used for washing must be
slightly hot and the water is injected through a regulating valve connected
to the turbine side. This is done to avoid thermal shock to the machinery.
 While performing water washing the drain is kept open. When the water
feed is closed the drain is observed until no water comes out. The engine is
run for further 20 minutes with less RPM to dry out the turbine from water
and the drain is shut before increasing the RPM.
 For Dry washing, carbon granules are used which are injected inside the
turbine through compressed air system. The engine speed is not reduced as
there is no risk of thermal stresses in dry washing.
 For cleaning blower side, fresh water is used with the engine running at its
full load RPM to achieve best possible cleaning.
SCAVENGE SPACE FIRES

 It is one of the most common reasons for a fire in a ship’s engine room and
the reason for several major accidents on ships in the past.
 Scavenge air flows from scavenge manifold to under-piston scavenge
spaces. The air from the scavenge spaces flows into the cylinder through
scavenge ports.
 The cylinder lubricating oil drains into the under-piston scavenge space from
the cylinder liner. The carbon deposits and unburnt fuel also accumulates in
the scavenge space. This mixture can ignite if any spark from the cylinder
enters the scavenge space.
 Accumulation of oil and residues in scavenge spaces could be due to
excessive cylinder lubrication, slack, worn or broken piston rings causing
blow-past, uneven cylinder liner wear, causing blow-past or defective
sealing of stuffing box, causing crankcase oil to gain access into the
scavenge spaces.
 A fire may occur when flames from the combustion space blow-past into
the scavenge spaces, and ignite the oily residues there. Also, sparks formed
by rubbing metal surfaces, such as piston rings (during loss of lubrication)
can cause a scavenge fire.
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 Indications:
1. Excessive black smoke as fresh air supply has reduced/stopped.
2. High exhaust and coolant temperature of the affected unit.
3. Paint blistering / peeling from scavenge trunking.
4. Sparks from scavenge drains of affected units.
5. Uneven running of turbocharger, possibly leading to surging.
6. Drop in RPM, due to loss of power since the affected unit is not
developing power.
 Actions to take: (Small Fire)

1. Cut-0ff fuel to the unit concerned. This will reduce the temperature.
2. Increase cylinder lubrication to avoid seizing.
3. Slow down engine. If the fire is localized, and fuel has been cut-off, the
fire may burn itself out. It will be necessary to eventually stop main
engine to ascertain the cause of fire and rectify any damage.
 Actions to take: (Large Fire)

1. Slow down main engine to dead slow ahead, before finally stopping the
engine. Keep the engine turning on Turning Gear, to prevent seizure and
continue manual lubrication of the liners.
2. Keep all coolants / lubrication pumps on, since they are carrying away
heat from the fire.
3. Switch off auxiliary blower and cover the air intakes and shut the exhaust
fire damper to stop the ingress of fresh air to the fire.
4. Use the fixed CO2 smothering system / steam smothering system
installed for the scavenge spaces.
5. Make sure everybody is clear of the relief valves, which may lift and also
the crankcase relief doors.
6. Ensure that the fire is put out, and give adequate time for the engine to
cool down before attempting to investigate into the cause.
 Precautions to avoid Scavenge fires:

1. Make sure quantity of lubricating cylinder oil supplied in not excessive.
2. Drain the scavenge spaces regularly.
3. Clean scavenge spaces as per planned maintenance system of the ship.
4. Maintain the combustion system in good condition.
5. Maintain the piston rings and cylinder liner in good condition.
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CRANKCASE EXPLOSION
 For an explosion to occur, there must be a source of air (oxygen), fuel and
ignition. Oxygen is present in the crankcase, but the lubricating oil splashing
around in the crankcase is in too large droplets to start burning at the speed
needed to cause an explosion. Also, the oil/air concentration is too weak.
 If however a mechanical fault develops with the consequent rubbing of
moving parts then a hot spot will occur in the crankcase. When the
temperature of hot spot reaches 2000C, the lubricating oil splashing on to
his hot spot will vaporize. The vapour then circulates to cooler parts of the
crankcase where it condenses to form an oil mist.
 When the concentration of oil mist reaches the lower explosive limit, it will
be ignited by the hot spot (temperature of about 8500C) and an explosion
will occur. This is called Crankcase Explosion.
 Common causes of crankcase explosion are:

1. Heating of the bearings due to improper clearances, failure of lubrication
or bad quality of oil. This will result in localized hot spot due to friction.
2. Creation of hot spots due to metallic contact between parts.
3. Cracked Piston Crown (piston rod gland)
4. Scavenge fire resulting in heating of crankcase.
5. Blow-by or an external fire
 Protection against Crankcase explosions:

1. Crankcase doors of sufficient strength are provided so that they do not
get displaced by crankcase explosion. They must be fastened sufficiently.
2. One or more crankcase explosion relief doors are fitted, depending on
engine size. Crankcase explosion relief valves are fitted with flame
arrestors.
3. Crankcase oil mist detectors (OMD) and monitoring equipment are
provided. They give an alarm and also indicate the unit where the mist
level is high. Low level of mist is generally an alarm only. But high level of
mist gives an alarm / initiates slow down of the main engine. The OMD
must be checked to see it is functional.
4. High bearing temperature alarms are provided.
5. Warning notices are provided on crankcase doors indicating doors not to
be opened immediately if overheating is suspected.
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The figure alongside shows a Crankcase

explosion relief door & valve. It consists of
1. A woven wire gauze assembly that
does not allow flame to travel out of
the crankcase.
2. A relief valve usually made of
aluminium
3. A spring against a retaining plate and
4. A discharge hood so designed that
products of explosion are discharged
in such a way that it does not cause
harm to the engine room personnel.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
 Lubricating oil for the engine is stored in the Lube Oil storage tanks, and the
oil in use is in the sump. The oil is drawn from the sump though a strainer by
the lube oil pumps and filtered before passing through the cooler, and then
sent to the engine. This oil may be distributed to various bearings and other
lube points inside the engine.
 An alarm system ensures that adequate lube oil pressure is always
maintained while the engine is running.
 After use in the engine, the lube oil drains back into the sump. A centrifuge
is provided for purifying the system oil.
 The lube oil cooler may be either sea-water cooled or by means of a central
cooling system.
 Piston, grooves, piston rings and cylinder liners are lubricated either by oil
splashed from the crankcase (as in trunk piston engines) or by cylinder oil
injected into the cylinders (as in crosshead type engines). The oil is injected
into the cylinder by means of a Quill, which is a fitting in the liner, having an
accumulator and a non-return valve.
Purpose of Lubrication:
1. To lubricate rubbing surfaces, reducing friction, wear and tear.
2. To act as a coolant in carrying away heat from rubbing surfaces.
3. To assist piston rings in sealing the combustion space.
4. To act as a cleaning agent by taking away dirt from running surfaces.
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Desirable properties of a Lubricating Oil:

1. Viscosity: LO should have the ability to flow.
2. Oiliness: LO should have the property of adhere to the surface.
3. Anti-corrosiveness: LO should not be affected by corrosive acids.
4. Alkalinity: LO must be able to counteract the effects of acids.
5. Demulsibility: LO must not emulsify with water.
6. Dispersancy: LO must be able to disperse deposits & not allow sludge to
deposit on surfaces.
7. Flash Point: LO must have sufficiently high flash point to prevent possibility
of fire.
 Slow speed diesel engines (such as a 2-stroke engine) have a separate

lubrication system for cylinder liners as the fuel burnt in combustion space is
high in sulphur content. This results in acidic corrosion of liners due to the
formation of dilute sulphuric acid. To prevent this, special lubricating oil is used
for the cylinders. In this system, mechanical lubricators are used to supply oil to
individual cylinders. The cylinder injects cylinder oil between the liner and the
piston rings during the upward stroke. Such a system is shown below:
Lubricating Oil System – Crosshead type Piston (2-Stroke Engines)

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FUEL OIL SYSTEM:
 The fuel oil system consists of bunker tanks, settling and service tanks, transfer
pumps, fuel oil supply and circulating pumps, purifiers, heaters and a mixing
column.
 The fuel oil is stored in Bunker tanks, from where it is transferred by the
Transfer pumps to the settling tanks. Here, the oil is heated and drained of
water.
 The Purifiers take suction from the Settling tank, and fill up the Service tanks
with purified oil. Separate service and settling tanks are provided for heavy fuel
oil and diesel oil.
 The supply pumps transfer the purified oil (HFO or DO) from the service tank to
the Mixing Column, through a change-over valve (3-way valve).
 The booster pumps take suction from the Mixing Column, and send the fuel to
the fuel pumps through the heaters and Viscotherm (viscosity regulator),
which monitors the viscosity and controls the heating to maintain the viscosity
for proper combustion of the fuel. A full flow filter (with a by-pass filter) is
provided just before the fuel pumps.
 The unused oil is returned either to the service tanks or to the mixing column.
 The fuel pumps on the engine deliver the fuel to the fuel injectors via high
pressure pipes.
 Two supply pumps and two booster pumps are provided. All of these are
positive displacement pumps.
 Modern engines have a fuel recirculation system, whereby heated fuel is kept
circulating even when the engine is not running. Thus, the modern engine can
be kept throughout on heavy oil, from pier-to-pier, unlike earlier engines which
needed to be changed-over to diesel oil after sufficient notice was given.
However, if the boiler is are to be shut down, or any work is required to be
carried out on the fuel system, then the engine is changed-over to diesel oil.
 System is protected by various temperature transmitters, pressure
transmitters and level transmitters. If any parameter is not in the normal
working range, it will trigger the safety alarms, shut down or isolate the
system, thereby protecting against system break downs.
 Mainly pressure sensors are provided at the discharge side of transfer pumps,
booster pumps, supply pumps and purifiers to detect low pressure.
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 Temperature sensors are provided for the bunker tanks, settling and service
tanks and purifier heaters to indicate high temperature. One is also provided
after the Viscotherm to detect high / low temperature of the oil sent to the fuel
pumps.
Main Engine - Fuel Oil System
COOLING SYSTEMS
 An internal combustion engine generates a large amount of heat during
running. If this heat is not dissipated, thermal stress will damage the engine
parts. Cooling is achieved by circulating treated cooled water through the
internal passages within the engine. The engine jacket temperature should
be maintained within limits recommended by the Maker.
 Seawater in an external cooler cools the hot fresh water from the engine. It
is not used directly for cooling because of its corrosive nature.
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 The fresh water cooling system used for cooling the engine may be in two
circuits as shown in the sketch below. One circuit cools the engine cylinders,
including the liners, cylinder heads and turbochargers, while the other
circuit is used for cooling the piston. Piston cooling in some engines may
also be done by oil.
 Jacket water pumps take suction from the de-aerating tank and circulate
the cooling water through the main engine. The de-aerating tank prevents
the accumulation of air in the system.
 From the main engine, the hot water flows to the jacket water cooler and
the circulation continues. Temperature sensors are provided to control the
jacket water cooling.
 Volume of water in the system decreases due to evaporation and leakages.
An expansion tank (header tank) compensates for these losses.
 A heater is provided for pre-heating of the cylinders prior to starting, to
reduce the thermal stresses and enable easier manoeuvring.
Main Engine - Fresh Water Cooling System
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PRE-HEATING OF MAIN ENGINES

 Diesel engines are self-ignition engines i.e. fuel is injected into hot
compressed air and is ignited. To obtain this, the air inside the engine should
be hot which is achieved by pre-heating the engine. Pre-heating heats all
parts of the engine which in turn heats the air in the cylinder.
 Pre-heating the engine also reduces cold corrosion and there are lesser
thermal stresses during starting.
 Also, when engine is warm, the clearances are correct, thus lubrication is
made easier and there is less chance of undue wear of moving parts.
 Pre-heating is usually done using steam or electrical heaters. Hot water is
kept in circulation to engine thus keeping all parts in warm condition.
STARTING AIR SYSTEMS:

 Main engine and auxiliary engine are two prime components in a ship’s
engine room. One equipment without which these engines cannot do away
with is an air bottle or air receiver. The air bottle or air receiver is a large
container acting as a reservoir to store compressed air supplied by the main
air compressor of the ship at high pressure. This compressed air is very
important to start the main engine or aux. engine.
 The starting air for main engines is stored in Air receivers, and is sent to the
cylinder air starting valves on the engine via the starting air manifold.
 There is a ‘Master air starting valve’, which is controlled by the ‘Air starting
lever’ in the control room.
 The ahead or astern direction is controlled by the ‘Distributor’.
 There are interlocks for preventing mal-operation, such as the Turning gear
interlock, which prevents starting in case turning gear is still engaged.
 There are various safety devices also fitted, such as low pressure alarm,
pressure relief valves, pressure gauges, drain valves, etc.
 Total capacity of air receivers must be sufficient to give atleast 12 starts for
reversible engine, and atleast 6 starts for non-reversible engines (CPP),
without refilling the receivers. There must be two identical main air
receivers and one emergency bottle for every vessel.
 Emergency air compressors are provided onboard for use during
emergencies, in situations when the main air compressor fails or cannot be
started due to blackout or dead ship condition.
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STARTING OF MAIN ENGINE

 Starting air valves are provided on each unit of the main engine. These open
in the correct starting sequence by means of the Distributor. No matter
what position the Engine is, at least one unit will always have a starting air
valve open.
 The direction handle is positioned ahead or astern. This handle may be built
into the telegraph reply lever. The camshaft is thus positioned relative to
the crankshaft to operate various cams for fuel injection, valve operations,
etc.
 The manoeuvring handle is moved to ‘start’. This will admit compressed air
into the cylinders in the correct sequence to turn the engine in the desired
direction. A separate air start button may be used.
 When the engine attains a certain minimum speed (firing speed), the self
ignition temperature of the injected fuel is reached and the manoeuvring
handle is moved to the running position, fuel is injected and the combustion
begins. This process will accelerate the engine and the starting air admission
will cease.
 The starting air pressure for a main engine may range from 25-30 bar.
FIRING ORDER:
 As the piston travels up, the air present in the cylinder (supercharged air)
gets compressed and therefore becomes hot. Fuel now injected into this
hot air gets combusted, causing rise in pressure and pushing the piston
down on the other side of TDC. As the piston is coming down on power
stroke, some other piston will be travelling upwards on compression stroke
and compressing the air present inside that cylinder. In this way, continuous
combustion of fuel takes place in a running engine.
 However, to cause a piston of a stopped engine to travel upwards, we need
an additional system called ‘Starting’ system. In most cases of large diesel
engines, the starting system is provided in the form of an ‘air starting
system’. Here, the engine for a few revolutions is driven by an outside
source of energy (i.e. compressed air). The compressed air from the starting
air reservoir is admitted to the series of cylinder, one after the other. The
compressed air enters each unit, in turn, through the air starting valve when
its piston has just passed over the TDC and has commenced its downward
stroke. The starting air valve remains open until piston has travelled
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sufficiently downwards. As starting air valve closes on one cylinder, another

starting air valve has already opened on some other cylinder whose piston
has just commenced its downward stroke.
 The order of opening of these starting-air valves is called the ‘firing order’.
A typical firing order of a 6 unit engine is 1-5-3-6-2-4. The firing order
indicates the order in which these units would be receiving starting air
during the air-starting operation. This is for clockwise rotation of the engine.
For anti-clockwise rotation, the firing order would be reverse. i.e. 1-4-2-6-3-5.
 It is evident from the above that no matter in what position the engine
stops, there will be atleast one of the cylinders with its starting-air valve
opened to admit the compressed air to start the engine, when starting.
 Now when the engine attains sufficient speed (minimum firing speed), fuel
is to get injected in the units to make the engine run on fuel. Simultaneously
as the fuel is started, the ‘air starting system’ is put out of commission.
 Fuel is timed for injection in the unit from the instant the piston is just over
TDC and for a period depending on the power required of the engine. All
units receive the fuel in the same order they received the starting air during
the air starting operation i.e. in the same firing order.
CONTROLLING OF SPEED
 It is very important that the main engine speed is gradually increased from
Full Ahead to the Full Away or Maximum rated speed. This is because the
engine is only producing about 25% to 30% of its power at Full Ahead, and
thus has not reached its proper operating parameters.
 If speed were to be suddenly increased, the Turbochargers would not be
able to supply sufficient air for proper combustion, resulting in unburnt fuel
coating the uptakes, possibly leading to an uptake fire. Bad combustion in
the cylinders would also damage exhaust valves and turbochargers.
 The ‘lag’ in the turbochargers can be taken care of, by gradually increasing
speed. In case of Bridge Control of main engines, this is done automatically
by a Load-Up Program.
 The speed control is achieved with the help of a governor. Governor is not
for increasing or decreasing speed (which is done via fuel control system)
but for maintaining the speed once the speed of the engine has been set,
despite of the variations in load. The variations could arise from several
factors such as vessel rolling and pitching in rough weather.
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ENGINE REVERSING
 The reversing mechanism is different for different makes of Main engines. In
older engines, the camshaft is rotated, which shifts the Fuel and distributor
cams to the desired positions. In modern engines, the camshaft is
stationary, while servomotors are used to shift only the cams.
 When running at manoeuvring speeds,
1. Auxiliary blowers should be started manually (if not automatic).
2. The direction handle is positioned astern. This will reset camshaft/cams
for astern running.
3. The fuel supply is shut off and the engine will quickly slow down.
4. Compressed air is admitted to the engine to turn it in astern direction.
5. When turning astern under the action of compressed air, fuel will be
admitted. The combustion process will take over and air admission cease.
 When running at Full Speed,
1. Auxiliary blowers should be started manually (if not automatic).
2. The direction handle is positioned astern. This will reset camshaft/cams
for astern running and fuel is shut off from the engine.
3. Blasts of compressed air may be used to slow the engine down from its
ahead running direction.
4. As the engine comes to stop position, any further compressed air
admitted will turn the engine in the astern direction and fuel, if admitted,
will fire and accelerate the engine. However, admitted fuel will only fire if
the engine speed is sufficiently high (above minimum firing speed). Once
the engine fires on fuel, the compressed air admission is ceased.
CRASH STOP:
 When a ship is moving Full Ahead and Double ring Astern order is given from
the Bridge, the Engine Room fuel lever is brought to stop.
 After the engine’s RPM drops to about 20% to 40% of Full Ahead RPM, air
braking is commenced i.e. the engine is made to reverse by giving air kicks,
even though the engine is still turning in the ahead direction, due to the
‘way’ on the vessel.
 During this air braking, no fuel is released to the engine, until the engine
stops and actually turns in the astern direction.
 When the engine is on Bridge control, the OOW has only to put the
telegraph on Emergency Full Astern. The above sequence is automatically
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carried out, without the Bridge officer having to operate any other controls.
Even when on bridge control, the air braking will only come into action,
when the RPM has dropped to the required 20% to 40% value.
Effect of a Crash Stop on the Engine:

 Thermal stresses are induced in the working parts of the engine such as the
liner, piston and cylinder head. O-rings in the cooling water circuit may start
leaking.
 Mechanical stresses induced in the engine during braking. This affects parts
like liners, coupling bolts, thrust bearings, etc.
 If the main engine is on heavy oil, the fuel system is affected. There may be
a surge of oil from the mixing column vent.
 Thermal stresses are induced in the turbocharger.
 Excessive vibration of hull and engine which could lead to other problems.
MINIMUM FIRING SPEED

Minimum Firing Speed is the minimum RPM of the engine that will cause the
piston to quickly rise up to give sufficient compressed air pressure inside the
compression space. In engines that do not have a common rail fuel injection
system, minimum firing speed should also take into account the speed required to
cause jerk fuel pumps to jerk and give sufficient injection pressure at the nozzles
for the fuel to get injected. In such engines, the minimum firing speed is higher.
MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS RATING

Maximum continuous rating is the maximum continuous output at which the
engine can be run safely and continuously. It is specified on the engine nameplate
and in the Technical File. Important engine parameters such as specific fuel
consumption, engine performance etc. are derived using %MCR of the engine.
POWER TO WEIGHT RATIO

Power to weight ratio is the ratio of the power developed by the engine to the
weight of the engine. It is the function of cylinder displacement volume, number
of cylinders and a constant. The constant part accounts for weight of the
camshaft, exhaust manifold, gears, etc. which become small in value as number of
cylinders increase. Power to weight ratio is the most important criterion used
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when choosing an engine for a type/size of ship. By choosing an engine with high
power to weight ratio, equivalent horsepower can be developed by a smaller-
sized engine and therefore, engine compartments can be made smaller, allowing
greater cargo capacity, while maintaining high-speed capability.
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) is the ratio of fuel consumption per unit time to
power produced by engine. It is expressed in gm/BHP/hr or gm/kW/hr. It gives an
idea about the engine performance. It allows comparing of engines of different
sizes to see which is most fuel efficient. It helps to determine which engine uses
least amount of fuel while producing high power. If an engine has high SFC it
means it consume more fuel to produce unit power, hence it is less efficient.
CONTROL DEVICES
The main control device of an engine is the Governor. It controls the engine speed
at some fixed value, while power output changes to meet the demand. This is
done by automatically adjusting the fuel pump racks to meet the desired load at
the set speed. Safety devices are the Interlocks, which prevent mal-operation,
due to either human error such as turning gear not disengaged or mechanical
defects such as distributor not changing over or low LO pressure, etc.
CHANGING FROM HEAVY OIL TO DIESEL OIL

1. Close steam supply to main engine Fuel Oil heater.
2. Keep an eye on the viscosity of oil being supplied to the engine. If viscosity
goes high, mix with diesel oil (in the mixing column) for some time by using
the change-over valve. (3-way valve).
3. Continue the above process till the Fuel oil temperature to Main engine
drops to about 750C to 800C at which change over to diesel oil can be done
by using the same change over valve to stop the heavy oil supply and only
keep the diesel oil supply on. This process can take about 45 minutes.
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PREPARATION OF ENGINE
24 Hours Prior vessel’s departure

Upon receipt of departure notice, the following is to be carried out, 24 hours
ahead of the event:
1. Check that the stock of fuel oils, lubes, stores, gases, chemicals and
spares are sufficient for the intended voyage.
2. Maintain a sufficient level of fuel in the diesel/heavy oil service tanks.
Transfer oil to fill up settling tanks (HO and DO) prior to arrival in port.
No oil transfer to be carried out in port, as far as possible.
3. Drain off water from Fuel Tanks, while maintaining tank temperatures.
4. Ensure filters in LO and FO pipelines are clean.
5. Check operation of safety equipment including emergency generator.
6. Check temperature of Jacket cooling water and adjust preheating, well in
advance, in order to have the engine sufficiently warmed up.
7. Take soundings of all oil tanks and engine room cofferdams.
8. Start the exhaust gas boiler water circulating pump well in advance.
9. Within 12 hours before departure, check the operation of steering gear,
including the emergency steering.
10. Fill up both air bottles to full pressure and drain off the condensate from
the bottles.
11. Record all of the above in the Log Book.
Two Hours Prior vessel’s departure (2-Hour Notice)

Prior departure, on receipt of Notice,
1. Start the second generator, check for normal operation and parallel it
onto the Busbar.
2. Start the following Main Engine auxiliaries-
a) M/E Jacket cooling water pump
b) M/E Piston cooling water pump
c) M/E Lube Oil Pump
d) M/E Fuel Oil Booster Pump
e) Stern Tube Lube Oil Pump
f) Any other pump associated with the running of the M/E.
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3. Ensure that stand-by pumps are in good working order and all relevant
valves are open. While switching on various pumps mentioned above,
ensure that the operations are smooth and pressures are normal.
4. Stop the Pre-heating if carried out for jacket cooling water and piston
cooling water prior to start of the Main engine.
5. Verify that the following are adequate for safe operation:
a) Main Lube Oil Sump tank
b) Main and Aux. engines cooling water expansion tank (header tank)
c) Turbocharger Lube Oil gravity tank (if fitted)
d) Turbocharger LO levels.
e) Stern tube LO tank
f) Boiler Hot-well tank
6. Ensure that LO filtration system is clear and that the differential pressure
drop is normal.
7. Obtain propeller clearance.
8. Open all main engine indicator cocks and engage the Turning gear.
9. Turn main engine for a few minutes while manually operating the
cylinder lubricators. Check that there is no liquid emerging from any of
the indicator cocks, while engine is turning on Turning gear.
10. Disengage turning gear, and drain water from the Air bottles and the
starting air line.
11. Blow through engine and shut all Indicator cocks. Close drains on
coolers, scavenge spaces, exhaust manifold and the Economizer.
12. Try out the Main engine in the Ahead and Astern direction. Verify that all
alarms, safety devices and recorders are functional.
13. Test steering gear. Ascertain smooth operation and check for any leaks.
14. Try out the Air whistle and telegraph.
15. Check operation of mooring winches and windlass.
Arrival Port Procedures

1. On receiving two hour notice for arrival port, start additional generator
and parallel onto the Busbars.
2. Shut the heating for changing over to Diesel oil (in modern engines this
change over may not be necessary since Pier-to-Pier operation is possible
on heavy oil itself). Change over from Heavy oil to diesel oil if required.
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3. Check the starting air system and put on standby all other air
compressors, while filling up both the air bottles.
4. Stop the Fresh Water generator.
5. Test the firing of the Auxiliary oil fired boiler.
6. Start up the second steering motor.
7. Commence reducing the main engine RPM gradually and allow the main
engine to reach manoeuvring speed. It may require 30-45 minutes to
reduce from Full Away RPM to Full Ahead RPM.
8. Main engine cylinder lubrication must be slightly increased, prior
manoeuvring the engine, if automatic adjustment is not provided.
9. Respond to bridge commands for manoeuvring and enter movements in
the Movement Book. In the case of Bridge control, this is done
automatically from the Bridge itself.
Finished with Engines Procedures

On F.W.E., do the following:
a) Open all indicator cocks of the Main engine.
b) Open various drains such as scavenge space, exhaust manifold,
turbine casing, economizer, main air starting line, etc.
c) Engage turning gear and turn the engine for atleast ten minutes with
manual cylinder lubrication.
d) Shut off Steering gear.
e) Shut off air to Whistle.
f) One hour after F.W.E., the main pumps for the propulsion plant may
be stopped. This is to ensure that engine has cooled down sufficiently.
Failure to do so could lead to problems like carbonising of oil in piston
cooling spaces, which are difficult to access and clean.
During Rough Weather:

 Heavy spares and over-head crane should be lashed up.
 M/E speed to be reduced to safe level.
 Tank levels to be checked, especially sump and service tanks since rolling
may cause false alarms at low levels.
 Water levels in boiler gauge glass to be monitored carefully.
 Rolling can cause shifting of liquids in tanks, pumps may lose suction, which
can be checked by monitoring pump pressures.
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BRIDGE CONTROL OF A MAIN ENGINE

 The Engine Control room usually comprises of various panels for monitoring
and running of main engine and other equipments. There is a CRT (cathode
ray tube) display, which gives various parameters. An on-line printer can
print the log ‘on-demand’ or at regular intervals. An alarm printer will
provide the time, type and numerical values of various alarm conditions.
 The control systems for Main engines will also contain numerous interlocks,
to safeguard against possible emergency conditions, including remote shut
down / trips, etc. There is an alarm panel provided, which is duplicated in
various remote locations. With the ship in UMS mode, the navigating officer
can control the speed and direction from the Bridge by means of the
remote control system and the Main engine control system is able to
automatically bypass the Critical Speed range.
 SOLAS stipulates the following requirements which need to be complied
with when controlling the propulsion machinery from the navigating bridge:
1. There must be suitable means to prevent overload of the propulsion
machinery.
2. The system shall be provided with an emergency stopping device on the
navigating bridge, independent of the navigation bridge control system.
3. Order from the Bridge shall also be indicated at engine control room.
4. Remote operation of propulsion system shall be possible only from one
location at a time. Each location shall have indicators to show which
location is in control.
5. While transferring control, there shall not be significant change in
propeller thrust. There must be means to confirm this.
6. It must be possible to control the propulsion machinery from local
position in the event of failure of automation or remote control system.
7. In case of remote automatic control system failure, an alarm must be
given off. Control now should be possible from the local control station.
 A diesel engine bridge control system must take into account the following:
1. Starting and reversing.
2. Barring of critical running RPM.
3. All operations should take place automatically without intervention by the
OOW, and a signal must be given confirming that orders have been obeyed.
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4. Movement of the control (telegraph) from stop must first initiate checks
like turning gear is disengaged; starting air is available at the required
pressure; cooling water, LO and FO supplies are in order, etc. before the
starting sequence begins.
5. Starting sequence will include the following:
a) Camshaft is correctly positioned.
b) Starting air is admitted & shaft turns in the right direction as per order.
c) Shaft has gained sufficient speed to cause sufficient compression
pressure required for combustion.
d) Fuel is admitted and starting air is shut off.
e) Speed is adjusted as per control position.
 If the initial firing speed at starting is not achieved within a fixed period,
usually about 3 seconds, a further period of about 4 seconds is allowed to
elapse, and the cycle is repeated, still under automatic control. Normally
after three failed starts, the operation ceases and an alarm is given.
Block Diagram – Bridge Control of Main Engine
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PURIFIERS
 The fuel oil used on ships is normally very thick & viscous at normal
temperatures. It is called Class C Marine Bunker oil. It contains a lot of
impurities (solids and water). After bunkering, if fuel oil if fed directly to the
engines or boilers, it will lead to problems such as chocked fuel nozzles,
improper atomization, etc.
 Also, the main engine and aux. engine running gears are lubricated by lube
oil, which gets contaminated by the combustion products and carbon
deposits during the operation. This affects the properties of the lubricant.
 For this reason, purification of Fuel oil and lube oil is very important to
safeguard machinery and ensure optimum performance. Purification of
impure fuel (FO, DO and LO) is carried out by using purifiers for the removal
of solids & water. In purifiers, the water, sludge and heavier impurities are
separated from the FO and LO by centrifuges.
Gravity Separation
In gravity separation, as occurs in a settling
tank, over a gradual period, solids such as
sludge, dirt, etc., will settle out at the
bottom of the tank. The heavy liquids, such
as water, will settle above the solids and
the lighter liquids, such as oil, will be at the
top of the tank. The application of heat will
speed up the separation process.
Separation occurs due to the difference in specific gravities or densities of the
liquids and solids.
Centrifugal Purifiers
Gravity separation takes quite a while. If the
gravitational force is increased, by using
centrifugal force, the separation effect is
much greater. When a bowl containing
impure fuel is rotated, centrifugal forces will
throw any item with density greater than the
fuel oil density to the periphery of the bowl.
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PURIFICATION OF FUEL OIL AND DIESEL OIL:
FUEL OIL / DIESEL OIL PURIFICATION
 The Fuel Oil Purifier is used for purifying both FO and DO.
 When FO has to be purified, the purifier takes feed from the FO settling
tank. The FO is delivered to the purifier through the FO Heater and a 3-way
circulating valve. The purified fuel oil from the purifier flows to the FO
service tank.
 When the purifier feed has to be stopped for desludging, the 3-way valve is
activated to pass the fuel oil back to the suction side of the feed pump.
 When DO has to be purified, the feed pump suction is changed to the DO
settling tank and the heater is bypassed by opening the heater bypass valve
since DO does not require heating for purification. The purified Diesel oil
from the purifier flows to the DO service tank.
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PURIFICATION OF LUBE OIL:

 The main engine lube oil purifier is used for the purification of the main
engine lube oil and the stuffing box drain oil.
 The LO purifier feed pump can take suction from the main engine lube oil
sump, stuffing box dirty oil tank and the main engine lube oil settling tank.
 The main engine lube oil from the sump is supplied to the purifier through
the LO heater. The purified LO flows back to the main engine LO sump.
Purification takes place continuously when the main engine is running.
 The dirty oil drained from the main engine stuffing box is purified and stored
in a clean oil tank. From the clean oil tank, it is transferred to the sump
through a filter.
 The main engine lube oil settling tank is provided to store the main engine
sump oil. The feed pump can take suction from this tank and supply the LO
to the purifier. The purified LO can be again delivered back to the settling
tank or to the main engine lube oil sump for continuous purification.
 In some ships, where aux. engines are run by Fuel Oil, a separate LO purifier
purifies the LO of the aux. engine’s sump.
LUBE OIL PURIFICATION
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PURIFIER CONSTRUCTION:
 The centrifugal purifiers or separators are driven by an electric motor,

connected to a horizontal shaft. A worm wheel mounted on the horizontal
shaft engages with a worm gear fitted in the vertical shaft. The speed of the
vertical shaft is stepped up by such an arrangement.
 The separating bowl is mounted on top of the vertical shaft. It contains a set
of discs stacked one on top of the other.
 The purifier has feeding (inlet) pipe, discharge (outlet) pipe & water outlet.
 Operating water and desludging waters are supplied through the control
paring disc. It delivers operating water with the required pressure so as to
press the sliding bowl upwards against a seal ring. Also, desludging water
flows through the control paring disc and initiates the draining of the
operating water, which opens the bowl.
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 There is an oil paring device fitted at the top of the bowl to ensure a
pressurized oil discharge.
 Gravity disc determines the interface position between the oil and water in
the purifier bowl. Gravity disc must be selected as per the Maker’s
instructions depending on oil density and viscosity.
 Since the bowl has a large inertia, it will not stop immediately. For this
purpose, a brake is provided. Normally, it is desirable to stop without using
the brake. When prompt stopping is required for maintenance or
inspection, brake can be applied after switching off.
PURIFIER OPERATION:
 The purifier operation involves the following processes:

1. Closing of Bowl: After the purifier has attained its full RPM, the bowl closing
water also known as the operating water is supplied at the bottom. Sliding
bowl is pressed upwards against a seal ring by the hydraulic force of the
operating water.
2. Sealing Water Supply: Once the bowl is closed, the sealing water is supplied
through the sealing water inlet at the top of the bowl. The supply of water is
continued until it comes out from the water outlet.
3. Supply of Impure Oil: The dirty (impure) oil is supplied into the bowl
through the dirty oil inlet. Due to the centrifugal force, the oil displaces the
water and the sludge to the bowl periphery and rises upwards through the
spaces between the discs. The clean purified oil flows out continuously from
the purified oil outlet that is located at the upper part of the bowl. The
separated water if any flows out continuously from the water outlet.
4. Desludging: The sludge ports in the periphery of the bowl are covered by
the sliding bowl bottom. For desludging, oil feed inlet to the purifier is
stopped and the operating water is closed. The bowl opening water also
known as the desludging water is supplied for a few seconds during which,
the operating water flows on from the top of the operating slide, causing
the operating slide to be pushed downwards. The entire operating water is
now discharged out. This causes the sliding bowl to move downwards,
thereby opening the sludge ports, from where the accumulated sludge is
discharged.
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 The cycle is restarted and the operation continues.

 Operating water tank is situated at a pre-determined height. Water flow to the
purifier (operating, sealing and desludging water) is controlled by the valves.
 The purifier can be operated in manual or automatic mode. In the automatic
mode, the purifier is started from the starter panel. The ‘Auto Start’ button is
pressed after the purifier attains the rated speed. The various operations like
supplying operating water for closing the bowl, supplying sealing water,
opening the oil feed and periodic desludging are carried out automatically.
Water sequence and timing is controlled by solenoid valves.
 After starting the purifier, the parameters should be monitored in order to
obtain efficient cleaning of the oil.
Operation of the Purifier
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Before Starting the Purifier –

1. Check if the operating water tank level is full. Insufficient water in the
operating tank will lead to improper closure of the bowl. This will result in
loss of oil through the sludge space.
2. Check if the oil level in the gear case is upto the prescribed mark. If it is low,
there will be friction and damage to moving parts.
3. Check if the purifier brake is released.
4. Open the feed pump suction and discharge valve.
5. Open the heater inlet and outlet valve. (For DO, open the bypass valve)
6. Open the purified oil outlet valve of the purifier.
Starting the Purifier –

1. Start the purifier from the Local Starter Panel.
2. Open the operating water to close the bowl.
3. Open the sealing water until it overflows from the water outlet.
4. Check the desludging operation by shutting the operating water and
opening the desludging water for a few seconds. As soon as the bowl
opens, there will be a thudding noise. Amperage will rise denoting that the
bowl is open.
5. Now, start the feed pump and circulate the oil through the heater and the 3-
way valve back to the suction side of the pump.
6. Close the bowl again by starting the operating water. Again, open the
sealing water until it overflows from the water outlet.
7. Operate the 3-way valve to pass the heated oil to the purifier.
During the operation –

1. Check the temperature of the fuel oil and ensure its maintained as required.
If the temperature exceeds the boiling point of water, then the water seal
will break and the oil will overflow.
2. Monitor the oil inlet pressure to the purifier.
3. Ensure that back pressure is same as set at starting.
4. Check through the sight glass located at the water outlet. Only separated
water should go out, and no oil.
5. Check the oil level in the gear case of the purifier. Top up, if necessary.
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For stopping the Purifier –

1. Shut the oil feed by stopping the feed pump or operating the 3-way valve.
2. Open the sealing water. The water will displace the oil inside the bowl and
overflow through the water outlet. Once this is done, close the sealing
water.
3. De-sludge the purifier to remove sludge present in the bowl.
4. Stop the purifier after desludging. Close all fuel valves.
CLARIFIER V/S PURIFIER:
Centrifugal Clarifier Centrifugal Purifier

Clarifiers separate only solid impurities. Purifiers separate liquid as well as solid
impurities.
Clarifiers only have a clarified oil outlet. Purifiers have separate outlets for the
separated water and the purified oil.
In clarifiers, there is no gravity disc. Gravity disc maintains the oil water
interface.
There is no sealing water. Hence, bowl There is sealing water. Hence, bowl
space is more and centrifugal force is space is less and centrifugal force is less
more due to increases radii. due to reduced radii.
The discs in clarifier do not have The discs in purifier have distribution
distribution holes. holes.
LATERAL THRUSTERS (BOW OR STERN THRUSTERS)

 Transverse thrusters are usually Hydraulic driven and installed in the bow or
Stern region. The best position for a single thruster is at forward, just aft of
fore-peak bulkhead. It enables the normal process of docking to be
managed without the assistance of tugs, because the vessel is now more
manoeuvrable at low speeds. Safety is increased when berthing in adverse
weather conditions, provided the required thrust capacity has been
correctly estimated.
 For the conventional thruster in an athwart-ship tunnel, the diesel engine
may be mounted at the same level as the propeller to provide a direct drive
through a reverse/reduction gear. An alternative arrangement is where the
diesel engine may be mounted above the thruster, when space is limited.
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 In both cases, the diesel propulsion engines have simple speed control
through the fuel rack, and the reduction gear-box. Flexible couplings are
fitted. The reversing gear—box has Ahead/Astern clutches.
 During operation, water is forced through the tunnel to push the ship
sideways either to port or stbd as required. The unit is mostly bridge
controlled and is most effective when the ship is stationary or at very low
speeds.
Diesel Engine Driven Bow Thruster
 During operation, water is forced through the tunnel to push the ship
sideways either to port or stbd as required. The unit is mostly bridge
controlled and is most effective when the ship is stationary or at very low
speed.
 A fixed-pitch type thruster is shown below, in which a variable delivery axial
hydraulic pump of swash plate type, located in the gear housing enables the
propeller to run in either direction to provide water flow in either direction.
The prime mover such as a single speed electric motor may be used for the
hydraulic pump. The prime mover need not be stopped during manoeuvring
since the swash plate controlled pump is used.
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 Swash plate controlled axial pump, running at constant speed can create
flow of oil in either direction to run the hydraulic motor and the propeller in
either direction and at variable speed.
Hydraulic Driven Transverse Thruster
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN FOR AN U.M.S. VESSEL

 Personnel should never enter or remain in an Unmanned machinery space
alone, without authorization from the Engineer Officer in charge.
 A ‘Permit to Work’ duly authorized, should be used whenever working in
Unmanned Machinery Spaces.
 Before entry into Unmanned Spaces, at regular interval whilst inside, or on
having finally left the space, Duty officer/engineer must be reported by
Telephone or other means.
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 Notices of safety precautions to be observed must be clearly displayed at all

entrances to Machinery Spaces.
 It should be ensured that Unmanned Machinery Spaces are adequately
illuminated at all times.
 When machinery is under Bridge control, it must be ensured that the Bridge
is informed whenever any change in the machinery settings is made by the
Engine Room personnel and before any reversion to engine room control is
made.
 The Bridge watchkeeper must be able to take any Emergency action
regarding the machinery, during UMS operation.
 There must be a comprehensive machinery space alarm system which
includes bilge level alarms.
 The Emergency generator must be capable of starting automatically in the
event of a power failure of the Main system.
 Automatic fire detection and alarm system must be checked to be in
operation at all times.
 It must be ensured that essential instrumentation is tested as per
maintenance schedules.
Chief Mate’s duties during Bunkering operations

1. Prior commencement of Bunker operations, a meeting should be held with
all deck officers and crew, to make them aware of their responsibilities and
spill contingency plan discussed.
2. Vessel should e properly moored.
3. All SOPEP equipments must be kept standby near bunker manifold.
4. All scuppers should be closed / sealed.
5. All accommodation doors must be closed and air-conditioning kept on re-
circulation mode.
6. Safety checklists must be filled in co-ordination with Chief Engineer.
7. ISPS checklists such as DOS must be completed and all requirements of the
ISPS code complied with.
8. Crew must be standby with all safety gear and equipment to make fast the
bunker supply vessel.
9. Proper communication must be ensured between the ship & bunker barge.
10. Vessel should remain in upright position and any ballasting/de-ballasting
operations completed before commencement of bunkers.
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11. Bunker manifold trays should be clean, empty and plugged.

12. Time of commencement and completion of bunkers must be recorded with
all other relevant timings.
13. Arrangements for transfer of personnel must be made as required.
14. Area around the vessel must be monitored to ensure no spillage leaks.
15. Chief Officer must co-ordinate with the Engineer incharge of the operation.
16. As Chief Mate is fully incharge of vessel’s safety, regular rounds should be
taken in this regard.
17. One crew member must always be standby at the bunker manifold.
18. Any change in trim or list must be monitored and Engineer incharge must be
duly informed.
19. Chief Officer must provided accurate drafts / trim to the Chief Engineer for
proper calculations.
Bunker Sampling:
 Bunker sampling is carried out to ensure that Bunkers supplied to the vessel
for combustion purposes meet the fuel oil quality requirements as per
regulation 18, of MARPOL Annex VI.
a) Fuel oil should not contain unacceptable percentage of water
contamination i.e. 1% for heavy oil and 0.25% for Diesel oil.
b) It should be free from inorganic acid and its properties confirmed.
c) It should not include any added substance or chemical waste which
jeopardizes safety of ship or affects machinery performance.
d) It should not be harmful to personnel.
 A drip sample is taken at the manifold. If the bunker sample is not taken to
acceptable procedures, no claims on quality of fuel can be made by
shipowner against bunker supplier.
 A sealed sample duly signed by supplier’s representative and Chief Engineer
or Master is retained on the vessel for a minimum of 12 months.
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ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE STEAM TURBINE SYSTEMS
STEAM TURBINE SYSTEMS

Turbine: It is a machine which converts heat energy into mechanical energy, in the
form of a rotating shaft. Steam from the Boiler enters the Turbine casing. The
steam is allowed to expand from high to low pressure, so that the steam acquires
a high velocity. The high velocity steam is directed onto curved section blades,
which absorb some of the velocity. The methods of expanding the steam are
different, in the two types of turbines, namely, Impulse Type and Reaction type.
The Steam Cycle: The Steam Cycle consists of the 4 phases; viz. Generation,
Expansion, Condensation and Feed.
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1. Generation – takes place in the boiler. Chemical energy is transformed into

thermal energy. Water is heated and steam is generated. Superheated
steam (higher temperature steam without moisture) is transferred to the
turbines.
2. Expansion – takes place in the turbine. Thermal energy of the steam is
converted into mechanical energy. Steam expands as it turns the turbines.
3. Condensation – takes place in the main condenser. Thermal energy is lost
due to the circulation of SW in the condenser. The condenser converts the
steam back to liquid state (condensate).
4. Feed – The condensate becomes feed water for the ‘generation’ stage. The
condensate is made free of air/oxygen and preheated using the economizer,
before sending it to the boiler.
TYPES OF TURBINES:
There are two types of steam turbines:

1. Impulse Turbine
2. Reaction Turbine
The main distinction between these two types is the manner in which the steam is
expanded when it passes through the turbine.
Impulse Turbine:
 An impulse turbine is a type of steam turbine where the rotor derives its
rotational force from the impact force, or the direct push of steam on the
blades.
 The impulse turbine consists of a rotor mounted on a shaft that is free to
rotate. Attached to the rotor are a set of curved blades.
 The pressure drop and consequent increase in velocity of the steam takes
place in the nozzles. Nozzles then direct the high pressure and high
temperature steam towards the blades of the turbines. The blades catch the
impact force of the rapidly moving steam and rotate from this force.
 In the impulse turbine, the steam remains at constant pressure when
passing over the blades. As the steam passes over the rotor blades, it loses
velocity, but there is no fall in pressure (in the rotor blades).
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a) In the pressure compounded Impulse turbine, the pressure drop is carried

out in stages, each stage consisting of one set of nozzles, and one bladed
turbine wheel.
b) In the velocity compounded Impulse turbine, the complete drop in steam
pressure takes place in one set of nozzles. However, the drop in velocity of
steam is carried out in different stages.
c) Pressure - velocity compounded Impulse turbine, is a combination of the
above two.
Construction of Impulse turbine
 The Pressure - velocity compounded Impulse turbine is shown in the sketch

below. There are four pressure stages, consisting of four sets of nozzles,
and four wheels in the ‘Ahead turbine’, and two similar pressure stages in
the ‘Astern turbine’.
 Each wheel carries two rows of blades, and there is one row of guide blades
fixed to the casing, protruding radially inwards, between each row of
moving blades.
 The wheels are of forged steel and fitted onto a Mild Steel stepped shaft.
 The nozzle plates and the casing to which they are fixed, are in two halves.
 Shaft leakage is prevented by glands containing carbon rings.
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The diagram alongside shows the turbine blades of the impulse turbine:
1) The steam first enters the impulse turbine through a

fixed nozzle.
2) The steam strikes the blades that are free to rotate
with a strong enough force to move the blades.
3) The steam exits the blades towards the condensing
system.
4) The direction of the blades is due to the force of
steam.
Reaction turbine
 In the reaction turbine, the expansion of steam takes place, in both the
fixed blades in the casing and the moving rotor blades.
 The steam is continually expanding as it flows over the blades.
 In this type, there are no conventional nozzles, as in the Impulse type, since
both the fixed and the moving blades act as nozzles.
Construction of a reaction turbine
 The principal parts are shown in the sketch below. A reaction turbine has
rows of fixed blades alternating with rows of moving blades.
 The rotor consists of a steel drum, with grooves around the outer
circumference, into which the blades are fitted. The drum is carried on a
frame-work, mounted on a shaft.
 The steam expands first in the stationary or fixed blades where it gains
some velocity as it drops in pressure. The steam then enters the moving
blades where its direction of flow is changed thus producing an impulse
force on the moving blades.
 In addition, however, the steam upon passing through the moving blades,
again expands and further drops in pressure giving a ‘reaction force’ to the
blades. This sequence is repeated as the steam passes through additional
rows of fixed and moving blades.
 As the steam pressure falls, its volume consequently increases. To
accommodate this, the space between the rotor and the casing is made
progressively larger.
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 Thrust block is fitted at the forward end of the shaft.

 Carbon rings seal the ends, through which the shaft passes.
Reaction Turbine
IMPULSE STEAM TURBINE REACTION STEAM TURBINE

For the same flow rate & operating For same flow rate & operating
condition, the efficiency of impulse condition, the efficiency of the reaction
turbine is very low. turbine is high.
The size of impulse turbine is very less.
The footprint required for reaction
turbine is high.
The Cost of impulse turbine is much Reaction turbine cost is much higher
lower than reaction turbine of same due to the critical shape of rotor.
power rating.
Widely used in petrochemical and Widely used in Power plants.
refineries.
Three type of compounding in impulse No compounding is available
turbine is available – Pressure
compounding, velocity compounding
and pressure-velocity compounding.
Easy maintenance. Not so easy maintenance.
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WARMING THROUGH OF STEAM TURBINE PRIOR TO STARTING:

The steam turbines are mostly used as main propulsion unit or as a prime mover
for cargo oil pumps. The steam turbine require a considerable period for warming-
through prior to any manoeuvring taking place, otherwise uneven heating may
result, causing thermal stress and possible failures. The high-speed operation of
the turbine and its simply supported rotor also requires great care during
manoeuvring operation.
As stated above, the turbines must be warmed up thoroughly to the working
temperature, prior to start. Assuming that the boilers are on line, and steam is
available, the following procedure is followed:
1) Open all turbine-casing drain valves and main steam-line drain valves.
2) Ensure all steam control valves at the manoeuvring station and around the
turbine are closed.
3) Start lubricating oil pumps after checking their sump levels. See that the Oil
is flowing freely to each bearing and gear sprayer.
4) Obtain permission to turn the shaft. (propeller-clearance)
5) Engage turning gear and rotate the turbine shaft slowly in each direction.
6) Start the main condenser sea water circulating pump on slow running.
7) Run condenser extraction pumps to remove air and maintain vacuum in the
condenser.
8) Ease main-steam valve and let water drain off. Gradually close the drains.
9) Crack open manoeuvring valves and allow small quantity of steam to pass
through the turbine and heat it. Turbine should be continuously turned with
turning gear until a uniform temperature is reached in one hour.
10) Check that the sliding feet are free to move.
11) After adequate time interval, raise Vacuum in the main condenser, open
gland steam and disengage turning gear.
12) Operate the manoeuvring valves and introduce short blast of steam to the
turbine to spin the propeller through one revolution. Repeat this every 5
mins for next 30 mins.
13) Turbine is now ready for manoeuvring from the bridge or engine room.
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Warming Through of a Steam Turbine
Warming up of a Steam Turbine of a Cargo Oil Pump:

 Turbine is warmed-through in similar way as described above. As there is no
turning gear, the steam should be crack opened to let turbine run for 15
minutes or so at a very very slow RPM. This will help in raising the
temperature gradually.
 Once turbine is ready to run at full load, suction valve to the cargo oil pump
could be gradually opened and thus the load brought on to the steam
turbine in steps.
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MANOEUVRING
 Once warmed through, the turbine rotor must not remain stationary more
than a few minutes at a time, because the rotor could sag or distort, which
would lead to failure, if not regularly rotated.
 Astern running: A separate ‘Astern turbine’ is required to drive the propeller
in the reverse direction. The astern turbine may be mounted on the same
shaft as the ‘Ahead turbine’ or it may be a separate unit geared to the main
shaft. The Ahead and Astern turbines have their own separate steam stop
valves.
 Astern operation involves admitting steam to the astern turbine. Where any
considerable period of astern running occurs, turbine temperatures, noise
levels, bearings, etc., must be closely observed. The turbine manufacturer
may set a time limit of about 30 minutes on continuous running astern.
 Full away: Manoeuvring revolutions are usually about 80% of the full away
or full speed condition. Once the full away command is received, the turbine
can gradually be brought up to full power operation, a process taking one to
two hours.
 Prior to port arrival, the bridge should provide one to two hour notice to
enable the turbine to be brought down to manoeuvring RPM.
 During manoeuvring, checks should be made on expansion arrangements,
drains to be ensured closed and the astern steam valves tightly closed.
 Emergency astern operation: If, when travelling at full speed ahead, an
order for an emergency stop or astern movement is given, ahead steam is
shut off, probably by the use of an emergency trip mechanism, and the
astern steam valve is partly opened to admit a gradually increasing amount
of steam. The turbine can thus be brought quickly to a stopped condition
and if required can then be operated astern. The stopping of the turbine or
its astern operation will occur about 10 to 15 minutes before a similar state
will occur for the ship. The use of emergency procedures can lead to serious
damage in the turbine, gearbox or boilers.
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ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE PROPELLER & PROPELLER SYSTEM
PROPELLER & PROPELLER SYSTEM

(including CPP and its bridge control)
MAIN SHAFTING
 The transmission system on a ship transmits power from the engine to the
propeller. It is made of up of shafts, bearings and finally the propeller itself.
 In general, the engine power is transmitted to the propeller by means of –
a) Thrust Shaft
b) Intermediate Shaft (one or more)
c) Propeller Shaft or Tail-End shaft
 These shafts are supported by the thrust block, intermediate bearings and
the stern tube bearing.
A) Thrust Shaft and Thrust Block:
 The thrust shaft transmits the engine’s torque to the propeller shaft and
also transfers the thrust of the propeller to the thrust block, which
transmits the thrust to the hull of the ship.
 The thrust block shaft is comparatively short with a coupling at each end, a
thrust collar in the middle of its length and a journal at each side of the
thrust collar. The journals run in bearings housed in the thrust block which
carry the weight of the shaft.
 On each side of the collar, there
are a number of kidney-shaped
white metal-faced pads
supported in the thrust block.
The forward face takes the
ahead thrust, while the after
face takes the astern thrust.
There is always a film of oil
maintained between the face of
the collar and the white-metal-
face of the pad, and thus there
is no metallic contact.
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 As the propeller turns, it throws water away from the ship (when running
forward direction). Thus, a thrust is created which has equal and opposite
reaction on the propeller shaft. The propeller shaft thus tends to enter into
the engine room. There actually will be only a microscopic inward
movement of the entire shaft till the thrust collar hits the forward pads. This
way – the thrust gets transmitted to the ship and the ship moves forward.
 Thrust block must be located as close to the engine as possible, otherwise
there are chances of vibration in the engine when thrust transfer to the hull
takes place.
B) Intermediate Shaft and Plummer Blocks

 The intermediate shaft connects the Thrust shaft with the propeller shaft.
 The intermediate shaft has a coupling at each end, which connects by
coupling bolts. It may have one or more journal bearings, which are white-
metal lined and carry the weight of the shaft. These bearings are mounted
on pedestals, built up from the tank top.
 A Plummer block is a bearing for supporting the shaft, with a removable
cover top which gives access to it.
 All the bearings are usually water cooled.
C) Propeller Shaft or Tail-End Shaft

 The propeller shaft, as the name implies, carries the propeller on its
outboard end. It passes through the stern tube, which carries the weight of
the propeller shaft and the propeller. Stern tubes can be oil-lubricated or
water lubricated.
 The propeller shaft or tail end shaft has a flanged face, where it joins the
intermediate shafting. The other end is tapered to suit the taper of the
Propeller boss. The tapered end is threaded, to take the nut, which holds
the Propeller in place.
 The older types of Propellers were fitted with ‘Keys’.
 The modern trend is to use ‘Key-less’ propellers, which are gripping the
shaft due to friction over a suitably prepared surface of the propeller shaft.
 They are forced on to the taper using a ‘Dry’ push-up method, such as the
Pilgrim Nut, which is also used for Propeller removal.
 Another method is the ‘Wet’ type method, where oil pressure is supplied to
the grooves.
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STERN TUBE
The sterntube bearing serves two important purposes. It supports the tail shaft
and a considerable proportion of the propeller. It also acts as a gland to prevent
the entry of sea water to the machinery space. Stern tube can be sea water
lubricated or oil lubricated.
A) Sea Water Lubricated Sterntube

 The common bearing material used was lignum vitae, which was lubricated
by sea water. Lignum vitae was a hard wood with good wear characteristics.
 The steel shaft had a bronze liner, and water in the channels acted as
lubricating as well as cooling medium.
 The forward seal, inside the engine-room, had gland packing with bronze
bushes and a cast iron gland.
 The bearing clearance varied from 8mm to 10mm, to allow for the swelling
of lignum vitae and to have a minimum flow of water for cooling purposes.
 The wear was measured by inserting a wedge between the shaft and the
bearing from the outside, during docking. Excessive wear down leads to
whipping of the shaft, which can generate undesirable vibration and
stresses in the machinery.
WATER COOLED STERN TUBE

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B) Oil Cooled Stern Tube

 Modern designs use an oil lubrication arrangement for a white metal lined
sterntube bearing. The tube is fabricated and welded direct to the extension
of the stern frame boss at the after end, and to the Aft Peak bulkhead at the
forward end.
 Oil is pumped to the bush through external axial grooves and passes
through the holes on each side into internal axial passages. The oil leaves
from the ends of the bush and circulates back to the pump and the cooler.
 The stern tube gravity tank will provide a back pressure in the system and a
period of oil supply in the event of pump failure. There may be two gravity
tanks – one for fully loaded and one for ballast condition. A low-level alarm
is fitted to the stern tube gravity tank.
 The stern tube being lubricated by oil has its own pumps, coolers, oil tanks
and gravity tanks. The oil is contained inside the stern tube by means of lip
seals. The elastic lip of each nitrile rubber seal, grips a rubbing surface
provided by chrome steel liners at outboard and inboard ends of the
propeller shaft. Thus, seals arrangements prevent entry of seawater and
also loss of lubricating oil from the stern bearing. The seals must have a
positive pressure of oil, in order to ensure that sea water does not enter.
 Unlike outboard end seals, the inboard end seals cannot dissipate heat to
surrounding water. Thus, they need a circulation and cooling water system.
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Measurement of Wear Down:

The poker gauge is used to measure the wear down that occurs. This is done
during the dry docking. The wear-down is measured in terms of the ‘propeller
drop’ (drop in propeller shaft). The seal is drained of oil in the dock and the gauge
is inserted between the shaft and the bearing to measure and record the readings.
The wear down is indicated on the poker gauge. The poker gauge is supplied to a
new vessel and the same must be used every time for measurements. If the wear-
down is excessive then the stern tube bearing needs to be changed.
Attention Required At Sea

a) Lube oil condition must be regularly checked to ensure that there is no
ingress of sea water, which would form an emulsion.
b) Level of the stern tube lube oil must be monitored.
c) Temperature must be maintained, to ensure that no excessive heat build-up
takes place, which could damage the rubber rings of the seal.
Repairs
 To prevent leakages, the seal rings are usually replaced during the dry dock
by authorized personnel.
 Emergency repairs are handled in the following way:
a) Trim the vessel by head, in port or at a sheltered anchorage.
b) Engage the turning gear of the Main Engine.
c) Rig up a suitable working platform, taking all safety precautions.
d) Drain out the oil from the stern tube to the drain tank.
e) Carry out repairs / replacement, as per the manufacturer’s instructions.
f) Fill the oil, and confirm no leakages.
SCREW TYPE PROPELLERS

 The screw-type propeller consists of a hub and blades; all spaced at equal
angles about the axis. When the blades of the propeller are integral with the
hub, the propeller is called a solid propeller. When the blades are separately
cast & secured to the hub by studs, the propeller is called built-up propeller.
 When rotated, the propeller ‘screws’ or thrusts its way through the water
giving momentum to the column of water passing through it. The thrust is
transmitted along the shafting to the thrust block and finally to ship’s hull.
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 The ‘face’ (or pressure face) is the after side of the blade when the ship is
moving ahead. The ‘back’ (or suction back) is the surface opposite the face.
 The ‘tip’ of the blade is the most distant from the hub, while the ‘root’ of
the blade is the area where the blade joins the hub.
 The ‘leading edge’ is the edge that cuts water first when the ship is going
ahead. The ‘trailing edge’ is the edge opposite to the leading edge.
 ‘Skew’ is the “sweeping back” of a propeller blade.
Moderate amounts of skew will not measurably
affect the thrust or torque of the propeller. The role
of skew is to mitigate local pressure fluctuations to
reduce cavitation and noise. As the skew does not
affect the propeller efficiency, it is a standard design
on vessels where low vibration levels are required.
 A ‘rake angle’ exists when the tip of the

propeller blade is not precisely
perpendicular to the axis (hub). The
angle is formed by the distance
between where the tip really is
(forward or aft) & where the tip would
be if it were in a perpendicular position.
Parts of the Propeller

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A screw propeller may be classified as either fixed pitch or controllable pitch.
A) Fixed Pitch Propeller

 These are propellers that have blades rigidly attached to the hub. The pitch
of a fixed-pitch propeller cannot be altered during the operation. This makes
them a robust and reliable system.
 The propeller is designed in a way such that, if you cut the propeller radially
at any random radius from its centre, then the cut section of the propeller
blades will have a certain pitch.
 Now if you rotate this cut section in water, the axial
distance travelled in one rotation is the pitch of this
section. If you vary the radius at which you cut a
section, the twist of the blade also varies, hence the
pitch also varies. Note that the pitch varies along with
the blade section (or increasing distance from the
propeller centre), but the net average or the net pitch
of the propeller remains constant. Such a propeller is a
fixed pitch propeller.
 The manoeuvrability of the Fixed Pitch propeller is not as good as the CPP.
 In a solid fixed-pitch propeller, the pitch at any point is fixed. Solid fixed
pitch propellers can be right handed or left handed based on the rotation of
the propeller while moving in the ahead direction.
 A right handed propeller turns clockwise when viewed from aft. Most single
screw ships are fitted with right handed propellers.
 A left handed propeller turns anti-clockwise when viewed from aft. In a twin
screw ship, a right-handed starboard propeller and a left-handed port
propeller are used.
B) Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP)

 As the name implies, it is possible to alter, at will, the pitch of this type of a
propeller. This change in pitch is effected by rotating the blade about its
vertical axis. This is usually carried out by hydraulic or mechanical means.
 When the required orientation or pitch of the propeller is obtained, the
blades are locked in that position.
 In CPP, the blades cannot be an integral part of the propeller. They are
mounted on spindles that have axes perpendicular to the shaft axis.
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 CPP’s can be used to run the ship in forward and astern direction both,
without the requirement to change the direction of rotation of the
propeller. Hence, CPP’s are used with unidirectional main engines.
 Such propellers are favoured for implementing bridge control in ship’s
manoeuvring system.
 They are also used on double duty vessels such as the tug and trawler. Here,
the operating condition when towing is different than when running free as
trawler.
Advantages of CPP system:

 Improved manoeuvrability.
 It can use unidirectional engine and no reversing mechanism is required.
Thus, no associated problems. Astern movement is achieved by changing
the pitch angle of the blades.
 In CPP, a change in the pitch angle can bring about a change in the speed of
the ship. Hence, there is no need to change the speed or RPM of the engine.
 In bridge control CPP, the speed of the ship can be handled from the bridge
directly. In case of FPP, engine room needs to be informed in order to
change the ship’s speed. In CPP, speed changes can be made faster.
 Reduced number of engine starts is needed. Hence, reduced consumption
of compressed air – thus reduced maintenance.
 Improved engine efficiency at lower loads, even in astern condition.
 When on bridge control, E/R personnel will be freed from stand-by duties.
Disadvantages of CPP:
 It is a complex system. Hence, reduced reliability compared to fixed pitch.
 With oil in propeller boss, there is greater possibility of pollution by oil.
 More maintenance on propeller because of additional equipment involved.
 There are chances of propeller blades getting stuck at some particular pitch
angle and thus, giving no choice to vary the magnitude of thrust.
 They have a very high initial cost.
 Such mechanism needs to have a fail-safe design which means that if
controls fail, the system under control will adopt a non-dangerous state
(zero pitch angle). This is not possible to adopt in CPP system
 Due to pitch control mechanisms housed inside the hub, the length and the
diameter of the hub is also high as compared to the FPP systems.
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CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF CPP SYSTEM:
 The CPP consists of a flange mounted hub inside which a piston arrangement is
moved fore and aft to rotate the blades by a crank arrangement. The piston is
moved by hydraulic oil applied at high pressure via an oil transfer tube or an OT
tube. This tube has inner and outer pipe through which the ahead and astern
oil passes. The tube is ported at either ends to allow free flow of oil and is
segregated by seals.
 Oil is transferred to the tube via ports on the shaft circumference. Over the
shaft, an Oil transfer box is mounted. The OT box sits on the shaft on bearings
and is prevented from rotation by a peg. The inner bore of the OT box is
segregated into three sections – the ahead and the astern and also an oil drain,
which is attached to the hydraulic oil header to ensure that positive pressure
exists in the hub and prevents air or oil.
 The OT tube is rigidly attached to the piston. As the piston moves fore and aft,
the entire length of the tube is moved in the same way.
 A feedback mechanism is attached to the tube. This also allows for checking of
blade pitch position from within the engine room.
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Operation Modes:
There are two main methods of operation of a vessel with a CPP.
 Combinator: For varying demand signals, both the engine RPM and the
pitch are adjusted to give optimum performance both in terms of
manoeuvrability and response, and also economy and emissions.
 Constant Speed: For varying demand signals, only the CPP pitch varies.
However, the engine operates at continuous constant revolutions (normally
designed for normal maximum working revolutions).
BRIDGE CONTROL OF CPP DIESEL ENGINE

 Through Speed setting, the RPM of main engine is set at some fixed value
(say 400 RPM). Soon after this, ship is ready for the manoeuvring.
 On "standby" since the propeller will be set at zero pitch angle, there will be
no thrust developed by it and main engine will idling, overcoming just the
friction of its own bearings and subsequently consuming hardly any fuel.
 However, the instant pitch angle is increased, propeller will develop a
thrust, pushing the ship forward or aft and thus demanding more power
from the main engine. Main engine will meet this higher power demand
since its governor would have sensed the tendency of drop in RPM of main
engine on increase in pitch angle and thus would have let in more fuel to
flow through fuel metering valve into the main engine.
 On full away, we will be having full pitch angle on the propeller and thus
developing maximum power. We may also have choice of setting RPM of
main engine during full away at a higher RPM (say upto 500 rpm). This once
again is possible by speed setting signal.
 In most ships, propeller pitch and engine speed (RPM) can be remotely
controlled (as described above) and that also from a single lever known as
combinator. The single lever adjusts the propeller pitch, fuel rack setting
and engine speed in accordance with a pre-determined program.
 Whenever a change in ship’s speed is required, a signal proportional to the
change is fed to the governor, which controls the pitch setting mechanism
and fuel racks are adjusted. This happens automatically as long as the
engine load does not exceed the pre-determined maximum for that speed.
If there is an increase in load, the engine speed will tend to drop, causing
the governor to move the fuel racks, so that the engine speed is restored.
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BRIDGE CONTROL OF CPP – CONSTANT SPEED (Without Combinator)
 The changeover of control from Bridge to ECR to engine-local-control and

vice-versa can be different for different engines. This is because different
control systems are adopted for different engine types.
 Whenever there is automation or remote control failure, then control must
be changed over from remote (Bridge/ECR) to Local control stand.
 For Bridge control, the engine control should be in “Bridge” position. Local
manouevring lever and fuel lever must be in position “REMOTE CONTROL”
on the local manouevring stand.
 When Bridge Control is provided for a particular ship, instrumentation such
as Engine RPM indicator, direction of rotation indicator, starting-air pressure
gauge, engine alarm panel, etc. are provided on the Bridge.
 There should be atleast two different means of communication, between
the Bridge and the ECR, one of which must be independent of the main
electrical power supply.
 In some cases, a facility is provided for emergency overriding of certain
parameters which would normally cause a shutdown. This must be used
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only in case of extreme emergency and adequate warning must be given to

the engine room staff. Failure to do so can result in serious damage to the
propulsion engine.
Bridge Control of CPP Engine – Combinator control
Precautions with regards to CPP:
Before starting Main engine:

1. Confirm at site that propeller pitch is changing for full range as per signals of
Bridge / ECR.
2. Confirm there is no leakage of oil.
3. Confirm that pitch angles on blades are maintained and there is no loss of
hydraulic pressure.
4. Before starting main engine, keep the pitch at zero angle. This will help start
main engine on zero propeller resistance.
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Before Going To Sea:

1. Before putting system on stand-by for manoeuvring, confirm ahead, astern
and stop movements on the CPP are happening as per desired signals.
2. Confirm that main engine is running without any problems and all
parameters show normal values.
Before Entering Harbour or confined waters:

1. Before entering harbour and thus being on standby for manoeuvring,
confirm system is responding to ahead, astern and stop movements as per
desired signals. This should be done when ship is still in open waters.
2. Check fuel metering control to main engine is working properly and you can
stop main engine if need arises.
Other Precautions
 Whenever changing controls from remote to local, confirm that position of
the control levers at the local station are same as those at the remote
station (Bride or ECR). This is important as system will take up orders from
local station once the control is changed over from Remote to Local.
EMERGENCY CONTROL:
 In the event of the CPP system hydraulic failure, an arrangement is fitted to
allow for mechanical locking of the CPP into a fixed ahead pitch position.
This generally takes the form of a mechanical lock which secures the OT (oil
transfer) tube. Either hand or small auxiliary electric / hydraulic pump is
available for moving the pitch to the correct position.
Control from Emergency Stand

 Take over on local control is possible either with engine running or at engine
stop. Change over to remote control is however possible only when the
engine is at stop.
 Operation from the emergency stand must only be chosen in emergencies
e.g. in case of defective governor output.
 Speed indication must be regularly checked so as to ensure that fuel supply
is immediately adjusted when the speed varies.
 On receiving telegraph orders from the Bridge, emergency manoeuvring
must be carried out as per the manufacturer’s instructions.
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CRITICAL SPEED (RPM) / BARRED SPEED RANGE

 The range of speeds (RPM) of the engine at which the Resonant condition
occurs, is referred to as the ‘Critical speed range’ or ‘Barred speed range’.
 Due to excessive amplitude of vibrations, high stresses start to build-up, as
the RPM approaches this range, and do not come back to some safe value
until it passes the range. The unsafe stresses that are experienced within
the Critical Range are also referred to as the ‘Flank Stresses’.
 It is obvious that the engine should not be operated within the Critical
Range for any length of time. This range is usually marked in red colour on
the engine tachometers.
Other Advantages of CPP over FPP:
 Speed can be conveniently altered, and direction changed from Ahead to

Astern easily. The ship can be easily run at a bare minimum speed, which is
useful when berthing.
 There is no need to re-start the Engines during manoeuvring, thus making it
easier and faster. FPP engines require considerable Starting air during
manoeuvring, as well as time to stop and continue in Astern direction.
Other Disadvantages of CPP over FPP:
 Steering at slow speeds is less effective with CPP as compared to FPP.

 A constantly turning propeller, in case of CPP may be a hazard, especially to
mooring launches. Extra care is required when running lines, or letting go,
or when working with tugs.
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ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE ENGINE ROOM WATCH-KEEPING
ENGINE ROOM WATCH-KEEPING
WATCHKEEPING:
Factors that are taken into account when deciding on the watchkeeping
requirements are:
1. Type of ship
2. Type of machinery and degree of automation
3. Qualification and experience of the members of the Watch.
4. Any special condition such as weather, ship’s location, national or
international regulation, condition of machinery, etc.
Watchkeeping mainly involves the following:

1. Knowledge of the fire-fighting equipment with respect to location and
operation.
2. Ability to understand the various alarms & indications and actions required.
3. Ability to understand the communication system, how to summon help and
awareness of the location of the escape routes.
Other watch-keeping duties:

1. All log readings should be verified with actual readings at the stat of the
watch.
2. Verify if there are any special orders or instructions.
3. Evaluate the work in progress and its effect on safety, etc.
4. Confirm levels of tanks for fuel, water, ballast, etc. Also note bilge levels.
5. Operating mode of all equipment and also standby for each.
6. At appropriate intervals, inspection should be made of main, auxiliary and
steering equipment along with all liquid levels including those mentioned
above.
7. Bridge orders must be promptly carried out and recorded. Special
requirements if any of the bridge should be carried out while keeping the
Chief Engineer well informed.
8. Duties like transfer of fuel, etc should be carried out carefully as it will need
almost continuous attention.
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9. During the watch, a log or record of various parameters will have to be

either taken manually or will be provided automatically. All values should be
within the normal range.
10. Through log book, consumption of lubricating oil, fuel oil, fresh water and
also generation of fresh water during the watch will be known and should
be within normal values.
11. Where situations occur in the machinery space which may affect the speed,
manoeuvrability, power supply or other essentials for the safe operation of
the ship, the bridge should be informed as soon as possible.
UNMANNED MACHINERY SPACES (UMS) WATCHES

 In ships that have UMS certification, the Main engine and auxiliary
machinery are all automated and a fool proof control system monitors all
the parameters and if any parameter is out of normal range, then the
actuator is activated to take the corrective action. For example, if the jacket
cooling water pump fails for some reason, then the standby pump is started
automatically and alarm is given to the duty engineer to rectify the fault.
 Before unmanning the machinery space, UMS checklist must be filled up
honestly and duty officer on the bridge must be informed. Also, the watch
selector switch must be changed from E/R to the cabin of the duty engineer.
The entire ship staff must leave the engine room before the duty engineer
puts it on UMS. During the unmanned period, the duty engineer must be
ready to attend to alarms relayed to his cabin or at various public places
such as smoke rooms.
 When operating unmanned, a duty engineer will be responsible for
supervision. He may make tour of inspection before retiring for the day late
in the night say at 2200 hours or so, to check that all engine room
parameters are normal. The tour of inspection is similar to that of a
conventional watch. Duty engineer or other engineer should inform deck
officer on watch, whenever entering engine room during unmanned
operation and start the dead man alarm and change the watch selector
switch to Engine Room upon reaching the control room.
 Any alarm in the night time must be attended by the duty engineer. The
same must be recorded in the log book with time and action taken. In case
of any doubt during night time, the duty engineer must not hesitate to call a
senior engineer. This will be usually mentioned in the standing orders.
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 UMS machinery spaces have automatic engine change-over in the event of a

fault developing on the running machine. Some have programmed control
of generators with automatic starting and stopping of stand-by generators
as and when the demand for electrical power rises and falls.
Synchronization, opening and closing of breakers, is automatic and load
sharing is a function of speed sensing or load sensing governors.
 The unattended installations require high dependability which demands
intimate knowledge of the machines and strict attention to the
maintenance schedules.
 Appropriate checks must be carried out and checklists filled prior to
unmanning of the engine room.
 Fire detection and alarm system must be ensured operational and fire
pumps lined up. Engines must be on bridge control.
Handing Over and Taking Over Watches
 In manual watching ships (non-UMS), the engine room is continuously

manned. The duty engineer keeps watch for four hours and hands over the
watch to the next watchkeeping engineer. An oiler or motor man assists the
duty engineer during the watch.
 The duty engineer must take a good round of the engine room before
taking over the watch. It is a good practice to start this round 30 minutes
before commencement of the watch. All parameters of the running
machinery should be checked and noted. The fuel oil service tank levels and
the bilge levels should also be checked. Any abnormalities must be
discussed with the present duty engineer before taking over the watch.
 The incoming duty engineer must also find out from the outgoing engineer
about the maintenance routines and operations that have been carried out
during his watch.
 During the watch, the duty engineer must remain alert and take periodic
rounds of the engine room even when assigned some maintenance job. If
the duty engineer hears any alarm, he must attend to the same immediately
and take appropriate actions. The duty engineer must never hesitate to call
his superiors when in doubt.
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Routine Work during watchkeeping:

1. Soot Blowing – Soot deposits are unburnt carbon particulates which
accumulate on the gas side of the boiler. Unnecessary build up of soot
deposits impedes heat transfer and causes exhaust pipe uptake fires. Soot
blowing a boiler is done once every 12 hours using pressured steam or air.
Soot blowers are operated manually or driven by an electric or pneumatic
motor.
2. Pumping Out bilges through OWS – Water and oil leaking from the pump
glands and other machinery are collected in the engine room bilge. The
content of the bilges are passed to the OWS to separate the oil and to
ensure that the water being pumped out does not content more than 15
ppm of oil. Each operation must be recorded and completed operation must
be signed by the Engineer in charge and Chief Engineer.
3. Turbocharger Blower washing – Depending on the maker’s instruction, the
blower side of the turbocharger may be water washed daily to remove the
deposits accumulated during operation.
4. Transfer of Oil from Bunker Tank to Settling Tank – Fuel is transferred from
the Bunker tanks to the settling tank and water and impurities are allowed
to settle. This oil is then purified using purifier before transferring it to the
Service tank. All line valves must be correctly opened/closed for a smooth
operation.
5. Draining of Air bottles – This is a very important routine operation. Water in
the compressed air causes corrosion in the air bottles and the pneumatic
control systems.
6. Desludging of Purifier – Usually the purifier will run in auto-mode. If they
are run in manual mode, then desludging operation must be carried out
manually once in a watch to remove the sludge deposits accumulated in the
bowl.
7. Boiler Blow down – Boiler is blown down atleast once in a day to get rid of
the suspended and dissolved solids. This is done by using the upper scum
valve and bottom blow-down valve.
8. Boiler water tests – Boiler water is tested for alkalinity, chlorides and
dissolved solids once in a day by following correct procedures. Treatment
chemicals are added according to the test results.
9. Other routine jobs include - draining of lube oil sumps off water, LO
analysis, incineration, cleaning or changing of filters, etc.
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PORT WATCHES:
 During port watch, the Duty engineer’s rounds will still be ‘funnel to tunnel’
like in ‘at sea’ watch. However, the importance is now shifted to cargo
operations.
 Most of the machinery that was running during sailing will now be stopped.
Additional machinery that would be running will include auxiliary boilers,
inert gas generator, cargo pumps and their other associated systems for
tankers and; ballast pumps and additional generators, etc. for dry vessels.
 The duty engineer must maintain good communication with the deck officer
either through walkie-talkie or phone.
 The duty engineer must inform the second engineer or chief engineer in
case of any trouble with the running machinery and systems.
 Best efforts must be made to avoid any cargo delays due to machinery
breakdowns.
 All local & international regulations like MARPOL must be complied with.
 Port State inspection can happen at any time while the vessel is in port. The
engine room must always be ready for such an inspection. In view of this,
engine room must be maintained clean and free of oil.
Periodic safety routines

In addition to watchkeeping and maintenance duties, various safety and
emergency equipment must be periodically checked. As an example, the following
inspections should take place at least weekly:
1. Emergency generator should be started and run for a reasonable period.
Fuel oil, lubricating oil and cooling water supplies and tank levels should be
checked.
2. Emergency fire pump should be run and the deck fire main operated for a
reasonable period. All operating parameters should be checked.
3. Carbon dioxide bottle storage room should be visually examined. The
release box door should be opened to test the alarm and check that the
machinery-space fans stop.
4. One smoke detector in each circuit should be tested to ensure operation
and correct indication on the alarm panel. Aerosol test sprays are available
to safely check some types of detector.
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5. Fire pushbutton alarms should be tested, by operating a different one

during each test.
6. Any machinery space ventilators or skylights should be operated and
greased, if necessary, to ensure smooth, rapid closing, should this be
necessary.
7. Fire extinguishers should be observed in their correct location and checked
to ensure they are operable.
8. Fire hoses and nozzles should likewise be observed in their correct places.
The nozzles should be tried on the hose coupling. Any defective hose should
be replaced.
9. Any emergency batteries, e.g. for lighting or emergency generator starting,
should be examined, have the acid specific gravity checked, and be topped
up, as required.
10. All lifeboat engines should be run for a reasonable period. Fuel oil and
lubricating oil levels should be checked.
11. All valves and equipment operated from the fire control point should be
checked for operation, where this is possible.
12. Any watertight doors should be opened and closed by hand and power.
BUNKERING
 The loading of fuel oil into a ship's tanks from a shore-side installation or
bunker barge takes place about once a trip. The penalties for oil spills are
large, the damage to the environment is considerable, and the ship may well
be delayed or even arrested if this job is not properly carried out.
 Bunkering is traditionally the fourth engineer's job. He will usually be
assisted by at least one other engineer and one or more ratings. Most ships
will have a set procedure which is to be followed or some form of general
instructions which might include the following:
1. All scuppers are to be sealed off (plugged) to prevent any minor oil spill on
deck going overboard.
2. All drip trays are to be sealed or plugged.
3. Sawdust and other SOPEP equipments should be available at the bunkering
station and various positions around the deck.
4. All fuel tank valves must be carefully checked before bunkering commences.
5. The personnel involved in the operation should be quite familiar with the
piping systems, tank valves, spill tanks and tank-sounding equipment.
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6. All valves on tanks which are not to be used should be closed and effectively
safeguarded against accidental opening. Any manual valves in the filling
lines should be proved to be open for the flow of liquid.
7. Good and reliable tank-sounding equipment must be used to regularly check
the contents of each tank. A complete set of all tank soundings must be
obtained before bunkering commences.
8. A suitable means of communication must be set up between the ship and
the bunkering installation before bunkering commences.
9. On-board communication between involved personnel should be by hand
radio sets or some other satisfactory means.
10. Any tank that is filling should be identified in some way on the level
indicator,
11. Usually done by a sign or marked as 'FILLING'.
12. In the event of a spill, all measures as per SOPEP must be taken and the Port
Authorities should be informed as soon as possible.
EFFECT OF ROUGH WEATHER:

On Steering –
1. If on autopilot, ship’s steering gear and rudder will hunt. Excessive hunting
may cause damage to the equipment. Sensitivity of the system must be
reduced to keep the hunting within the safe limits. Hand steering may be
advisable during heavy sea conditions.
2. It is advisable to keep both steering motors running wherever provided, to
get the maximum available torque to turn the rudder effectively. It also
gives a degree of safety if one of the systems fails.
3. Levels of hydraulic oil should be kept well above the minimum to avoid
problems because of heavy pitching and rolling of the ship.
4. More frequent rounds must be taken in the steering gear room.
On main propulsion plant –

1. Propeller would be working under varying head of water and in extreme
cases may also partly come out of water. This will cause heavy to severe
fluctuation of loads on the main engine. These kinds of stresses must be
avoided in order to avoid damage and failure of machinery parts. Main
engine RPM must be reduced to safe values in advance of facing the bad
weather.
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2. Levels at LO tanks, LO sumps, FO tanks and other tanks such as FW tanks,

etc. will fluctuate, causing fluctuations in pressure and in extreme cases
cause the pump to lose suction. This should be avoided at all costs as low
pressure may also actuate the shutdown of the propulsion plant, which
could prove dangerous during such state of weather.
3. A good watch must be kept on the state of the engines with respect to
vibrations and abnormal sounds.
Other heavy weather precautions include-

1. Keep standby generator ON
2. There should be no loose items. All spares and tools including spare LO
drums and other machinery parts including those on deck should be
properly secured, well in advance of expected rough weather.
3. All drip trays, save alls, etc. should be kept well drained and should have no
accumulated liquids which may spill due to heavy rolling and pitching of the
ship.
4. Ensure all standby machines are in good operating condition.
5. Ensure that LOW sea suction is in use.
6. Ensure all alarms are operational.
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Engineering Knowledge Detailed Notes

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Engineering Knowledge Detailed Notes

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ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE INDEX

(Prepared by Rohan D’souza)

Sr. No CONTENTS Page Nos.

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA (i)

PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEMS

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

Reciprocating pump operates on the principle of pushing of liquids by a

1. Piston – or plunger, that reciprocates inside a closely fitted cylinder.

(i) Gear Pump

 Construction and Working:

(ii) Screw Pump (two screws)

 Construction and Working:

4. As the intermeshing screws rotate, their close relation to each other

 Principle: Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion

 Construction and Working:

5. They are prone to damage due to cavitation.

a) Performance Characteristic Curves of a Centrifugal Pump

Q-H Curve and Q-η Curve

From the above graph, we can have the following conclusions:

b) Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):

 If H0 = pressure (head) exerted on the surface of liquid in a tank,

Then, only if H0 is more than (H1

Available NPSH is calculated as NPSHA = H0 – H1 – H2 ± H3

 Required NPSH is given by pump

 To avoid cavitation of the pump, the

Therefore, NPSHA = H0 – H1 – H2 + H3 = 0 – 0 – 0 + X = X (m)

AXIAL FLOW PUMP

 Principle: It is similar to the working of a propeller in a closed duct. A screw

 Components: Propeller, diffuser, pump casing, pump shaft, gland seal,

Axial Flow Pump

 Construction and Working:

1. Under low head, higher throughput can be achieved in comparison with

1. They are not suitable for suction lift.

EMERGENCY FIRE PUMP

Emergency Fire Pump

CARGO PUMPING ARRANGEMENTS ON TANKERS

Pumping arrangement of an Oil Tanker

b) Chemical Tankers (Submerged Cargo Pump e.g. FRAMO Pump)

Submerged cargo pump of a chemical tanker

c) Gas Tankers (Deepwell Pumps)

1. Introduction to Distillation systems

INTRODUCTION TO DISTILLATION SYSTEMS:

 Distillation is the production of pure water from sea water by evaporating

PRODUCTION OF WATER BY BOILING PROCESS

(A) Low Pressure Evaporator / Fresh Water Generator

1. Evaporator – It is a shell and tube heat exchanger where the evaporation of

Low Pressure Evaporator / Fresh Water Generator

Starting the Fresh Water Generator:

During the Operation:

Stopping the Fresh Water Generator:

Safety Measures for FWG:

Fresh Water Storage Tanks:

(B) Flash Evaporator:

 In this type of an evaporator, the water is heated in one compartment and

PRODUCTION OF WATER BY MEANS OTHER THAN DISTILLATION

Reverse Osmosis – Single Pass & Double Pass system

(a) Single Pass System:

 In single pass system, the seawater feed supply is pumped through

(b) Double Pass System:

DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY (Hydrophore System)

 The fresh water pump (Hydrophore pump) supplies water to the

TREATMENT OF FRESH WATER FOR DRINKING:

1. Chlorine Sterilization: The sterilization by chlorine is recommended and