9

Electrical Conductivity and

Electron Theory of Metals

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The physical properties of a metal are governed by its elementary charged particle known as electron. The
mobility of electrons in the metals decides the electrical, thermal, and other properties of metals. In order
to explain most of the properties of metals, the theory of free electron model was proposed by Drude, in
1900, soon after the discovery of electron. In this theory, the valence electrons of metal are supposed to
be completely free from the atoms. The basis for this theory is the picture of metals as a lattice (regular
arrangement which remains fixed) of positive ions through which the electron gas can move. The number
of electrons in such a gas is equal to the number of valence electrons. If the metal is not subjected to the
external field, the valence electrons oscillate equally in all directions among the atoms just like the molecules
in a gas. The statistics of this random electron velocity will be analogous to the statistics of the molecular
motion in a gas.
Drude theory of free electron model was initially used to explain the electrical and the thermal
conductivities of metals. Later on, Lorentz investigated the implications of this hypothesis exhaustively
and he assumed free electrons as a perfect gas (different from ideal gas molecules because they are
charged particles), which in equilibrium obey the Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics. This theory is known
as Drude–Lorentz theory. There are several impressive successes and several remarkable failures in the
credit of this theory. In order to meetout the failures of Drude–Lorentz theory, the quantum theory of
free electrons was introduced.
In this chapter, we will focus our discussion on the electrical conductivity in metals using free electron
theory along with its failure and successes. In the same chapter, we will also introduce the quantum theory
of free electrons and its applications to discuss the density of states, electrical conductivity of metals,
and its temperature dependence.

9.2  FREE ELECTRON CONCEPT

The motion of electrons in a solid is responsible for its physical properties. Due to this reason, the clear
concept regarding the state of electrons in a solid is very important. In order to explain the properties of
solid in the context of electrons, the free electron model was suggested by Drude.
The concept of free electron can be explained by taking the example of sodium crystal, in which each
atom contains 11 electrons. According to the electronic configuration of the sodium atom, 10 electrons
272  l  Engineering Physics
are tightly bound to the nucleus to form an ion of net positive charge + | e | and the eleventh electron
(also known as the valence electron) moves in the orbit around the ion. When large number of such
atoms are brought together to form a solid, the outer orbits of different atoms overlap and interact with
each other. Due to the extensive overlapping of outer orbits, the valence electron of a particular atom is
no more associated with its parent atom. Under these circumstances, the electrons of outermost orbit of
each atom (which are constituting solid) are free to move in between the ion cores of the crystal. These
free electrons may behave as the molecules of gas up to some extent (not exactly) and hence, these are
known as free electron gas. Thus, the metal crystal can be pictured as composed of positive metal ions
with free electron gas of valence electrons of the atoms. In this consideration, a natural question arises
that how the crystal holds these free electrons? The answer of this questions can be given in terms of
electrostatic attraction between positively charged ions and negatively charged free electrons. Actually,
this electrostatic force holds the free electron within the crystal lattice. Since the negative charge of free
electrons is equal to the positive charge of ions in the crystal, so the crystal remains electrically neutral.

9.3  CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

During 1900, Drude proposed free electron theory for the metals using some basic assumptions. According
to this theory, the valence electrons of atoms, constituting a crystal are free to move inside the metal just
like the molecules or atoms in a perfect gas. Thus, free electrons are referred to as free electronic gas
and the theory is accordingly named as free electron gas model. Later in 1909, H. A. Lorentz suggested
that electrons constituting the electron gas obey Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics under the equilibrium
condition. Combining the idea of Lorentz with the assumption of Drude, the constituted theory is known
as Drude–Lorentz theory. Since the theory is based on the classical ideas of Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics,
so it is called the classical free electron theory.
According to this theory, valence electrons (conduction electrons) in a metal find themselves in the
field of all ions and other valence electrons in the crystal. The mutual repulsion between the electrons
is ignored and it is assumed that a uniform electrostatic attraction exists between electrons and ion core
throughout inside the crystal. Although conduction electrons are free to move inside the crystal, these
are not free to move out of the metal at room temperature; rather they are confined to the volume of the
metal. Thus, we can conclude that the potential energy of a stationary electron inside a metal is less than
the potential energy of an identical electron just outside it. This energy difference Vo acts as a potential
barrier to stop the valence electrons from leaving the surface of the metal. The mobility of free electrons
is equivalent to the motion of a particle in a potential box of potential height Vo as shown in Fig. 9.1.

Vaccum

Vo

Metal surface

Fig. 9.1  Potential well showing the difference in potential energy of an electron at
the metal surface and just outside it
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  273
This theory is able to prove the validity of Ohm’s law, which relates the electric current with the
electric field. It is also successful to derive the relation between electrical and thermal conductivities (the
Wiedemann–Franz law). But this theory completely failed to explain the heat capacity and the paramagnetic
susceptibility of conduction electrons. On the basis of this theory, we cannot predict the temperature
dependence of resistivity and occurrence of long mean free paths at low temperature. In order to resolve
the failure of classical free electron theory, Sommerfeld’s quantum theory is introduced. In this theory,
Fermi–Dirac statistics is used for the electron gas instead of classical Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics.

9.4  ASSUMPTIONS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

Drude and Lorentz proposed the classical free electron theory for metals using some important
assumptions, which are as follows:
(i) Metal structure consists of positive ion cores, with the valence electrons moving freely among
these ion cores.
(ii) The behaviour of free electrons (valence/conduction electrons) moving inside a metal is similar
(not exactly same) to that of atoms or molecules in a perfect gas.
(iii) Mutual repulsion among the free electrons is ignored.
(iv) Free electrons are negatively charged particles while the atoms or molecules of a perfect gas are
mostly neutral.
(v) Free electrons obey the Pauli’s exclusion principle.
(vi) The free electrons experience constant and uniform electrostatic field due to the ions cores.
(vii) Total energy of free electrons inside a metal is almost equal to their kinetic energy.
(viii) The total negative charge of electrons is equal to the positive charge of ion cores and hence, the
metal remains electrically neutral.
(ix) The electrostatic attraction between free electrons and ion cores is responsible for holding the
electrons within the surface of metals.
(x) The valence electrons constituting the electron gas obey Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics under the
equilibrium condition.
(xi) The movement of free electrons inside a metal is equivalent to the motion of free electrons in a
potential well.

9.5  DRIFT VELOCITY

In classical free electron theory of metals, free electron gas model is used to explain the electrical
conductivity of metals. At the condition of thermal equilibrium, electrons in a solid are in the state of
random motion. The kinetic energy of an electron during its random motion is given as
1 3
mc 2 = k T (9.1)
2 2 B

or   c = 3k BT (9.2)
m
where kB is Boltzmann’s constant and c is the root mean square velocity at temperature T.
274  l  Engineering Physics

b
Dx
a
c

d
E

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9.2  (a) Motion of electron in absence of external field, (b) view of plane through which same
number of electrons are passing left to right and vice versa, and (c) motion of an electron under
the influence of external fields

The behaviour of an electron’s motion with and without external fields is shown in Figs. 9.2 (c) and
(a), respectively. Actually, in the absence of external field, electrons undergo random motion and they
constitute no net current. In order to illustrate it further, let us consider a plane abcd as shown in Fig. 9.2
(b). It is observed that many electrons are passing through this plane from left to right and almost same
number of electrons are passing through this plane from right to left. Thus, the net current constituted
by the electrons in the solid is zero.
Under the influence of external potential difference applied across the solid, the equilibrium condition
is disturbed. Due to the applied electric field, electrons are accelerated, but very soon their motion is
hindered due to their interaction with the atoms of the crystal lattice. Thus, the magnitude and the direction
of the velocity of electrons are changed suddenly. At the steady state condition, the electrons have net
movement in the direction opposite to the applied electric field [Fig. 9.2 (c)]. This net movement of
electrons is known as drift, and the corresponding mean velocity is called drift velocity (ud). Electrons
drift in a particular direction and constitute a current known as drift current, which is more often called
conduction current.

9.6  EXPRESSION OF DRIFT VELOCITY

The strength of electric current in a conductor is measured in terms of the magnitude of electric charge
flowing per second through a cross section of the conductor. Let us consider an electric field which is
applied at the ends of a metal under the influence of which, free electrons start moving with the drift
velocity ud in the direction opposite to the applied field as shown in Fig. 9.3.
A

vd

Fig. 9.3  Drift velocity of electrons under the influence of external field
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  275
If q charge is passing through this metal in time t, then the constituted current i can be given as
q
i= (9.3)
t
Let the cross sectional area of metal be A and n be the free electrons per unit volume, then the number
of electron passing per second through the cross section of metal is nAud. Now, the charge of electrons
passing through the metal in time t second is given as
q = (nAud t) × e
By putting the value of q in Eq. (9.3), we get
i = neAud
We know that the current density is given as
i
j = = neud
A
i i
or ud – = (9.4)
ne neA
Equation (9.4) gives the relation between the current and the drift velocity.

9.7  RELAXATION TIME

Relaxation time is a measure of time required to relax an electron when the externally applied field is
removed.
If an electric field Ex is applied to a specimen, then all the electrons are accelerated in the x-direction
with the acceleration ax which is given as
 eE 
ax = –  x 
 m 
du x  eE 
or =–  x
dt  m 
If 〈ux〉 is the average velocity of all n electrons, then
d  eE 
〈ux〉 = –  x  (9.5)
dt  m 
Due to the electron lattice and other constraints of crystal lattice scattering, it is very difficult to solve
the above equation to obtain the value of ux. In order to solve this equation, let us consider that the
average velocity of the electron at an instant t = 0 is 〈ux〉0 (tends to zero). In other words, we can say that
the velocity of electrons becomes random in the crystal.
Let us suppose that the process of randomisation follow the simplest law of decay, according to which
〈ux〉 = 〈ux〉0 e – t /τ (9.6)

t is known as relaxation time. In order to define the relaxation time, let us put t = t. Now, Eq. (9.6)
becomes
276  l  Engineering Physics
〈ux〉 = 〈ux〉0 e–1
ux0
= (9.7)
e
Hence, the relaxation time is defined as the time taken by the drift velocity to decay to 1/e of its initial
value.
Differentiating Eq. (9.6), we get

d u x 0 e −t /τ
〈ux〉 = –
dt τ
d ux ux
or = – (because 〈ux〉 = 〈ux〉0 e–t/t) (9.8)
dt τ
Equation (9.8) is used to obtain the electron lattice term without knowing the details of the collision
process. Relaxation of electrons to the equilibrium is shown in Fig. 9.4.

〈vx〉0

Greater t

〈vx〉

Smaller t

O Time
Fig. 9.4  Relaxation of electrons to equilibrium after the removal of electric field

9.8  MEAN COLLISION TIME

The average time taken by an electron between any two consecutive collisions during its motion in the
crystal lattice is known as the mean collision time.
During the motion of electrons in the crystal lattice, it is assumed that the electron collisions are elastic.
It means that their energy is conserved before and after the collision. But it is observed that the conductor
warms up when current passes through it. This implies that a certain part of energy is transferred to the
lattice during electron–lattice collision. Since the fraction of energy transferred to the crystal is very
small, so it can be neglected and collision may be considered the elastic one.
Let us consider 〈ux〉 as the average velocity of electron along the X-axis before the collision which
become completely random after the collision, i.e.,
〈ux〉after = 0 and 〈ux〉before = 〈ux〉
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  277
Now, the net change in average velocity before and after the collision is given as
〈ux〉after – 〈ux〉before

or 0 – 〈ux〉 = – 〈ux〉
Suppose that the probability of an electron making a collision in time dt is dt τ c , i.e., on an average,
there are 1 τ c collisions per second. Now, the rate of change of average velocity 〈ux〉 may be given as

d ux
〈ux〉 = – (9.9)
dt τc
Comparing Eqs. (9.8) and (9.9), we get t = tc, i.e., relaxation time is equal to the mean time between
collisions.
In the above derivation, it is assumed that the average scattered angle is 90° (the average of angles
0° to –180°) and after each collision, electrons have no memory of what went before. If on an
average, velocity direction changes by q on collision (Fig. 9.5), then the change of 〈ux〉 is on an average,
– 〈ux〉 (1 – cos q).
v2 cos q

vx

vx q

Fig. 9.5  Scattering of electron at an average angle q. The change in any vx is therefore on an
average, vx (1 – cos q)

Hence,
τc
t= (9.10)
1 – cos θ 
where t is the relaxation time and tc is the mean time between collisions.

9.9  MEAN FREE PATH

The mean free path l of an electron is an average distance which the electron travels without suffering
any collision during its motion in the crystal lattice. The mean free path l of an electron is given as
l = c tc (9.11)
where c is the root mean square velocity of the electron and tc is the collision time.
Mean free path depends on the obstacles present in its path.
For a given concentration of obstacles, the collision time (tc) is inversely proportional to the velocity
c of the electrons. From Eq. (9.10), it is clear that the relaxation time (t) is proportional to the collision
278  l  Engineering Physics

time (tc) and hence, inversely proportional to the velocity c . Since the relaxation time (t) determines
the conductivity of metals, so it should have a single value decided by fermi energy EF. The proof of this
statement can be given on the basis of the quantum theory of free electrons.

9.10  EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS

Let us consider a metal specimen of cross sectional area A and length l. If the potential difference V is
applied across the solid as shown in Fig. 9.6, then it establishes an electric field E, which is given as
V
E = (9.12)
l
l

A
i
Cross sectional area

+ –

Fig. 9.6  Schematic circuit diagram for determining the conductivity of a solid

This electric field accelerates the mobile charges and causes a flow of electric current through the
specimen. If Q charges are passing through the cross sectional area A in time t, then current i can be given as
θ
i= (9.13)
t
The ratio of the intensity of the electric field E at any point within the conductor and the current
density j at that point is called resistivity or specific resistance of the conductor and is represented by r.
E EA  i
Thus, r=
j
=
i
 because j =  (9.14)
A
Putting the value of E in Eq. (9.14), we get
V A
r=
i l

 A
= R  (9.15)
l 

where R = V i is known as the resistance of specimen.

The reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance (g) and the reciprocal of resistivity is known as
conductivity (s).
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  279
These are expressed as
1 A
g= = (9.16)
R ρl

1 l
and s= = (9.17)
ρ RA
The unit of conductance is mho, also called siemens (S). The unit of conductivity is (W-m)–1 or mho/m
or S/m.
By putting the value of r in Eq. (9.17) from Eq. (9.16), we get
1
s=
E j
j
=
E
or j = sE (9.18)
i.e., current density = conductivity × electric field.
If n is the concentration of free electrons available in the unit volume of the specimen, then total
number of electrons in the solid is given as
N = nAl
Now, the total charge present in the solid is expressed as
Q = Ne = neAl
Now, the current through the specimen is given as
Q neAl
i = =
t t
= neAud
Now, the current density (j) given as
i
j = = neud (9.19)
A
From Eq. (9.18),
j ne u d
σ= =
E E

s = nem (9.20)
ud
m= (9.21)
E
m is known as the mobility of electrons and it is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field. The
unit of mobility is m2/V-s.
280  l  Engineering Physics
9.11  EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTIVITY OF METALS
When the temperature of a metallic wire is raised, its electric resistance increases. This can be explained
as below.
The resistance R of a wire of length l, cross sectional area A, and the relaxation time (t) of free electrons
within the wire is given as
m l
R = 2 (9.22)
ne τ A
where n is the number of free electrons per unit volume of wire, m is the mass, and e is the charge of an
electron for the given specimen. From Eq. (9.22),
l
Rµ
τ
The relaxation time (t) is the average time between two successive collisions of an electron with the
positive ions. The relaxation time (t) is expressed in terms of l and c (root mean square velocity) as
λ λ
t= = (Because c = urms)
c u rms

l c
\ Rµ µ (9.23)
τ λ
As the temperature of the specimen rises, the root mean square velocity ( c ) of its free electrons
increases ( c µ T ) and the mean free path (l) decreases. Hence, the resistance R of the wire increases,
A
i.e., the resistivity of the material of the specimen r = R increases. In this way, we conclude that with
l
the increase in the temperature, the electrical conductivity of metallic specimen decreases.
If the resistance of the wire at 0°C is Ro and at t°C it is Rt, then the value of Rt can be obtained by the
following formula:
Rt = Ro (1+ a t) (9.24)
where a is a constant which is called the “temperature coefficient of resistance” of the material of the
given specimen. From Eq. (9.24), we can write
R – Ro
a= t per °C (9.25)
Ro × t
If Ro = 1 W and t = 1°C, then a = (Rt – Ro). It implies that if the resistance of the wire at 0°C is 1 W, then
on raising its temperature to 1°C, the increase in its resistance will be equal to the “temperature coefficient
of resistance” of the material of the given specimen.

9.12  EFFECT OF IMPURITY ON THE RESISTIVITY OF METAL

The addition of small amounts of impurities leads to a considerable increase in the resistivity. For example,
brass (63% Cu and 40% Zn), which is widely used as a contact material in power plugs and sockets,
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  281

has a resistivity of 9 m W-cm, which however, is not in direct proportion to the amounts of the different
metals in the alloy. In general, if r denotes the resistivity, then
ralloy = rcopper + xr1 (9.26)
where
x = atomic percent of added impurity and
r1 = increase in resistivity for one atomic percent addition of impurity.
Thus, if Ni is added to copper, the resistivity of Cu goes up by 1.3 m W-cm for each 1% addition of Ni.
rNi–Cu = (rCu+ × 1.3 m) W-cm
The conductivity of metals is associated with the presence of free or conduction electrons. Although
these electrons are considered as electron gas, they are always affected by the presence of ion core in
the crystal. When impurity is added to the metal, then supplementary free electrons are added to the
metal along with its ion core. Actually, the resistivity of specimen depends on the fact that how the free
electrons are supported by the crystal lattice of newly formed alloy. It is observed that in copper–nickel
alloy, the copper atoms do not impede the motion of the free electrons but additional nickel atoms impede
their motion. On the basis of the classical free electron theory, it is not possible to explain the effect of
impurity and temperature on the metals, semiconductors, and insulators. These can be explained only on
the basis of the quantum mechanical theory, which is known as the band theory of solids.

9.13  FAILURE OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

Although the classical free electron theory has been successfully applied to explain the various properties
of metals, there are good number of failures in the credit of this theory. Some important failures of this
theory are as follows:
(i) This theory completely failed to explain the heat capacity and the paramagnetic susceptibility of
the conduction electrons. According to this theory, free electron are treated as the molecules of the
gas. Thus, on the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, the specific heat of electrons is calculated as
3
[CV]electron = kB NA
2
where kB is the Boltzmann constant and NA is the Avogadro number.
3
Now, [CV]electron = × 1.38 × 10–23 × 6.02 × 1026
2
= 12.5 kJ/k mol/K
Thus, the molar electronic specific heat is 12.5 KJ/k mol/K. This value of specific heat is about
hundred times greater than its experimental value. Classical theory of free electron has no
explanation for it.
(ii) On the basis of this theory, we cannot understand the occurrence of long mean free paths at low
temperatures. According to this theory, we can calculate the value of the mean free path as given
below. The resistivity of metal in terms of relaxation time is given as
m
r= 2
ne τ
282  l  Engineering Physics

m
or t=
ρ ne2
The resistivity of copper at 20°C is 1.69 × 10–8 W-m and the density of free electrons (n) is
8.5 × 1028 m–3.
9.1× 10 –31
Now, t=
8.5 × 1028 (1.6 × 10 –19 ) 2 × 1.69 × 10 –8
9.1× 10 –31
=
36.77 × 10 –18
= 2.475 × 10–14 s
Now, l, i.e., mean free path is given as
l = t c = 2.475 × 10–14 × 1.154 × 105
= 2.856 × 10–9 m
= 2.856 nm
But experimentally, it is observed that the value of l is more than ten times the above calculated
value. This disagreement between the experimental result and the theoretical result could not be
explained by this theory.
(iii) This theory is unable to predict the correct dependence of resistance on the temperature. This
theory has no answer to the following questions:
(a) Why the resistivity of metals increases with temperature while it decreases in semiconductors
and insulators?
(b) Why the optical radiation does not affect the resistivity of metals but the resistivity of
semiconductors decreases?
(c) Why the resistivity of metals increases with the increase in the impurity concentration but
the resistivity of semiconductors is highly sensitive to impurities; even a very small amount
of impurity causes drastic decrease in resistivity of semiconductors?
(iv) The application of Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics to this theory allows all the free electrons of the
metal to participate in the thermal conduction, but it is not correct. The use of Fermi–Dirac statistics
reveals that only the electrons present near the Fermi level take part in thermal and electrical conduc-
tions.

Solved Examples
Example 9.1
The density of silver is 10.5 × 103 kg/m3. The atomic weight of silver is 107.9. Assuming that each silver
atom provides one conduction electron, calculate the number of conduction electrons. If the conductivity
of silver at 20°C is 6.8 × 107/rm, then calculate the mobility of electrons in silver.
Solution
The number of electrons can be given as
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  283

Avogadro number × density

n =
Atomic weight

6.025 × 1026 × 10.5 × 103

=
107.9
= 5.863 × 1028/m3
Mobility of electrons can be given as
1
m =
ρ ne
σ 6.8 × 107
= =
ne 5.863 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10 –19
= 7.249 × 10–3
= 0.7249 × 10–2 m2/(V-s)

Example 9.2
The density of silver is 10.5 × 103 kg/m3 and the atomic weight of silver is 107.9. If each silver atom
provides one conduction electron, calculate the collision time for free electrons. The conductivity of
silver at room temperature is 6.8 × 107/rm.
Solution
The number of free electrons per unit volume is given as
Avogadro number × density
n =
Atomic weight

6.025 × 1026 × 10.5 × 103

=
107.9

= 5.863 × 1028/m3
The collision time or relaxation time can be calculated by the formula
σm
t =
ne2
6.8 × 107 × 9.1× 10 –31
=
( )
2
5.863 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10 –19

61.88 × 10 –24
=
15.01× 10 –10
= 4.12 × 10–14 s
284  l  Engineering Physics

Example 9.3
Refer the following data for copper:
(i) density = 8.92 × 103 kg/m3,
(ii) resistivity of copper = 1.73 × 10–8 W-m, and
(iii) atomic weight = 63.5.
Calculate the mobility of electrons.
Solution
The number of free electrons per unit volume is given as
Avogadro number × density
n =
Atomic weight
6.025 × 1026 × 8.92 × 103
= = 8.46 × 1028/m3
63.5
The time of collision or relaxation time is given as
m
t= 2
ne ρ
9.1× 10 –31
=
( ) × (1.73 ×10 )
2
8.46 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10 –19 –8

= 2.43 × 10–14 s
Example 9.4
Assuming that there is one free electron per atom in copper, determine the number of free electrons in
unit volume (1 m3) of copper. Density of copper is 8.9 × 103 kg/m3 and atomic weight is 63.5 (Avogadro’s
number N = 6.02 × 1026/kg).
Solution
If the atomic weight of a material is M kilogram and the density is d kilogram per metre cube, then the
volume of its 1 kg atom will be (M/d) metre cube.
According to Avogadro, there are 6.02 × 1026 atoms in 1 kg atom of the material. This number is
called “Avogadro number N”. According to this, the number of atoms in (M/d) metre cube volume of a
material = N.
N d×N
Now, the number of atoms in 1 m3 volume = = .
M /d M
Assuming 1 free electron per atom in copper, the number of free electrons in 1 m3 volume of copper is
d×N
n =
M

n =
(8.9 ×10 ) × ( 6.02 ×10 ) = 8.4 × 10
3 26
28 m3
63.5
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  285

Example 9.5
An aluminium wire of diameter 0.24 is connected in series with a copper wire of diameter 0.16 cm. The
wires carry an electric current of 10 A. Find out the
(i) current density in the aluminium wire and
(ii) drift velocity of electrons in the copper wire.
(Given that the number of electrons per cubic metre volume of copper = 8.4 × 1028)
Solution
0.24
(i) Radius of the aluminium wire is = 0.12 cm.
2
= 0.12 × 10–2 m
Now, the area of cross section is
A = p (0.12 × 10–2)2 = 4.5 × 10–6 m2
i 10
\ Current density j = = = 2.2 × 106 A/m2
A 4.5 × 10 –6
(ii) Area of cross section of the copper wire is
A = p (0.08 × 10–2)2 = 2.0 × 10–6 m2
i 10
\ Current density j = = = 5.0 × 106 A/m2
A 2.0 × 10 –6
Drift velocity of electrons in the copper wire
j 5.0 × 106
ud = =
ne ( ) (
8.4 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10 –19 )
= 3.7 × 10–4 m/s

Example 9.6
A current of 5 A is passing through a metallic wire of cross sectional area 4 × 10–6 m2. If the density of
the charge carriers in the wire is 5 × 1026 /m3, find the drift speed of the electrons. (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C)
Solution
The relation between current (x) and drift velocity (ud) of electrons in a wire of cross sectional area (A) is
i = neAud
where n is the density of (free) electrons in the wire. Therefore,
i
ud =
neA
5A
=
( ) ( ) (
5 × 10 / m × 1.6 × 10 –19 C × 4 × 10 –6 m 2
26 3
)
= 1.56 × 10–2 m/s
286  l  Engineering Physics

Example 9.7
There is a current of 1 A in a copper wire of length 0.10 m and area of cross section 1.0 × 10–6 m2.
(i) If the specific resistance of copper is 1.7 × 10–8 W-m, then find out the potential difference between
the ends of the wire.
(ii) What is the current density in the wire?
(iii) If there is 1 free electron per atom in copper, then determine the drift velocity of electrons. (Given
that the density of copper = 8.9 × 103 kg/m3, atomic weight = 63.5, N = 6.02 × 1026 per kg-atom,
e = 1.0 × 10–19 C.)
Solution
(i) Resistance of the wire is

R =
ρl
=
(1.7 × 10 –8
)
W-m × 0.10 m
–6
A 1.0 × 10 m2
= 1.7 × 10–3 W
\ Potential difference = V = iR = 1.0 A × (1.7 × 10–3 W) = 1.7 × 10–3 V
(ii) Current density in the wire is
i 1.0 A
j= =
A 1.0 × 10 –6 m 2
(iii) The electron density in the wire is given as

n =
d×N
=
(
8.9 × 10 –8 kg/m × 6.02 × 1026) ( )
M 63.5 kg
= 8.4 × 1028 /m3
j 1.0 × 106
Drift velocity ud = =
ne ( ) (
8.4 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10 –19 )
= 7.4 × 10–5 m/s
Example 9.8
The external diameter of a 5 m long hollow tube is 10 cm and the thickness of its wall is 5 mm. If the
specific resistance of copper is 1.7 × 10–8 W-m, then determine its resistance.
Solution
The cross sectional area of the tube is
A = p (r22 – r12) = 3.14 × [(5 × 10–2 m)2 – (4.5 × 10–2 m)2] = 14.9 × 10–4 m2
If l is the length and r is the specific resistance of the material of the tube, then its resistance is
l 
R = r  
 A
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  287

(1.7 × 10−8 Ω-m)(5 m)

=
14.9 × 10−4 m 2
= 5.7 × 10–5 W
9.14  QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY
After the failure of classical free electron theory at the different fronts of electrical, optical, and thermal
properties of metals, the modification in this theory became inevitable. The quantitative error of classical
free electron theory were removed by Sommerfeld in 1928, who introduced the quantum statistics of
Fermi–Dirac in place of the classical statistics used by Lorentz. The suggestion of Sommerfeld was able
to explain the discrepancy between observed and predicted electronic specific heat and paramaganetic
susceptibility of metals. But this theory is also unable to explain two important aspect of the materials. It
is not able to explain “why some crystals have metallic properties and others do not” and “why the atomic
arrays in crystals, including metals, should prefer certain sturctures and not others?” These properties of
crystals can be explained by taking the band structure of solids into consideration.
9.15  ASSUMPTIONS OF QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY
In the quantum free electron theory, Sommerfeld treated the electrons constituting the electron gas quantum
mechanically using the Fermi–Dirac statistics rather than using the classical Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics.
The possible electronic energy states in the potential energy box and the distribution of electrons in these
states are then determined using quantum statistics. In this theory, the concept of free electrons moving
in a uniform potential within the metal is considered same as it is in the classical theory.
According to the quantum theory, the allowed energy levels of electrons bound to a single atom are
quantised. Using this concept, the permissible energy levels are determined for an electron. At these
levels, the electron is free to roam within the crystal but is prevented from escaping it by a very high
potential barrier at the surfaces of crystal.
The possible and permissible energy states for an electron to occupy in a potential well are determined
by giving the suitable solutions to the Schrödinger’s wave equation of this problem.
The number of free electrons distributed in the various permissible energy states is obtained by applying
Fermi–Dirac distribution formula to free electrons.
9.16  PARTICLE IN A THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOX
Let us consider a particle (such as a gas molecule or an electron) confined in a three-dimensional box
as shown in Fig. 9.7. The box possesses the particle of mass m which can move along any axis between
the rigid walls of the box. The dimensions of the box are defined as
0 ≤ x ≤ lx
0 ≤ y ≤ ly
0 ≤ z ≤ lz
Suppose that the particle does not lose energy when it bounces back from the walls of the box, i.e.,
the walls of the box are infinitely hard. Let us also consider that the potential energy V of the particle is
zero inside the box, but becomes infinite at the walls and outside. The potential energy of the box may
be defined as
V = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ lx
0 ≤ y ≤ ly
0 ≤ z ≤ lz
288  l  Engineering Physics
and V = ∞ for x < 0 and x > lx
y < 0 and y > ly
z < 0 and z > lz (9.27)

Fig. 9.7  Three-dimensional potential box

The Schrödinger wave equation for the particle in such a three-dimensional potential box is given as
2m
∇2y + 2 (E – V)y = 0

Inside the box, V = 0. Therefore, the above equation takes the form
2mEψ
∇2y + –0
2
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 2mEψ
or 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ = 0 (9.28)
∂x ∂y ∂z 2
Since y is the function of x, y, and z, so it can be given as
y (x, y, z) = X(x), Y(y), Z(z) (9.29)
or y = XYZ (9.30)
Now, using Eq. (9.29) in Eq. (9.28), we get
∂2 X ∂ 2Y ∂2Z 2mE
YZ 2
+ XZ 2
+ XY 2
+ XYZ = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z 2
1 ∂2 X 1 ∂ 2Y 1 ∂2Z  2mE 
2
+ 2
+ =–  2  (9.31)
X ∂x Y ∂y Z ∂z 2   
In the above equation, the first term, the second term, and the third term are the functions of x, y, and
z, respectively, while the sum of the three is constant. Thus, Eq. (9.31) will be satisfied if each term is
equal to a constant.
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  289
Therefore, we can write
1 ∂2 X
= –Kx2
X ∂x 2
1 ∂ 2Y
= –Ky2
Y ∂y 2
1 ∂2Z
= –K2z
Z ∂z 2
2mE
where Kx2 + Ky2 + Kz2 = 2 (9.32)

From the above equation, we may write
∂2 X
+Kx2X = 0 (9.33)
∂x 2
∂ 2Y
+ Ky2Y = 0 (9.34)
∂y 2
∂2Z
+ Kz2Z = 0 (9.35)
∂z 2
2mE
Kx2 + Ky2 + Kz2 = (9.36)
2
The general solution of Eq. (9.33) can be given as
X(x) = Axsin Kxx + Bxcos Kxx (9.37)
where Ax and Bx are constants. The values of A and B can be determined by applying the boundary
conditions. Since the particle cannot penetrate the walls and cannot exist outside the box, the probability
of finding the particle will be zero outside the box.
Hence, X(x) = 0 at x = 0 and again X(x) = 0 at x = lx.
Applying these boundary conditions to Eq. (9.37), we get
0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0 (Because at x = 0, X(x) = 0)
or B=0
Now, Eq. (9.37) takes the form
X(x) = Ax sin Kxx
Using the boundary condition X(x) = 0 at x = lx, we get
Ax sinKx lx = 0
In the above equation, either Ax is zero or sin Kxlx is zero.
Since, Ax is the amplitude of wave, so Ax ≠ 0. Thus, we get
sin kxlx = 0
or kxlx = nxp (nx = 0, 1, 2, 3.....)
290  l  Engineering Physics

nxπ
or Kx = (9.38)
lx
nx π
Hence, X(x) = Ax sin x (9.39)
lx
In Eq. (9.38), we still require the exact value of constant Ax. To find the value of constant Ax, we apply
normalization condition, i.e.,
∞
∫ |X(x)|2dx = 1
–∞
Using the boundary condition of our problem, we can write
lx
∫ |X(x)|2dx = 1
0
lx
nx π x
∫ Ax2 sin2
lx
dx = 1
0
lx
Ax 2  2 nx π x 

2 ∫ 1 − cos
 lx 
 dx = 1
0
l
Ax 2  2 nx π x 
x
lx
 x − sin  =1
2  2π nx lx  0

Ax 2
or l =1
2 x
2
or Ax =
lx
By putting this value in Eq. (9.39), we get
2 n πx
X(x) = sin x (9.40)
lx lx
Similarly, we can solve the differential equation of Eq. (9.34) and Eq. (9.35), and we get
2 n yπ y
Y(y) = sin (9.41)
ly ly

2 n πz
and Z(z) = sin z (9.42)
lz lz
Thus, the complete wave function y (x, y, z) = XYZ can be given as
 2 n πx  2 n yπ y   2 n πz
y =  sin x   sin  
 sin z 
 lx 
lx   l y 
l y   lz lz 
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  291

2 2 n πx n yπ y n πz
y= sin x sin sin z (9.43)
lxl y lz lx ly lz

From Eq. (9.36), we can write

2
E= [Kx2 + Ky2 + Kz2]
2m
From Eq. (9.38), we know that
nxπ n yπ nπ
Kx = and similarly, Ky = and Kz = z
lx ly lz
2 2
 2  nx2π 2 n yπ nz2π 2 
Now, E=  + + 
2m  lx 2 l 2
l 2

 y z

2
 2π 2  nx 2 n y n 2
=  2 + 2 + z2 
2m  lx ly lz 

2
h 2  nx 2 n y n 2
=  2 + 2 + z2  (9.44)
8m  l x ly lz 


If lx = ly = lz, then
h2
E = [n 2 + ny2 + nz2]
8ml 2 x
For n2 = nx2 + ny2 + nz2, we can write
h2n2
E = (9.45)
8ml 2

8 nxπ x n yπ y n πz
and y (x, y, z) = sin sin sin z (9.46)
l3 l l l
From Eqs. (9.45) and (9.46), following conclusions can be drawn:
(i) The three integers nx, ny, and nz are known as quantum numbers, which are required to specify
each energy states. Out of these three numbers, no one can be zero because at this condition,
y (x, y, z) = 0, which would mean that the particle does not exist in the box.
(ii) Total energy E depends only on the sum of the squares of quantum numbers nx, ny , and nz. It does
not depend on their individual values.
(iii) The different combinations of nx, ny, and nz integers may give different stationary states correspond-
ing to the same energy value. These states and energy levels are known as degenerate states.
292  l  Engineering Physics
9.17  FERMI–DIRAC STATISTICS
In the classical free electron theory, it is assumed that any number of particles may have identical energies.
This assumption gives proper explanation of the conductivity of metals, but it fails to give a proper
understanding of the contribution by the electrons to the specific heat and the magnetic susceptibility.
In order to explain the low value of specific heat associated with the electrons, Sommerfeld looked
more closely into the statistical behaviour of the electron gas. He suggested that the electron gas behaves
like a system of Fermi particles and hence, obeys Fermi–Dirac statistics. This statistics is applied to
indistinguishable particles (Fermions), which are governed by Pauli’s exclusion principle. Sommerfeld
investigated the behaviour of free electron gas taking the quantum theory and the Pauli’s exclusion
principle into consideration.
On the basis of the suggestions of Sommerfeld, it is easy to find out the electron distribution function
using Fermi–Dirac distribution function. We know that each energy band in a crystal accommodates a large
number of electron energy levels. Each energy level consists of two states and each state accommodates
only one electron. Therefore, an energy level can be occupied by two electrons only, having opposite
directions of spin. Now, it is important to know how energy levels are distributed over a band and how
electrons are distributed in the energy levels. Now, it is necessary to determine the energy states which
are available for occupation by the conduction electrons. The number of states lying in the range of
energies between E and E + dE is given as
4π
D(E) dE = 3 (2m)3/2 E1/2 dE (9.47)
h
The function D(E) is known as the density of states function. It is defined as the number of available
states per unit volume per unit energy interval around E. It also gives the idea about the number of
states that can be occupied by conduction electrons. However, it is not necessary that all the available
energy states are filled in an energy band. The occupancy of particular energy level is determined by the
probability F(E). Thus, the number of conduction electrons per unit volume within a given energy range
depends both on the number of available states lying in the range and on the probability that carriers
acquire sufficient energy to occupy the states. Hence, the concentration of conduction electrons in the
energy dE is given as
N (E) dE = F (E) D(E) dE (9.48)
N(E) is known as the conduction electron distribution function and F(E) determines the carrier
occupancy of energy states. The expression which governs the distribution of electrons among the energy
levels as a function of temperature is known as the Fermi–Dirac distribution function and is given as
1
F(E) = ( E – EF )/ kT (9.49)
1 + exp

The above function gives the probability of occupancy of a particular quantum state at the energy level
E by an electron. This probability is independent of the density of states. F(E) = 1 for filled energy levels
by electrons and F(E) = 0 for empty energy levels. EF is termed as the Fermi energy level.

9.18  FILLING OF ENERGY LEVELS

According to the quantum theory of free electron, the distribution of electrons in the allowed energy
levels follows the Pauli’s exclusion principle. When the electron is considered in a three-dimensional
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  293
box, then a set of four quantum numbers, Kx, Ky, Kz, and ms, represents a state of the system. Apparently,
each state can be occupied by atmost one electron. It is clear from Eq. (9.44) that a set of values of Kx,
Ky, Kz defines an energy level. Since for each set of Kx, Ky, Kz , the fourth quantum number can have two
values, ± 1/2 (ms), it indicates that each energy level contains two quantum states of orbitals, and hence,
can accommodate a maximum of two electrons—one with spin up and the other with spin down. Thus,
we can say that each energy level is doubly degenerate. In this way, a total of N non-interacting electrons
at 0 K can be filled in N/2 energy levels. The topmost filled level is the (N/2)th level and all other levels
lying above it are empty. This energy level is also known as Fermi energy level, which divides the filled
and the empty level at 0 K. Fermi energy level is denoted by EF. The distribution of electrons among the
energy levels of the box at 0 K is shown in Fig. 9.8 (a). Thus, we can conclude that unlike classical theory,
quantum theory does not allow the condensation of all the electrons into the state of zero energy, even
at absolute zero. These electrons are distributed in different discrete energy levels ranging from 0 to EF.
The distribution of electrons in different energy levels varies according to the variation of temperature
as discussed below.
At T = 0 K
(i) At T = 0 K, for energy levels E lying below EF (E < EF). At this condition, E – EF is negative and
the argument of the exponential function in F(E) is –∞.
1 1
F(E) = +∞
= =1
1+ e 1+ 0
F(E) = 1 shows that all the levels below EF are occupied by electrons [shown in Fig. 9.8 (b)].
(ii) At T = 0 K, if energy levels are lying above EF, i.e., E > EF, i.e., (E – EF) > 0 (positive quantity)
and the argument of exponential function is + ∞. Thus,
1 1
F(E) = +∞
= =0
1+ e 1+ ∞
F(E) = 0 shows that all the energy levels above EF are vacant.
Vacuum E
E
Surface energy (Es)

EF
EF
Energy (E)

O Surface O 1 O N (E )
F (E )
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 9.8  (a) Distribution of electrons among energy levels inside a box, (b) Fermi–Dirac function at
0 K, and (c) complete electron distribution function
294  l  Engineering Physics
(iii) At T = 0 K, when E = EF, the argument of the exponential function is indeterminate.
1
F(E) = = indeterminable
1 + e0/ 0
It shows that the occupation of Fermi level at this condition has an undetermined value ranging
between 0 K and one.
At T > 0 K
At the temperatures greater than 0 K, electrons may excite to vacant levels above the Fermi level. At
the condition EF >> kT, the distribution function loses its step character. The probability of occupation,
F(E) decreases gradually from 1 to 0 near EF. It indicates that some of the states below EF are empty,
while some others above it are filled. This is because some of the electrons from the energy states below
EF gain thermal energy and get excited to the states above EF. Since the value of kT is very less than EF,
so the electrons lying deep in the conduction band remain at their original level. Only those electrons in
the levels which are adjacent to Fermi level can accept this thermal energy and jump to a higher level, as
shown in Fig. 9.9 (a). Due to the thermal excitation of conduction electrons, the probability of finding
electrons at level E > EF becomes greater than zero and the probability at lower levels E < EF becomes
less than unity. The probability function F(E) for T > 0 K is shown in Fig. 9.9 (b) and the complete
distribution function at same thermal condition is shown in Fig. 9.9 (c)
E
E E

kT kT
EF EF EF
kT kT

Surface F(E) N(E)

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 9.9  (a) Distribution of thermally excited electrons near Fermi level, (b) Fermi–Dirac function at
T kelvin, and (c) complete electron distribution function

At E = EF, Fermi–Dirac distribution function is given as

1 1 1
F(E) = 0/ kT
= =
1+ e 1+1 2
Thus, at temperature T > 0 K, the Fermi level may be defined as the level where the probability of
occupation is 1/2.
The Fermi–Dirac distribution function at three different temperatures (T, T1, T2, where T2 > T1) is
shown in Fig. 9.10. It is clear from the figure that the distribution curves for different temperatures pass
through a point c at which the probability value is 0.5. It is due to the fact that F(EF) has a value equal
to 0.5 for any temperature greater than 0 K.
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  295

T2
T1
T2 > T1
1 T=0K

F(E)

0.5 C

EF EFo
Energy of the level E
Fig. 9.10  Fermi–Dirac distribution function at different temperatures

9.19  FERMI ENERGY

In general, Fermi energy may or may not correspond to an energy level, but it provides a reference with
which other energies (energies of conduction and valence electrons) can be compared. It is denoted by
EF. It has its different positions in different conditions. For example at 0 K, it is corresponding to the
maximum energy that an electron can have in a conductor, but at temperatures above absolute zero,
electrons are excited to vacant levels above the Fermi levels.
Fermi energy level EF can be defined as the uppermost filled energy level in the conductor at 0 K, as
shown in Fig. 9.8 (a). At the temperature greater than 0 K, some of the states below EF are empty, while
some other above it are filled. It is due to the reason that some of the electrons having their energy states
below EF gain thermal energy and get excited to the states above EF , as shown in Fig. 9.9 (a).
At T > 0 K, for E = EF , the Fermi function is given as
1 1 1
F(E) = 0 = = = 0.5
1+ e 1+1 2
On the basis of the above value of F(E), we can give the operational definition of Fermi level.
Fermi level is defined as the energy level at which the probability of electron occupancy is one-half.
In other words, we can define it as an average energy possessed by the electrons, which participate in
the conduction process in conductors at temperature above 0 K.
9.19.1  Expression of Fermi Energy at 0 K (EFo)
If F(E) is the Fermi function and D(E) is the density of state, then the number of filled electronic states
in the energy range E and E + dE at temperature T is given as
N(E) dE = D(E) F(E) dE (9.50)
Now, the total number of electrons can be obtained by integrating Eq. (9.50), i.e.,
∞ ∞
N = ∫ N ( E ) dE = ∫ D( E ) F ( E ) dE (9.51)
0 0

We know that
296  l  Engineering Physics
EF 3/2 ∞
V  2m 
∫ ∫E
1/2
N = D( E ) dE =  2  F ( E ) dE (9.52)
2
0 3π  0

where m is the mass of electron and V is the volume of Fermi sphere.

3/2  EFo ∞ 
V  2m   E1/2 F ( E )dE + 
 ∫0 ∫
1/2
=  2  E F ( E ) dE (9.53)
3π 2  EFo

 
At absolute zero temperature,
F(E) = 1 for E ≤ EFO
= 0 for E > EFO (9.54)
Using Eq. (9.54) in Eq. (9.53), we get
3/2 EFo
V  2m 
N =
3π 2
 2 

∫ E1/2 dE
0
3/2
V  2m  3/2
= 2  2  EFo
3π 
2/3
 2  3π 2 N 
or EFO = (9.55)
2m  V 
Putting N/V = n, the electron concentration, we obtain
2/3
2  2  3n 
EFO = (3p2n)2/3 =   (9.56)
2m 8m  π 
Equation (9.56) gives the value of Fermi energy at 0 K.
An approximate relationship between EF and EFo is given as
 π  kT 2 
EF j EFo 1 –    (9.57)
 12  EF o  
 
In case of metals, since the spacing between the levels is quite small (~10–19 eV), the highest filled
energy level is usually taken as the Fermi level.

9.20  DENSITY OF STATES [D(E)]

The density of states D(E) is defined as the total number of available electronic states (or orbitals) per unit
energy range at energy E. In order to derive the expression for D(E), let us consider the linear momentum
p, which is represented by an operator iћ∇ in quantum mechanics. If Ek is the total energy of the electron
in k-state, which is confined in a cubical box of edge L, then the solution of Schrödinger wave equation
can be given as normalized wave function according to Eq. (9.43),
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  297

8 πn   π ny  πn 
i.e., yk(r) = sin  x x  sin  y  sin  z z  (9.58)
L 3  L   L   L 

where nx, ny, nz are positive integers and 8 L3 is the normalizing constant. For convenience, Eq. (9.58)
can be represented as
i (kx x + k y y + kz z )
yk(r) = A eikr = Ae (9.59)
2m
where k2 = EK (9.60)
2
Using the boundary condition, Eq. (9.59) yields
i (kx x + k y y + kz z )
yk(r) = e (9.61)
When momentum operator is operated on Eq. (9.61), we get
Pyk (r) = –iћ∇yk(r) (9.62)
Pyk(r) = ћk yk(r)
In the above equation, yk is an eigen function of linear momentum with eigen value ћk. Now, the
particle velocity is given as
k
u= (9.63)
m
The occupied states in the ground state for N free electrons can be represented by points inside a sphere
in a k-space. The energy corresponding to the surface of the sphere represents the Fermi energy and the
sphere is known as the Fermi sphere as shown in Fig. 9.11. If kF is the wave vector from the origin to the
surface of the sphere, then the Fermi energy can be given as
2 2
EF = k (9.64)
2m F
kz

kF

kY
Fermi sphere

kx
Fig. 9.11  Fermi sphere in k-space having radius kF, containing occupied states of
N electrons in ground state
298  l  Engineering Physics

Since the values of kx, ky , and kz are of the form 2nπ L (for ground state n = 1, i.e., 2π L ), so these
quantum numbers in k-space correspond to the volume element ( 2π L )3 . Hence, in the Fermi sphere of
volume ( 4π 3) k F3 , the total number of electronic states or orbitals are given as

 4π  3
  kF L3 V
3 
2 = 3
2 kF = k 3 = N (9.65)
 2π  3π 3π 2 F
 3
 L 
where the factor 2 appears because there are two allowed values of ms and hence, two electronic states
corresponding to each value of k.
Now, from Eq. (9.65), kF can be given as
1/3
 3π 2 N 
kF =   (9.66)
 V 

The above equation indicates that kF depends on the concentration (N V ) of electrons and is
independent of the mass of electrons. We can obtain the value of Fermi energy by putting the value of
kF in Eq. (9.64) as
2/3
 2  3π 2 N 
EF = (9.67)
2m  V 

It is clear from Eq. (9.67) that EF depends on both mass and concentration of electrons.
Using the value of kF in terms of EF in Eq. (9.65), we get
3/2
V  2mEF 
N =   (9.68)
3π 2   2 
The velocity of electron at the Fermi surface is obtained from Eqs. (9.63) and (9.66) as
1/3
k   3π 2 N 
uF = F = (9.69)
m m  V 

The density of states D(E) can be obtained by taking this fact into consideration that in the ground
state of a system, all the energy states below EF are occupied and the total number of states are equal to
the total number of electrons, i.e.,
EF
∫ D( E )dE = N (9.70)
0
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  299
By putting the value of N in above equation, we get
EF 3/2
V  2mE 
∫ D( E )dE =  
3π 2   2 
0
By expressing the above definite integral in an indefinite form, we get
3/2
V  2mE 
∫ D(E) dE =  
3π 2   2 
3/2
V  2m 
= ∫  
2π 2   2 
E1/2 dE

3/2
V  2m 
or D(E) =   E1/2 (9.71)
2π 2   2 
The density of state at the Fermi surface can be obtained by replacing E with EF in Eq. (9.71), i.e.,
3/ 2
dN V  2m 
D(EF) = =   E1F/ 2 (9.72)
dEF 2p 2   2 

9.21  EXPRESSION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

According to the classical free electron theory, the valence electrons have no preferential velocity in
any direction. Under the quantum mechanical consideration, the velocity of free electrons can be easily
plotted in the velocity space such that the points inside a sphere correspond to the end points of the
velocity vectors. The maximum velocity that an electron can assume at the Fermi level is known as the
Fermi velocity (uF). The shape of uF is represented by the radius of Fermi sphere. The velocity vectors
cancel each other pairwise at equilibrium and no net velocity of the electron exists.
Usually, all the electrons participate in the conduction mechanism but only those electrons occur in
the conductivity whose relaxation time lies in the Fermi level. The conductivity is proportional to the
Fermi surface area. Thus, the metals with large Fermi surface area have high conductivity, whereas the
insulators with zero Fermi surface area have zero conductivity.
From Eq. (9.63), the velocity of free electron is given as

 k 
u=  
m
Under the influence of static electric field of intensity E, the equation of motion of each electron in
the Fermi surface is given as

 dk 
   = Ee (9.73)
 dt 
The above expression indicates that in the absence of collisions, the Fermi sphere will be at constant
rate in k-space.
300  l  Engineering Physics
Integrating Eq. (9.73), we get
 eEt 
k(t) – k(o) =   (9.74)
  
Thus, if the electric field is applied at t = 0 to a filled Fermi sphere centred at the origin of k-space,
then the characteristic time is given as
λF
t = tF = (9.75)
uF
The displacement of Fermi surface under the influence of electric field is shown in Fig. 9.12.
Ex

O
Dvx vx

Fig. 9.12  Displacement of Fermi surface under the influence of electric field

From Eq. (9.74), we can write

 eEt 
Δk =  
  
By putting the value of t in this equation from Eq. (9.75), we get
 eE λ F 
Δk =   (9.76)
 u F 
Collisions tend to restore the displacement surface back to its (t = 0) equilibrium position. A steady
current is ultimately reached with
 ne∆k 
J =   = sE
 m* 

 ne   Eeλ F 
or  m *   u  = sE
   F 

 ne2 λ F 
or s=  
 m * uF 
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  301

 ne2τ F 
=   [tF = tF (Fermi relaxation time)] (9.77)
 m * 
 ne2τ F 
Now, J=sE=   E (9.78)
 m * 
It is clear from the above equation that the current is in fact carried out by a very few electrons only which
are moving with high velocity uF. Whereas in the classical treatment, it was assumed that the current is
carried out by all the electrons, each moving with the average drift velocity ud .

9.22  TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY IN METALS

The expression for the variation of resistivity with temperature can be derived by using the following
assumptions:
(i) The crystal is free from the presence of impurity and other point defects, which may upset the
lattice periodicity.
(ii) The value of TF or lF is determined only on the basis of lattice vibration.
(iii) Scattering of electron wave is due to the finite size of the vibration amplitude of the atom, i.e.,
the vibration amplitude produces a scattering cross section.
(iv) The mean free path is obtained directly by using kinetic theory formula.
(v) At high temperature, the lattice vibrations are essentially classical.
The equation of atomic oscillator is given as

d 2x
M + fx = 0 (9.79)
dt 2
where M is the mass of atom and (–fx) is the restoring force on the displaced atom.
From Eq. (9.79), we can write

d 2x  f 
+   x = 0 (9.80)
dt 2  M 
where w = 2pn = f M , is the angular frequency and x is the amplitude of vibration.
The potential energy per degree of freedom of the oscillator will be given as
1 1
(Mw2x2) = M[4p2n2x2]
2 2
k BT
or Potential Energy = 2Mp2n2x2 = (9.81)
2
At high temperatures, the Einstein and the Debye frequencies are essentially same. Thus, we can write
w2 = w2E = wD2 (9.82)
For Debye frequency nD and Debye temperature qD, we can write
302  l  Engineering Physics
2
k θ 
wD2 = [2 pnD]2 = 4 p2  B D  [where hnD = kB qD]
 h 

2 2
 2π k Bθ D  k θ 
wD2 =   –  B D (9.83)
 h    
From Eq. (9.81), we know that
k BT
x2 = (9.84)
4π Mν D 2
2

Now, by putting the value of nD from Eq. (9.83), we get

2
 k T   h 
x2 =  B2   
 4π M   k Bθ D 
2
 h 2T   1 
=  2   
 4π k B M   θD 

 2T
= (9.85)
Mk Bθ D 2

We know that scattering cross section is proportional to the square of amplitude. Thus, scattering cross
section Qf is given as
Qf = constant × (x2)
= A x2
  2T 
= A  
2 
(9.86)
 Mk Bθ D 
where A is a constant.
From the kinetic theory, we know that mean free path l is proportional to 1 nx 2 , where n is the
number of atoms per cubic metre, i.e.
1 nx 2
lµ

 1  constant
or l=   (9.87)
n x2
We know that
λ
T =
u
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  303
Thus,
1
t = (constant) × (9.88)
nu x 2
By putting the value of x2 in Eq. (9.88) from Eq. (9.85), we get
constant  Mk Bθ D2 
T =  2  (9.89)
nu   T 
At Fermi level, the above Eq. (9.89) can be given as
constant  Mk Bθ D2 
TF =  2  (9.90)
nu F   T 
(constant)  Mk Bθ D2 
tF uF = lF =  2  [where T >> qD]
n   T 
1
i.e., lF µ (9.91)
T
Now, by putting the value of tF in Eq. (9.77), we get

 ne2  1  Mk Bθ D2 
s = (constant)   .  2 
 m *  nu F   T 

 e2   Mk Bθ D2 
= (constant)    2  [where T >> qD] (9.92)
 m * uF    T 

From Eq. (9.90), it is clear that the resistivity is proportional to the temperature for metals (r ∝ T).
Equation (9.90) is in good agreement with the experimental value of conductivity of metals. This equation
is valid only for the condition (T >> qD). At low temperatures, since the relaxation time cannot be defined
consistently, so this theory cannot be extended to low temperatures (T < qD).

9.23  MERITS OF QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

Quantum free electron theory is able to explain almost all the properties of materials. Some important
points which are in credit of quantum free electron theory are as follows:
(i) The most important feature of this theory is that it changes the main concept of classical theory
that all free electrons are conduction electrons. According to this theory, only a few free electrons,
whose energies lie in the vicinity of Fermi level, contribute to the mechanism of conduction and
only those free electrons are called conduction electrons.
(ii) This theory is successful in explaining the thermal and the electrical conductivity of materials.
(iii) Phenomena of thermoionic emission can be explained using this theory and the most common
equation, known as Richardson Dushman equation, can be derived using this theory.
304  l  Engineering Physics
(iv) Temperature dependence of conductivity of metals can be explained successfully using this theory.
(v) The real picture of electrical conduction in metals is quite different from classical theory. In classical
theory, it is considered that all those electrons which have average drift velocity participate in the
conduction, but according to the quantum mechanical treatment, only those electrons participate
in the conduction which are moving at high velocity (uF).
(vi) This theory is able to explain the discrepancy between the observed and the predicted electronic
specific heats of solids.
(vii) This theory successfully explains the paramagnetic susceptibility of solids.

Solved Examples
Example 9.9
In a solid, consider the energy level lying 0.02 eV below Fermi level. What is the probability of this
level not being occupied by an electron at room temperature. Given that (EF – E) = 0.02 eV and kT =
0.026 eV at room temperature 300 K.
Solution
The probability of an energy level E, not being occupied by an electron is given by [1 – F(E)].
1
[1 – F(E)] = 1 – ( E − EF )/ kT
1+ e

1 + e( E − EF )/ kT − 1
=
1 + e( E − EF )/ kT

e( E − EF )/ kT
=
1 + e( E − EF )/ kT
1
= − ( E − EF )/ kT
1+ e
1 1
= =
1+ e 0.02/0.026
1+ e0.769
1
=
1 + 2.16
= 0.317

Example 9.10
The Fermi level for potassium is 2.0 eV. Calculate the velocity of the electrons at the Fermi level.
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  305

Solution
Given that EF = 2.0 eV.
1
We know that EF = muF2
2
2 EF 2 × 2.0 × 1.6 × 10 –19
uF2 = =
m 9.1× 10 –31
= 0.70 × 1012

Now, uF = 0.7 × 1012

= 8.367 × 105 m/s
Example 9.11
The Fermi level of silver is 5.0 eV. Calculate the fraction of free electrons at room temperature located
upto a width of kT on either side of EF. At room temperature, kT = 0.026 eV.
Solution
The number of electrons that occupy levels above EF at T are proportional to kT.
The fraction of electrons that occupy levels higher than EF is given as
kT 0.026 eV
=
EF 5 eV
= 0.0052
Similarly, the fraction of electrons that are deprived of their partners
@ 0.0052
Now, the fraction of free electrons that are located upto a width of kT on either side of EF
= 2 × 0.0052
@ 0.0104
Example 9.12
An electron is bound in one-dimensional potential box which has width of 2.5 × 10–10 m. Assuming the
height of the box to be infinite, calculate the two lowest permitted energy values of the electron.
Solution
The energy of a particle of mass m moving in one-dimensional potential box of infinite height and of
width L is given as
n2 h2
En = (where n = 1, 2, 3,...)
8ml 2
The lowest energy of the electron is obtained by putting n = 1 and the second lowest energy level
corresponds to n = 2. Hence,
306  l  Engineering Physics

h2
E1 =
8ml 2
h2
E2 = 4 = 4E1
8ml 2

( 6.63 ×10 )
2
–34

E1 =
8 × 9.1× 10 × ( 2.5 × 10 )
2
–31 –10

43.956 × 10 –68
=
455 × 10 –51
= 9.66 × 10–19J

9.66 × 10 –19
= eV = 6.04 eV
1.6 × 10 –19
Since E2 = 4E1
= 4 × 6.04 eV = 24.16 eV
Hence, the first two lowest energy levels of electron are 6.04 eV and 24.16 eV, respectively.
Example 9.13
Find the probabilities of finding a particle trapped in a box of length L in the region from 0.45L to 0.55L
for the ground state and first excited state.
Solution
If a particle is trapped in a box of length L, then the wave function can be given as
2 nπ x
yn = sin
L L
Now, the probability of finding the particle between 0.45L to 0.55L can be given as
0.55 L 2
 2 nπ x 
P = ∫ 
 L
sin
L 
 dx
0.45 L

0.55 L
2 nπ x
=
L ∫ sin2
L
dx
0.45 L

0.55 L
1  2π nx 
=
L ∫ 1 – cos
 L 
 dx
0.45 L
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  307
0.55 L
1  L 2π nx 
p= x– sin
L  2π n L  0.45 L
For n = 1, we have
1  L   L 
P =  0.55L – sin (1.10π ) –  0.45L – sin ( 0.90π ) 
L  2π   2π 

 1   1 
=  0.55L – sin198° –  0.45 – sin162° 
 2π   2π 
1
= ( 0.55 – 0.45 ) – [sin198° – sin162°]
2π
= 0.01 – (–0.0984)
= 0.1984
= 19.84%
Similarly, for the first excited state (for n = 2), the above calculation gives the value of probability
as P = 0.65%.

9.24  FORMULAE AND HIGHLIGHTS

1. The physical properties of metals are governed by its elementry charged particle known as electron.
2. In the classical free electron theory, the valence electrons of metals are supposed to be completely
free from atoms.
3. According to Drude–Lorentz theory, valence electrons in equilibrium condition obey Maxwell–
Boltzmann statistics.
4. In the classical theory, it is assumed that uniform electrostatic attraction exists between electrons
and ions core throughout inside the crystal.
5. Classical theory failed to explain the heat capacity and the paramagnetic susceptibility of conduc-
tion electrons.
6. The electrostatic attraction between free electrons and ions core is responsible for holding the
electrons within the surface of metals.
7. At the steady state condition, the net movement of electrons under the influence of applied electric
field is known as the drift and corresponding mean velocity is known as the drift velocity ud.
8. Expression of drift velocity is given as
i
ud =
neA
9. Relaxation time is defined as the time taken for the drift velocity to decay to 1/e of its initial value.
10. The average time taken by an electron between any two consecutive collisions during its motion
in crystal lattice is known as mean collision time.
11. Mean free path l of an electron is the average distance which the electron travels without suffer-
ing any collision during its motion in crystal lattice.
308  l  Engineering Physics
12. Mean free path l of an electron is given as
l = c Tc
13. Expression of conductivity is given as
1 l J neu d
s= = = = = nem
ρ RA E E
14. Mobility of electrons is defined as drift velocity per unit electric field, i.e.,
ud
m=
E
15. Resistivity of metal increases with temperature.
16. The resistivity of metals in terms of relaxation time is given as
m
r=
ne2τ
17. In the quantum free electron theory, quantum statistics of Fermi–Dirac is suggested for free
electrons in place of classical statistics used by Lorentz.
18. The wave function of a particle in a three-dimensional box of dimensions of lx, ly, and lz is given as
2 2 nx π x n πy n πz
y= sin sin y sin z
lx l y lz lx ly lz

19. Energy of a particle in a three-dimensional box of dimensions lx, ly, lz is given as

h 2  nx 2 n y 2 nz 2 
E=  + 2 + 2 
8m  lx2 ly lz 
20. Fermi–Dirac distribution function is given as
1
F(E) = ( E – EF ) / kT
1+ e
21. Fermi energy is defined as the uppermost filled energy level in the conductor at 0 K.
22. At T > 0 K, for E = EF, Fermi level is defined as the energy level at which the probability of
electron occupancy is one-half.
23. Expression of Fermi energy at 0 K (EF ) is given as
o
2 2 2/3
 h  3n 
EF = (3p 2 n)2 / 3 =  
o 2m 8m  p 
24. An approximate relationship between EF and EF is given as
o
 2
2  
 π  kT  
EF = EFo 1 –
12  EFo  
 

 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  309
25. The density of states D(E) is defined as the total number of available electronic states per unit
energy range at energy E. It is expressed as
3/2
V  2m 
D(E) =   E1/2
2π 2   2 
26. Expression of electrical conductivity is given as
ne2τ F
s=
m*
 ne2τ F 
   and J = sE =  E
 m* 
27. At the condition T >> qD, the expression of conductivity is given as

 e2   Mk Bθ D 2 
s = constant    2 
 m*  T 

Exercises

Section A
Theoretical Questions
1. What is the fundamental concept of free electron theory? Mention the important assumptions of
this theory.
2. What are the main drawbacks of free electron theory?
3. Using the classical free electron theory, explain the specific heat of metals.
4. Discuss the relaxation time, collision time, and mean free path of free electrons in metals.
5. Derive the expression of electrical conductivity for metals on the basis of classical free electron
theory.
6. Explain the concept of mobility of charge carriers in metals.
7. Discuss the electrical conductivity of metals on the basis of classical free electron gas model.
8. Derive the expression of electrical conductivity according to the quantum free electron theory.
9. Obtain the Schrödinger wave equation for a particle in a three-dimensional box.
10. For a one-dimensional potential box of length L, show that the expression of energy is given as
n2h2
En = .
8mL2
11. What is Fermi–Dirac distribution function? Plot it as a function of energy.
12. Describe the quantum free electron theory of metals.
13. Define Fermi energy. What is the relation of Fermi energy with the concentration of electrons in
the metals.
310  l  Engineering Physics
14. Solve Schrödinger’s wave equation for a particle in a one-dimensional rigid box of side L, and
having potential energy (V) as follows:
V(x) = ∞, for x < 0 and x > L
V(x) = 0, for 0 ≤ x ≤ L
15. A particle of mass m is represented by the wave function y(x) = An sin (nπ x a) in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ a,
and y = 0, elsewhere. Find the normalized form of the wave function.
16. Derive an expression for wave function and energy of a particle confined in a one-dimensional
potential box using Schrödinger’s wave equation.
17. Explain Fermi–Dirac distribution function. Plot this function for various temperatures including
0 K.
18. Mention the factors affecting the resistivity of metals.
19. Describe how the electrical conductivity of metals is affected by temperature?
20. Derive the expression for the density of energy states in metals.
21. Discuss the behaviour of Fermi level with the variation of temperature.
22. What are the merits of quantum free electrons theory over the classical theory?
23. What is meant by the drift velocity of free electrons in a metal? Obtain an expression showing
the relation between the drift velocity of free electrons and the current passing in the conductor.
24. Obtain an expression showing the relation between the current density in a current carrying
conductor and the drift velocity ud. The number of free electrons per unit volume is n and the
electronic charge is e.

Section B
Numerical Problems
1. Find the mobility of electrons in copper assuming that each atom contributes one free electron
for conduction. (Resistivity of copper = 1.7 × 10–6 W-cm, atomic weight = 63.54, density =
8.96 gm/cm3, Avogadro number = 6.025 × 1023, and electronic charge is 1.6 × 10–19 C.)
(Ans. 43.28 cm2/V-s)
 6.025 × 1023 × 8.96

 Hint : N = = 8.496 × 1022
 63.54

1 
µ=
ρ Ne 
2. The resistivity of aluminium at room temperature is = 2.62 × 10–8 W-m. Calculate the
(i) mobility of electrons and
(ii) relaxation time of electrons.
(Given that the number of electrons per cubic metre volume of copper is 6.24 × 1028 /m3)
(Ans. 3.96 × 10–3 m2 /V-s, 2.3 × 10–14 s).
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  311

[Hint: m = 1 ρne and t = m ρne2 ]
3. Assuming that there is one electron per atom in aluminium, determine the number of free elec-
trons in 1 m3. Density of aluminium is 2.7 × 103 kg/m3 and atomic weight is 26.98 (Avogadro’s
number, N = 6.02 × 1026 per kg-atom) (Ans. 6.024 × 1028/m3)
 Na × Density 
 Hint: n =

26.98 

4. A current of 4 A is passing through a metallic wire of cross sectional area 4 × 10–6 m2. If the
density of the charge carriers in the wire is 5 × 1026 /m3, find the drift speed of the electrons.
(Ans. 1.25 × 10–2 m/s)

[Hint: ud = i neA ]
5. The resistance of a wire is R ohm. What will be its new resistance, if it is stretched to n times its
original length? (Ans. n2R)
l
[Hint: R = r
A

l′
R′ = r
A′

R′  l ′   A 

Now, =     = n. n. = n2
R  l   A′ 
R′ = n2R]

6. The area of cross section, length, and density of a piece of a metal of atomic weight 60 are
10–6 m2, 1.0 m, and 5 × 103 kg/m3, respectively. Find the number of free electrons per unit volume
if every atom contributes free electron. Also find the drift velocity of electrons in the metal, when
a current of 16 A passes through it. (Given that Avogadro’s number = 6 × 1023 per g-mole and
e = 1.6 × 10–19C.) (Ans. 5 × 1028 /m3, 2 × 10–3 m/s)
Na × density
[Hint: n =
Atomic weight

and ud = i neA ]
7. A copper wire whose diameter is 0.16 cm carries a steady current of 10 A. Calculate the current
density in the wire and drift velocity of electrons in copper.
[Given that n = 8.4 × 1028 /m3 for copper.] (Ans. 497.6 × 104 A/m2 and 3.6 × 10–4 m/s)
i j
Hint: j = and ud =
A en
312  l  Engineering Physics
8. In a solid, consider that the energy level is lying 0.01 eV below the Fermi level. What is the
probability of this level not being occupied by an electron? [Given that kT = 0.026 eV at room
temperature = 300 K) (Ans. 0.405)
[Hint: The probability of occupied energy level E is given as F(E). Thus, the probability of an
1
energy level E not being occupied by an electron is given as [1 – F(E)] = ( E − EF )/ kT ]
1+ e
9. If the Fermi level for sodium is 3 eV, calculate the velocity of the electrons at the Fermi level.
(Ans. 10.27 × 105 m/s)
1
[Hint: EF = MuF2 (uF2 = 2 EF m )]
2
10. The Fermi level of silver is 6 eV. Calculate the fraction of free electrons at room temperature
located upto a width of kT on either side of EF. (Given that kT at room temperature is 0.026 eV.)
(Ans. 0.0087)
[Hint: The number of electrons that occupy at the levels above EF at temperature T is proportional
to kT.
The fraction of electrons that occupy levels higher than EF is given as
kT

EF
Same fraction number of electrons will be deprived of their partners.
kT 
Thus, the fraction electrons located upto the width of kT on either side of EF is given as 2 .
EF 
11. Calculate the energy difference between the ground state and the first excited state for an electron
in a one-dimensional rigid box of length 10–8 cm. (Ans. 113.04 eV)
n2h2
[Hint: En = , ΔE = E2 – E1]
8ml 2
12. A particle confined to move along the X-axis has the wave function y = ax between x = 0 and
x = 1.0, and ψ = 0 elsewhere. Find the probability that the particle can be found between x = 0.35 to
x = 0.45. Also find the expectation value <x> of particle’s position. (Ans. 0.0161 a2, 0.25 a2)
 x2
 Hint: P = ∫ |ψ |2 dx

 x1

The expectation value of particles position is given as

∞ 

<x>= ∫ ψ n ( x) . ψ n ( x) dx
–∞ 
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  313

Section C
Multiple Choice Questions
1. According to the classical free electron theory, the expression of electrical conductivity of a metal
is given as
(a) ne2t/m (b) mnet
(c) met/n (d) ne2t2/m
2. The temperature dependence of the classical expression for electrical resistivity of a metal is
1 1
(a) r µ 2 (b) r µ
T T
(c) r µ T 2 (d) r µ T 1/2
3. Which one of the following is the incorrect relation?
(a) ampere = coulomb/second (b) volt = coulomb/joule
(c) ohm = volt/ampere (d) coulomb = joule/volt
4. If an electric current is passed through the nerve of a man, then he will
(a) laugh (b) weap
(c) be excited (d) become insensitive to pain
5. For which one of the following dependencies of drift velocity vd on the electric field E, is ohm’s
law true?
1
(a) ud µ E (b) ud µ
E

(c) ud µ E (d) ud µ E2
6. The resistance of straight conductor does not depend on its
(a) temperature (b) length
(c) material (d) shape of cross section
7. If the mobility of electrons in a metal increases, the resistivity
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) remains constant (d) none of these
8. According to ohm’s law, the relation between electric field E, conductivity s, and current density
t is given as
(a) t = E/s (b) t = sE2
(c) t = sE (d) t = s/E
9. According to the classical free electron theory, the value of molar electronic specific heat is
(a) 1.5 Ru (b) 0.5 Ru
(c) 2/3 Ru (d) 3 Ru
10. Mobility of electrons is defined as
(a) flow of electrons per unit electric field
(b) average electron drift velocity per unit electric field
(c) inverse of conductivity
(d) none of these
314  l  Engineering Physics
11. A piece of copper is to be shaped so as to have a minimum resistance. Its length and cross sectional
area should be
(a) l and A (b) 2l and A/2
(c) l/2 and 2A (d) 2l and 2A
12. A metallic wire is stretched to make it 0.1% longer. The percentage increase in resistance will be
(a) 0.2 (b) 2
(c) 1 (d) 0.1
13. A wire of resistance 4 W is stretched to double its length; its new resistance is
(a) 1 W (b) 4 W
(c) 8 W (d) 16 W
14. The average drift velocity of electrons in a metal under electric field E with collision time t is
given as
eEτ m
(a) (b)
m eEτ

m eEτ
(c) (d)
eEτ m
15. Wiedemann–Franz law is expressed as
σT L σT
(a) = (b) = LT
σ T σ
σ σ L
(c) = LT (d) =
σT σT T
where L is the Lorentz number.
16. Normalized wave function for the motion of a particle in a box of length a is given as
2 nπ x a nπ x
(a) sin (b) sin
a a 2 a
2 nπ a a nπ a
(c) sin (d) sin
a x 2 x
17. In a one-dimensional potential box, the spacing between the nth energy level and the next higher
level is increased by
(a) (2n + 1) (b) (2n – 1)
(c) (n + 1) (d) (n – 1)
18. The energy of nth state in a one-dimensional potential box is
2nh 2
(a) zero (b)
ma 2
n2h2 nh
(c) (d)
8ma 2 8ma 2
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  315
19. If the Fermi energy of silver at 0 K is 5 eV, then the mean energy of electron in silver at 0 K is
(a) 6 eV (b) 12 eV
(c) 3 eV (d) 2 eV
20. According to the quantum free electron theory, the expression of conductivity is given as
m* ne2 λ F
(a) s = (b) s =
ne2 λ F m*

ne2 λ F m * vF
(c) s = (d) s =
m * vF λ Fne2
21. At the condition T >> qD, the resistivity of metal according to the quantum free electron theory
is given as
(a) r µ T (b) r µ T–1
–2
(c) r µ T (d) r µ T2
22. Fermi–Dirac distribution function is given as
1 1
(a) F(E) = ( E – EF )/ kT
(b) F(E) = ( E – EF )/ kT
1+ e 1– e
1
(c) F(E) = 1– ( E – EF )/ kT (d) none of these
1+ e
23. At T = 0 K, the energy levels located above EF (when E > EF) are
(a) partially filled (b) vacant
(c) filled (d) none of these
24. If E1 and E2 are the energies of a particle in a potential box corresponding to n =1 and n = 2,
respectively, then the relation between E1 and E2 is given as
(a) E1 = E2 (b) E2 = 2E1
(c) E2 = 4E1 (d) E2 = 3E1
25. The range of insulator is approximately
(a) 103 to 1017 W-m (b) 107 to 109 W-m
(c) 10–3 to 103 W-m (d) none of these

Answers
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d)
7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (a)
13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c)
19. (c) 20. (c) 21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (c)
25. (a)
316  l  Engineering Physics

Section D
Fill in the Blanks
1. Metals have high electric and thermal ................ .
2. Above Debye’s temperture, resistivity of metal varies ................ with temperature.
3. The conductivity varies in the presence of magnetic fields; this effect is known as ................
4. The ratio of thermal to electrical conductivity is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature. This is known as ................ .
5. Mobility of electrons in metals is defined as ................ per unit electric field.
6. The unit of mobility is ................ .
7. In classical free electron theory, electrons constitute electron gas, obeying ................ under the
equilibrium condition.
8. Classical free electron theory failed to explain the ................ and paramagnetic susceptibility
of conduction electrons.
9. In quantum free electron theory, electron gas obeys ................ under equilibrium condition.
10. The density of states is defined as the number of ................ present in a unit energy range.
11. According to Sommerfeld free electron model, N non-interacting electrons at 0 K can be filled
in ................ energy levels.
12. The relaxation time may be stated as the time taken for the drift velocity to decay to ................
of its initial value.
13. ψψ* gives the ................ of finding electron in a particular region of space.
14. Metal resistivity ................ with increase in temperature.
15. The optical radiation ................ affect the resistivity of metal, but the resistivity of
semiconductor decreases.
16. The resistivity of metals increases with the ................ in the impurity concentration.
17. Fermi level EF can be defined as the ................ filled energy level in a conductor at 0 K.
18. For the temperatures greater than 0 K, the Fermi level may be defined as the level where the
................ of occupation is ................ .
19. For the temperature greater than ................, the distribution function loses its step character.
20. Fermi energy is the maximum energy that an electron can have in a metal at ................
21. Alloy’s of metals usually have much ................ temperature coefficient of resistance than
pure metals.
22. The resistivity of a semiconductor ................ rapidly with rising temperature.
23. The resistance of mercury at 4 K becomes ............ .
24. The dimensions of electrical conductivity are ................ .
25. The average kinetic energy of a free electron, as given by the classical statistical mechanics,
is ................ .
kT
26. denotes the ................ of electrons that occupy levels higher than EF.
EF
 Electrical Conductivity and Electron Theory of Metals  l  317

Answers
1. conductivites 2. linearly
3. magneto resistance 4. Wiedemann–Franz law
5. drift velocity 6. m2/V-s
7. Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics 8. heat capacity
9. Fermi–Dirac statistics 10. electronic states
1
11. N/2 12.
e
13. probability 14. increases
15. does not 16. increase
17. uppermost 18. probability, 1/2
19. 0 K 20. 0 K
21. greater 22. decreases
23. zero 24. [M–1 L–3 T3 A2]
3
25. K T 26. fraction
2 B