Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Seagrasses are flowering plants which grow in marine environments.

There are 60 species of fully marine seagrasses which belong to four families:
POSIDONIACEAE, ZOSTERACEAE, HYDROCHARITACEAE and
CYMODOCEACEAE. (Wikipedia, 2019)

Seagrasses need enough light for photosynthesis and an access of 11% of the
incident light in the surface water. The most suitable place for most of these
plants is a gently sloping coast, until little or no tidal currents or strong waves.
(Coastal Wiki, 2019)

On the 10th of March, 2016, Monday, identifications for the following

Tropical Seagrass were submitted by Elawrey: Cymodocea rotunduta (CR),
Cymodocea serrulata (CS), Enhalus, acoroides (EA), Halodule pinifolia (HP),
Halodule uninervis (HU), Halophila capricorni (HC), Halophila decipiens (HD),
Halophila ovalis (HO), Halophila spinulosa (HS), Halophila tricostata (HT),
Syringodium isoetifolium (SI), Thalassia hemprichii (TH), Thalassondendron
ciliatum (TC), and Zostera capricorni (ZC). (Elawrey, 2016)

Seagrass beds are diverse and productive ecosystems and are often called
“foundation plant species” or “ecosystem engineers” because they modify their
environments to create unique habitats, not just for the seagrasses alone but these
modifications also have important effects on other animals. (Reynolds, 2018)

Seagrasses can harbor hundreds of associated species from all phyla. Few
species were originally considered to feed directly on seagrass leaves, but it was
shown that seagrass herbivory is an important link in the food chain feeding
hundreds of species. (Books, 2018)
 The distribution, biomass and abundance of faunae are affected by the
different physical and chemical parameters of water.

Species diversity is determined not only by the number of species within a

biological community but also by the relative abundance of individuals in that
community (Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2019). Species abundance is the
number of individuals per species, and relative abundance refers to the evenness
of distribution of individuals among species in a community.

Fauna biomass is the weight or total quantity of living organisms of one

animal in a community. The total amount of organic material produced by living
organisms in a particular area within a set period of time is called the primary or
secondary productivity (Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2019).

The first Fisheries Act was introduced on 1998, placing fisheries

management under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of Agriculture and Natural
Resources. Notable provision in the Act is on trade which limits the importation
and exportation of any fish or other aquatic animal, adult, young, fry, o fish eggs.
It linked the economic relationship with the United States allowing its citizens and
corporations to access fishing grounds through a permit issued by the national
government. This act is the governing law in the Philippines fisheries to address
the interconnected issues of resource degradation and unrelenting poverty among
municipal fishers.

On the 28th of July, 2014, the Republic Act No. 8550 was amended to
ensure the rational and sustainable development, management and conservation of
the fishery and aquatic resources in Philippine waters including the Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ) and in the adjacent high seas, consistent with the
primordial objective of maintaining a sound ecological balance, protecting and
enhancing the quality of the environment.

The provisions of this Code shall be enforced in all Philippines waters, all
aquatic and fishery resources, all lands devoted to aquaculture, or businesses and
activities relating to fishery, and all Philippine flagged fishing vessels operating in
areas governed by a Regional Fisheries Management Organization (RFMO), in
the high seas, or in waters of other coastal states.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study will be conducted to find out how to identify organisms of

seagrass in a quadrat by the Grade 12 STEM students of Lyceum of Central
Luzon Zambales.

This study will benefit the following:

STUDENTS: this study would help the students to be aware and

knowledgeable of the process of identifying organisms of seagrass in a quadrat
and the factors that affect them.

DIVERS: the given data would guide the divers and enlighten them on
what organisms can be found on the seagrass.

FUTURE RESEARCHERS: this study will provide baseline data needed

for future researchers and studies related to the same study we conducted. The
future researchers could also gain significance in this study and improve their
skills, strategy, and knowledge in conducting research.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The main objective of the study is to identify the living organisms living in the
seagrass and to determine how the quality of water affects the appearance of
different organisms during each trial.

1. What organisms were found inside the quadrat during each trial?

2. How do the physiochemical parameters affect organisms found in the

quadrat? The Physiochemical parameters are:

 Temperature
 Salinity
  Dissolved Oxygen
 pH
 Turbidity
 Conductivity
 Water Depth
 Substrate
3. Does High seagrass diversity and canopy height increase associated fish
diversity and abundance?
4. What is the estimated total percentage of seagrass within the quadrat?

SCOPE AND LIMITATION

The study focuses on the assessment of the seagrass biomass, shoot

density, and canopy height. It also aims to assess the physiochemical parameters
such as pH, turbidity, temperature, conductivity, salinity, and dissolved oxygen.
The qualitative and quantitative analysis of the important organisms in the
seagrass were conducted.

The study is only limited on the physiochemical parameters as factors that

affect the organisms. Also, to classify what organisms are in that quadrat. The
distance between the transect lines is limited to 10 meters each. And other waste
or the things that we may see in that quadrat are not included.
 CHAPTER II

FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

This Chapter describes and discusses how the researchers will study the
data and informations. This is also shows the review of related literature and
studies, hypothesis, and definition of terms. This chapter also shows the
Theoretical framework, the Conceptual Framework and Conceptual Paradigm.

Related Literature and Studies

Related Literature

Biologist have coined the term flora and fauna to refer to a range of
identified plants and animals in a given geographic location. Flora is the name
given to the growing or once growing collective plant life in a given area during a
given period of time that usually refers to the present native plant life, but also
includes new species. Fauna, on the other hand, is the name given to collective
animal life that lives or has once been found in a certain region or time period.
(Conserve Energy Future, 2019)

Seagrass ecosystems have a high diversity contribute nutrients for the

richness of coastal waters. Coastal waters get a supply of nutrients from both land
and sea to form an organic ecosystem with high productivity and support
seagrasses to develop optimally. Seagrasses are flowering plants found only in
coastal areas able to live submerged underwater [Kawaroe et al. 2016]. As
ecotone between mangrove forests and coral reefs, it is a home to different marine
organisms with economic value, including shrimps, sea urchins, various fish
species, and endangered animals.

Seagrass habitats are very helpful in coastal ecosystems in terms of

economically and ecologically. It is unfortunate that they are facing many threats
and suppressing from spreading out globally (Orth et al., 2006, Waycott et al.,
2009). Seagrasses have the capability for carbon storage and the seagrass
ecosystems are important for carbon sink around the globe (Fourqurean et al.
2012). As stated by Pendleton et al 2012, If the habitats have been damaged it will
result in carbon re-emission. The habitats of seagrasses are highly productive and
provide growing surfaces, stabilization, and critical habitat at a range of trophic
levels (Duarte & Chiscano 1999). To help, develop, an implement management
programs, they create an urgent need for broad scale, especially explicit
monitoring approaches (Duarte et al. 2013), because of the increasing threats to
seagrass ecosystems and the attention on the significant of carbon stocks in
coastal ecosystems, or “Blue Carbon” (Mcleod et al. 2011). Above- and Below-
ground biomass are the key indicators for these ecosystem services.

Seagrass meadows are important carbon sink and extent from becoming
endangered around the globe; Above-ground biomass has been a key indicator to
seagrass habitats which provides critical ecosystem services. There’s no methods
exist to in order to measure the quantity of biomass in seagrass ecosystems. They
built a linear relationship between Above-ground biomass and the percentage of
seagrass cover per seagrass species to estimate biomass from point based and
landscape scale. A set of linear models was used to assess the biomass
constituents of each seagrass species in 20,000 benthic photos. In order to assess
biomass from a time series of remote sensing derived seagrass percentage cover
and dominant species map, an approach was adapted. A precise estimation of
above-groundmass was proven using a set of methods that is not only a resource
more efficient than existing methods, but is sufficiently well and generalize for
application at a large area. This method allows the modification of seagrass
ecosystem on above-ground biomass over broad scales that is larger than can be
amenable impose using current site and point based measurement approaches, and
at scales that can understand and manage seagrass systems in order to tackle
climate change and other impacts.
 It is stated that, “Seagrasses are unique amongst flowering plants”, but one
genus can live entirely absorbed in seawater. Ethalus plants arise to the surface to
reproduce; others can flower and be pollinated under water. The effect of
adaptation to the marine environment imposes major restrictions on morphology
and structure. It is also influenced their geographic distribution and speciation.

Seagrasses are in a number of marine ecosystems. Seagrass meadows usually

occur in most shallow, sheltered, soft-bottomed marine coastline and estuaries.
Such meadows may be mono-specific or may consist of multi-species
populations, sometime in one location with up to twelve species.

Seagrass depth range is usually controlled by the availability of light

photosynthesis at its deepest edge. Low tide visibility, wave action and associated
turbidity and low fresh water and flow salinity determined shallow edge survival
of seagrass species. Seagrasses flourished in the intertidal zone, in particular
observations shielded from wave action or where water is trapped.

It is important to archive seagrass species differences dispersion and

abundance to be able to recognize ranges requiring preservation degree.
Responsive management based on adequate observation will help to assist critical
ranges and species being misplaced. In order to determine the significance of
seagrass environment and to distinguish changes that happen through
perturbations (man-made and natural). It is necessary to begin with outlining the
conveyance and thickness of existing seagrass meadows. These discoveries must
be monitored to determine natural variability to extent of seagrass (e.g., seasonal
dieback) before estimates of loss or gain due to perturbation can be made. Coastal
management agencies have to know what levels of alter likely to be
environmentally or economically important, and inspecting plans for observing
study ought to be adequate to degree changes that are statistically significance.
(McKenzie et al.,2003.)

The changing needs of the times, compounded mainly by an

unprecedented reduction and loss of resources resulting from a decline in the
quality of coastal water and environmental degradation, required a corresponding
change in the focus of seagrass research from basic to its applications, from
purely scientific initiatives to those now involving social and behavioral to
support collaboration. From then on, this new research thrust on seagrasses was
being pursued, sustained by numerous funding agencies and institutions. With the
promising outcome of research initiate by Philippine Government (1983-1990),
the European Union (1996-2202), the Australian International Development
Assistance Bureau (1986-1996), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(1998-2000), other agencies followed suit, e.g. the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (2003-2006), United Nations Environment
Programme/Global Environment Facilty (2002-2008), an Japan International
Cooperation Agency-y-Japan Science and Technology Agency (2010-2015. The
Asia-Pacific Climate Change Research Network (APN, 2011-2013) supports in
cooperation with Australia and Japan, regional research on the functions of the
seagrass ecosystem in the Philippines, India and Indonesia. The Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) and the Japan Science Promotion Society jointly
fund research on the protection function of habitat and relate it to conservation
policies at national level. The Western tropical Pacific seagrass flora is
remarkably diverse (den Hartog, 1970). Based on Tsuda et al. 1977, there are 10
reported species for Micronesia. Another 13 reported species in Papua New
Guinea by Johnstone (1979); While, Den Hartog (1970) recorded 11 species in
the Philippines. Given the interesting issues surrounding this diversity and the
widespread presence of seagrasses in the Philippines. Seagrasses are significant,
but due to their submerged state, their position has often been overlooked. An
overall description of the value of seagrasses was given by Thayer et al. (1975).

There are many human activities that create seagrass disturbances

throughout the world. It is documented that there are 9000 h.a of seagrass loss
over the last decade. Seagrasses, a congregation of marine flowering plant
species, are important structural and functional constituents of coastal ecosystems,
and it is experiencing worldwide decline.
 Disturbance defined as natural or human-induced, are any event that
measurably alters resources available to seagrasses which results in degradation or
loss. Human activities affecting seagrasses can change water quality or clarity:
nutrient and sediment loading from runoff and sewage disposal, dredging and
filling, pollution, upland development, and certain fishing practices. Seagrasses
depended on water clarity in order to sustain productivity in their submerged
environment. Natural events have been responsible for both large-scale and local
losses of seagrass habitat, it is said that human population expansion is the most
serious cause of seagrass habitats loss, and increasing anthropogenic inputs and
primarily responsible for the world-wide decline in seagrasses.

Related Studies

Many seaweed farms in Southeast Asia and in eastern tropical Africa are
established in seagrass beds, although its environmental condition remains
questionable. Seagrasses are sensitive to both biological and physical fluctuations
making them useful indicators of changes not easily observable in either coral reef
or mangrove forest. As an ecosystem, its unique ecological functions provide
numerous benefits to coastal dwellers, and its contribution to the high biodiversity
in coastal areas plus their ability to supply amenities from its resources account
for much of their daily incomes. Recently, because of its vast areal extent in the
continental shelf of the world and its ability to absorb 166 gC per sq m per yr
(Duarte & Cerbian, 1996), the most significant and high-level statement about
seagrass and climate change was made: “when healthy, mangrove forests,
saltwater marshlands and seagrass meadows are extremely effective at storing
atmospheric carbon, thereby mitigating climate change” (UNEP/IUCN 2009). All
these ecosystem services cause the conservation of seagrass habitats to be a high
priority in the action agenda of coastal states in Southeast Asia, which is the
center of seagrass distribution in the world, reaching up to Southeast Japan. There
are still wide areas in the region where the existence of seagrasses likely remains
unknown. Ironically, seagrass is comparatively the least studied among the coastal
habitats in this region. This is largely due to the fact that the interests of marine
scientists focus mainly on coastal resources with immediate economic value and
impacts (Fortes 1989, Fortes 2012).

Suggesting a shift in regional and national conservation focus, this paper

gives a taxonomic and distributional account of the seagrasses in the Philippines
from 1983 to 2012, placed within the context of a more recent national
conservation initiatives. The account serves as a compelling reason for promoting
more research and a stronger and more vigorous advocacy focused on seagrass
conservation in the Philippines in particular and in Southeast Asia in general. In
addition, a shift in direction of seagrass research in the Philippines and in
Southeast Asia towards addressing environmental issues begun in Pangasinan.
Merrill (1912, 1915, 1918, 1925) and Mendoza and Del Rosario (1967) included
seagrasses in vascular plant floras. Hartog (1970), in his most comprehensive
account of the seagrasses of the world, reported 11 species from the Philippines.
Calumpong (1979) reported three seagrasses from Central Visayas region while
Cordero (1981) illustrated and described the morphology and distribution of the 3
species of seagrass. The most comprehensive ecological account of seagrasses
from the Philippines was made by Fortes (1986). Three studies (Fortes 1988,
Mukai 1993, Fortes 2010) enhance our knowledge on seagrass biogeographical
affinities in East Asia. Spalding et al. (2001) gives an account to the geographical
distribution of the flora of 115 countries, including Southeast Asia. To date,
debate continues among seagrass practitioners on the details (particularly below
sub-class) of the correct classification of seagrasses (McKenzie et al. 2010). In the
Philippines, 18 seagrass species from three families (sensu Hartog & Kuo 2007)
have been found from the 529 sites visited (Fortes 2008, Fortes 2012, Figure 1).
The species so far recorded are: Family Cymodoceaceae, Family
Hydrocharitaceae, Cymodocea rotundata Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea
serrulate, Halophila beccarii, Halodule uninervis, Halophila decipiens, Halodule
pinifolia, Halophila gaudichaudii, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halophila minor,
Thalassodendron ciliatum, Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata, Halophila
spinulosa, Family Ruppiaceae, Halophila sp1, Ruppia maritima, Halophila sp2,
and Thalassia hemprichii.

According to Hartog (1970), the great age of seagrass is reflected

in the geographical distribution of recent genera. Based on his monograph, and a
few taxonomic works have been put into execution. The existing species of
seagrass in 12 genera are recognized. There are seven tropical representatives
including Halodule, Cymodocea, syringdium, thalassodendron, enhalus, thalassia
and halophila; and five temperate representatives including zostera, phyllospadix,
heterozostera, posidonia, and amphobilis. Some of the seven tropical seagrasses
are not homogeneously distributed in the tropics, they are found concentrated in
two large areas, one compromising the Indo-west Pacific and the other, the
Caribbean and the Pacific Coast of Central America (Phang, 2000). Fortes (1989)
considered the Indo-west Pacific as the centre of generic richness and diversity of
seagrasses as well as of mangroves and coral reefs. All seven (7) seagrasses that
are considered as tropical genera can be found in the Indo-west Pacific while the
Caribbean and the Pacific Coast of Central America shows the presence of four
(4) genera (Halodule, Syringodium, Thalassia and Halophila).

On Monday of March 10, 2016, 21:01, Identification for 14 Tropical

Seagrasses was submitted by Elawrey.

1. Cymodocea rotunduta (CR)

It is a Flat, strap-like leaves 2-4 mm wid. It is rounded

and has smooth leaf tip and rhizome. Scars from well-developed leaf sheaths form
a continuous ring around the stem. Found on the shallow reef flats

2. Cymodocea serrulata (CS)

Linear strap-like leaves, 5-9 mm wide Serrated leaf tip. Its

Leaf sheath is broadly triangular with a narrow base. Leaf scars do not form a
continuous ring around the stem. Found on the shallow subtidal reef flats and sand
banks

3. Ethalus acoroides (EA)

Very long ribbon-like leaves 30-150 cm long leaves with

enrolled leaf margins. Thick rhizome with long black bristles and cord-like roots.
Found on the shallow/intertidal sand/mud banks (often adjacent to mangrove
forests)

4. Halodule pinifolia (HP)

Fine, delicate leaves up to 20 cm long. It has 1 central

vein. Black central vein splits into two at the rounded leaf tip. Usually pale
rhizome, with clean black leaf scars. Found on intertidal sand banks

5. Halodule uninervis (HU)

Usually larger than Halodule pinifolia. It has Trident leaf

tip and 1 central longitudinal vein. Rhizome usually pale ivory, with clean black
leaf scars. Found on the shallow/intertidal sand or mud banks

6. Halophila capricorni (HC)

Small oval leaves that are hairy on one side Central vein
on leaf with 9-14 cross veins. It is usually found deeper than 10 m in coral
environments proximal to coral reefs. Only found in subtidal Australian waters
(greater than 10m) proximal to coral reefs

7. Halophila decipiens (HD)

Small ovals leaf blade 1-2.5 cm long, 6-8 cross veins.

Leaf hairs on both sides and Leaves usually longer than wider. Found at subtidal
depths (greater than 10m)

8. Halophila ovalis (HO)

 Oval shaped leaves in pairs. 8 or more cross veins and No
hairs on leaf surface. Preferred dugong food and Common early colonizing
species. Found from intertidal to subtidal depths

9. Halophila spinulosa (HS)

Fern like, Leaves arranged in opposite pairs. Erect shoot

up to 15 cm long and it is found at subtidal depths (greater than 10 m).

10. Halophila tricostata (HT)

Erect shoots 8-18 cm long. Leaves with 3 veins, 2-3 leaves

at each node and Leaves “whorl” around stem. Found at subtidal depths (greater
than 10 m) Endemic to Queensland, Australia

11. Syringodium isoetifolium (SI)

Cylindrical in cross section (spaghetti like) Leaf tip tapers

to a point and Leaves 7-30 cm long. Found on shallow subtidal reef flats and sand
banks

12. Thalassia hemprichii (TH)

Leaves 10-40 cm long, Short black bars of tannin cells in

leaf blade. It has Thick rhizome with scars between shoots and Hooked/curved
shaped leaves. Common on shallow reef flats

13. Thalassondendron ciliatum (TC)

Cluster of ribbon-like curved leaves at the end of an erect

stem. It is Round, serrated leaf tip. Tough, woody rhizomes with scars from
successive shoots. Very coiled, branches roots, typically found in rocky areas with
strong crests

14. Zostera capricorni (ZC)

Long strap-shaped leaves
 Most of the tropical and sub-tropical species are less than 10 m
deep in water. Of than 13 species identified by Lee Long et al. (1993) in
Northeastern Queensland, all occurred in water depths below the mean sea level
(MSL) of less than 6 m and only four occurred in water above 20 m below MSL.
Coles et al. (1987) note three general depth zones of tropical water composition of
seagrass species; a shallow zone with a high species diversity of less than 6 m
deep, likely to include all species found in a region; a zone between 6 and 11 m
where the most common seagrasses were the innovative Halodule an Halophila
species; and a zone deeper than 11 m where only Halophila species were
commonly found. Halophila species’ ability to grow in low light intensifies,
which has a petal-shaped leaf, may give advantage to this genus over others in
deep or turbid water.

Species identification of genus halophile are commonly found in tropical

and subtropical oceans of the world width both pandemic global distribution of
some species and highly endemic restricted ranges of others. For example,
H.decipiens grows to 58 m in the Great Barrier Reef (Lee Long et al. 1996) and
H. Spinulosa, H. Ovalis, H. Tricostata is probably the indian and pacific ocean.
Thalassia hemprichii is regularly related with coral reef stages where it many
form dense meadows. It can moreover be found colonizing muddy substrates,
especially where water pools at low tide. The habitat complexity within seagrass
meadows enhance the diversity and abundance of animals. Seagrass on reef flats
and close estuaries are moreover supplement sinks, buffering and chemical input
to the marine environment. The high generation rates of seagrasses are closely
interface to the high generation of related fisheries. These plants support various
herbivore and detrivore-based food chains and are considered exceptionally
beneficial pastures of the sea. The associated economic values of seagrass
meadows are very large although not always easy to be quantified. Seagrass/algae
beds are evaluated the 3rd most profitable environment and inducive (on a per
hectare premise), as it were gone before by estuaries and wetlands. Loss of
seagrasses has been reported from most part of the world, some of the time from
common causes, e.g., high energy storms or “wasting disease”. More commonly
misfortune has come about from human exercises, e.g., has a consequence of
eutrophication or land reclamation and changes in land use. Anthropogenic effect
on seagrass meadows are proceeding to devastate or debase these coastal
ecosystems and diminish their yield of natural resources.

According to Amy R. Remo, A new policy in Department of Agriculture

is expected to result in unemployment and reduced export revenues for seagrass
farmers in the region will be release by Exporters from Central Luzon.

It is stated in the Fisheries Administrated Order (FAO) 250 that the

collection, harvesting, gathering, selling and exporting of brown algae and
seagrass in order to preserve the marine ecosystem has been banned. The FAO
250 is expected to have a great impact to other people who are dependent on this
raw material as their source of income. The Department of Agriculture explained
that this Order were meant to protect marine ecosystem as Aquatic Organisms
loss their shelter and their food base have been destructed because of
uncontrollably harvesting of seagrass and seaweeds.

An Executive Director, Malou Balano, of Philippine Exporters

Confederation Inc. (Philexport) Region 3, stated that seagrasses have been
collected and used as handicrafts. The Department of Industry supported the
making of accessories using seagrasses.

In order to address the impact of ban on selling and exporting seagrass on

the export sector. Balano proposed other alternative areas where seagrass can be
legally collected or monitored.

The Violators of this order will be sentence on paying a fine of P100,000

to P500,000 and 2 to 10 years imprisonment. Exemptions of this order would be
issued for those who target to collect, harvest and export seagrass for scientific
and educational purposes.
 Based on the study of Fortes, 1989, 2001, 2004, 2008, the status of
conservation of seagrass in the Philippines is still largely unknown in relation to
seagrass as a resource in need of protection. Nevertheless, its management is
recognized as a key to the region’s coastal protection (Fortes 1991, 19950).
However, this initiative should be focused on science (Fortes 2010a, 2010b).
Ogawa et al. (2011), provides a more recent account of seagrass resource status
and trends in 5 countries in the region (including Japan). The approaches and
methods for protecting seagrass were reported by Coles & Fortes (2001). In
Southeast Asia, where the world’s second-highest seagrass abundance is located,
the seagrass ecosystem has been the subject of scientific investigation in the last
30 years. It took more than five decades to follow up the work on taxonomy and
distribution after the morphological account of Pascasio & Santos (1930) and
initiate an ecological seagrass study in the Philippines (Fortes 2012). A
combination of research works has emerged over the last 50 years, offering
different methods of restoration, recovery and management of the country’s
seagrass ecosystems, along with the associated species. This impetus has resulted
in the rapidly growing value of comprehensive research, including genetic
markers as a means of understanding their geographic phylogeography (Matsuki
et al. 2012, Nakajima et al. 2012). Focusing on interconnectivity between coral
reefs, seagrass beds and mangrove has gained prominence with the findings that
the inherent ecological relationships between these habitats are crucial for their
conservation. The distinct role of the meadows in providing a stable foundation
for all marine ecosystems emerged in these studies in part. More recently, its
unique role has taken center stage in global environmental consciousness, largely
due to its success in mitigating climate change impacts (UNEP/IUCN 2009).

2.1 WATER QUALITY

The effect of seagrasses on water quality has been studied seasonally from
permanent stations in shoal regions of the Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve in Virginia along transects through vegetated and formerly
vegetated areas the impact of seagrass beds on indoor conditions as compared to
outdoor beds varied seasonally and could be linked to be biomass and growth.
During the spring (April to June), the rapidly growing seagrass bed was a nutrient
sink, suspended inorganic particles and phytoplankton. It was generally not
possible to measure reductions in suspended particle concentrations and light
attenuation until bed biomass exceeded 50-100 gdm/m2 or 25-50 percent
vegetative cover. In April, when nitrate levels were found to be the highest in
adjacent channel waters (>10µM), rapid uptake, equivalent to 48% of the nitrogen
requirements for seagrass growth, reduced inorganic nitrogen stocks by 73%. An
unvegetated site that previously supported seagrass had no potential to minimize
detectable concentrations of suspended particles or nutrients, and resuspension of
the bottom sediments led to higher concentrations of suspended particles and
turbidity in the unvegetated shallow relative to adjacent waters. During the spring
when suspended particle concentrations are greatest, the capacity of seagrass beds
to boost local water quality conditions, such as turbidity and nutrients, may be
crucial to their continued long-term survival in this lower bay area. High levels of
spring turbidity associate with declines in seagrass in this region may be
controlled by dense seagrass structure, but largely unvegetated areas are unlikely
to change conditions to allow first-year recruits or transplants too survive through
the summer. Therefore, conditions of water quality suitable for recovery are likely
to be a higher than those needed for the continued survival of established seagrass
beds. While suitable for predicting the maintenance of existing bed with adequate
biomass and structure, they may underestimate the levels needed to restore and
restore many currently unvegetated sites. (Moore, 2004)

According to Brown et al. 1970, Water Quality Index (WQI) provides a

single number (like a grade) that reflects overall water quality at a given location
and time based on multiple criteria of water quality. The purpose of an index is to
translate complex data on water quality into information that is understandable
and accessible to the public. Testing of water quality is an important part of
monitoring the environment. If water quality is poor, it also affects the
surrounding the ecosystem and the aquatic life.
2.1.1 PHYSIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY

These are some physical and chemical aspects of water quality that
helps to determine whether water parameters affect the seagrass biomass.

2.1.1.1 PH

The measure of the acidity of a solution of water. The Ph scale commonly

ranges from 0 to 14. The scale is not linear but rather it is logarithmic. For
example, a solution with a Ph of 6 is ten times more acidic than a solution with a
Ph of 7. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a Ph of 7. Water with a Ph below 7.0
is considered acidic while water with Ph greater than 7.0 is considered basic or
alkaline.

If the pH of water is too high or too low, the aquatic organisms living
within it will die. pH can also affect the solubility and toxicity of chemicals and
heavy metals in the water. The majority of aquatic creatures prefer a pH range of
6.5-9.0, though some can live in water with pH levels outside of this range.
(Fondriest Environmental, Inc., 2013)

2.1.1.2 CONDUCTIVITY

Conductivity is a numerical expression of an aqueous solution’s capacity

to carry an electric current. This ability depends on the presence of ions, their total
concentration, mobility, valence and relative concentrations, and on the
temperature of the liquid. Solutions of most inorganic acids, bases, and salts are
relatively good conductors. In contrast, the conductivity of distilled water is less
than 1 µmhos/cm. Because conductivity is the inverse of resistance, the unit of
conductance is the mho (ohm spelled backwards), or in low-conductivity natural
waters, the micromho.

Aquatic animals and plants are adapted for a certain range of

salinity. Outside of this range, they will be negatively affected and may die. Some
animals can handle high salinity, but not low salinity, while others can handle low
salinity, but not high salinity (Fondriest Environmenatal, Inc., 2013)

2.1.1.3 DISSOLVED OXYGEN

D.O. is the dissolved gaseous form of oxygen. It is essential for respiration

of fish and other aquatic organisms. D.O. enters water by diffusion from the
atmosphere and as by- product of photosynthesis by algae and plants. The
concentration of D.O. in epilimnetic waters continually equilibrates with the
concentration of atmospheric oxygen to maintain 100% D.O. saturation.

When dissolved oxygen becomes too low, fish and other aquatic
organisms cannot survive (Sarasota County, USF Water Institute, 2001-2009)

2.1.1.4 TURBIDITY

The cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of

individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke
in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality.

Turbidity affects organisms that are directly dependent on light, like

aquatic plants, because it limits their ability to carry out photosynthesis. This in
turn, affects other organisms that depend on these plants for food and oxygen.
(National Ocean Service, 2019)

2.1.1.5 SALINITY

The saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water called saline

water. A contour line of constant salinity is called an isohaline or sometimes
isohale.

Marine animals are adapted to keep their body salts at a constant level, so
that they don’t interfere with the metabolism within cells, but significant changes
in salinity can cause problems for some. For example, some marine animals are
described as stenohaline, which means they can’t cope with large salinity
fluctuations; others are euryhaline and can tolerate a wide range of salinities.
(Science Learning Hub, 2007).

2.1.1.6 TEMPERATURE

Temperature affects aquatic organisms in a variety of ways. The body

temperature of most aquatic organisms is the same as the surrounding water and
fluctuates with the water temperature.

Because most aquatic organisms are cold blooded, they require a certain
temperature range to survive. Some organisms prefer colder temperatures and
other prefer warmer temperatures.

2.2 SEAGRASS MONITORING TECHNIQUES

Seagrass monitoring techniques involve a wide range of spatial and

temporal scales according to Bortone 2000, Larcum & Duarte (2006), from site
(m2) to regional (km2) on a semiannual basis, but with feasible repeat times or
method reproducibility, a few studies have demonstrated techniques for
monitoring biomass over large areas, whether by field sampling, modelling or
mapping. Seagrass biomass can be measured directly traditional destructive
approaches that involve removing sample or core of a seagrass from the field
physically, and subsequently bringing them in a laboratory to be analyzed. By
nature, this is expensive and time consuming. While field data collection provides
accurate data and continues to be improved (e.g. Long et al. 1994), it is not
adequate for repeatable monitoring over the size of areas manageable by
governments or community groups. This has led to development of more rapid,
non-destructive, visual assessment approaches (Mellors 1991, Mumby et al. 1997,
Kutser et al. 2007). Mellors (1991), developed an approach where above-ground
biomass was estimated visually in site and ranked on a linear scale of 1 to 5, to
one decimal place. Based on the lowest and highest biomass observed at the study
site, a reference quadrat was established for each integer from 1 to 5, and these
reference quadrats were then used as guides to assign a biomass rank to multiple
quadrats along transects across then study site. Biomass was harvested and
measured for sets of reference quadrats, and a linear regression was used for
calibration to biomass dry weight. Mumby et al. (1997), built on this approach by
increasing the ranking scale range to 1 to 6 and performing a more through
calibration routine, providing analysis of sampling error/bias as well as sample
size/ statistical power relationships. Kutser et al. (2007), noted some possible
limitations of these in site visual assessment approaches, including
prohibitions/restrictions on a destructive sampling in marine protected areas,
importantly, time constraints in the context of fieldwork duration and observer
training. A photo-library approach was developed that followed a similar
methodology conceptually; however, instead of estimating biomass for each
quadrat in site, photos of the benthos were taken and the dry weight biomass for
each photo was estimated after the fieldwork. This was achieved by comparing
the photos to a reference photo library, created by harvesting and measuring a
small number of quadrats across a range of above-ground biomass levels. This
process reduces the field time needed compared to the visual approached
discussed above. All these 3 approaches still require a visual estimation of
biomass for every sample, and a site estimation that obviously cannot be used to
estimate biomass retrospectively. Visual assessment of biomass also presents an
essential risk of being subjective and prone to human error, and calibration to
particular study sites or sets of observers to mitigate these risks may reduce
methodological transferability. Moreover, these techniques are unlikely to be
feasible or repeatable over large areas and replicable across observers. For some
time, seagrass percentage cover and above-ground biomass measurements have
been shown to be significantly correlated for numerous species (Heidelbaugh &
Nelson, 1996).

2.3 SEAGRASS BIOMASS

Seagrass biomass is best obtained seasonally for any baseline study, using
different approaches, depending on the resources available. The aboveground
biomass of seagrass meadows may be estimated by taking or measuring, at
random, a suitable number of quadrats of an adequate size. The determination of
meadow biomass requires knowledge of the cover and approximate dimensions of
the seagrass meadow, and the selection of two or more sites in this area where the
random quadrats are measured or harvested. Whenever the area is too large to
allow adequate coverage through direct biomass harvesting or when harvesting is
restricted, a relationship between biomass and a ranked estimate of biomass can
be determined by developing a regression equation from a small number of
destructive samples. All of the above- and belowground plant material within the
quadrats must be efficiently collected, cleaned of debris and epiphytes, dried and
weighted to quantify biomass. Stratified approaches, using quadrats of different
sizes, may be needed for multi-species meadows where shoot densities and/or
patchiness differ among species.

2.4 SEAGRASS ABUNDANCE

Typically shows a parabolic pattern with increasing depth, with low

abundance towards its shallow limit, increasing to maximal abundance at
intermediate depths and declining exponentially thereafter (Duarte 1991). This
well-known pattern of distribution can be used to stratify sampling effort in
programs aimed at quantifying seagrass abundance along coastal areas ranging
widely in depth.

2.5 MEASURING SHORT SHOOT DENSITY

Short shoot density is measurement in the field within quadrats or

determined from biomass samples. Looking straight down on each quadrat, count
the total number of shoots of each species rooted within the square and record.
Flowering parts are separated and counted. In the case of seagrasses with stems,
such as Amphibolis, Thalassondendron and Heterozostera, the number of primary
strems is recorded. For the species, the number of leaf bundles is also counted for
density. An adequate quadrat assize contains about 100-200 shoots of the major
species. Quadrat number and size will depend upon the species, density and cost
benefit of having a low CV. In very sparse meadows, rather than quadrat
sampling, seagrass shoots are counted along 10-25 m transects (counting all of the
shoots present within 1 m of the transect line)

2.6 TRANSECTS AND QUADRATS

Two ecological tools that allow us to quantify the relative

abundance of organisms in an area. To track changes over time, it is important to
be able to quantify changes in abundance. Also, learning these techniques will
give students the tools necessary to ask their own ecological questions and make
comparisons among sites. A transect line is any line, marked at regular intervals,
that is easy to use in the field. Transect lines can be purchased commercially,
made from measuring tape or rope marked off at regular intervals. A quadrat is a
framed area. A frame can be made using PVC pipes, wire hangers bent into
squares, hula-hoops, wooden dowels or even cardboard. Use monofilament or
string to section off the quadrat into a set number of squares or intercepts.

Point-intercept along a transect line: The simplest

ecological sampling method is point intercept. You can lay the transect line across
the classroom and record what is directly under each meter or half meter mark on
the line (e.g. table, floor, backpack, book, pencil, student). This technique is good
for sampling a very large area relatively quickly, but as students often point out, it
can miss a lot of information if the area is complex. The use of quadrats can help
achieve additional levels of complexity. Visual estimate within a quadrat: Place a
quadrat along pre-determined points along a transect line and have students
estimate and record what percent each item takes up within the frame (e.g. 75%
species A, 25% species B). The quadrat divisions can also be used to estimate
what is in each of the smaller squares (e.g. 12 squares species A, 5 squares species
B, 0.5 squares species C, etc.). Organisms that take up very little area can be
recorded.

2.7 ABUNDANCE AND DENSITY:

Both this term refers to the number of species in a

community. Abundance of any individual species is expressed as a percentage of
the total number of species present in community and therefore it is a relative
measure. In sampling the abundance of species, the individual of species is
counted instead of just nothing their presence or absence was done while studying
the frequency of a species (Minakshi Mahajan and Sumia Fatima)

“Density” in plant ecology is defined as the number of

individuals of a given species that occur within a given sample unit or study area.
Density is often used in a vegetation survey to describe a species’ status in a plant
community. Yet, there are several problems that could occur in obtaining an
estimate of density. Included are the definition of an individual plant, size and
shape of a sampling unit with associated boundary errors for inclusion of a plant
within a plot area, and use of estimates from variable area plots. Estimates of
density are useful for monitoring plant responses to various vegetation treatments
such as defoliation or environmental perturbations. 3 major techniques are used to
estimate density: plot (quadrat), distance measures, and line transect. Plots and
distance techniques are the most often used to estimate species densities.
(Bonham, 2013)

2.8 POPULATION SIZE, DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION

Population Size is the number of individuals in a

population. Population density is the average number of individuals in a
population per unit area or volume. Population Distribution describes how the
individuals are distributed, or spread out throughout their habitat. (Biology
LibreTexts, 2019)
2.9 SUBSTRATE

Substrate is the surface on which an organism (such as

a plant, fungus, or animal) lives (Wikipedia, 2019). Muddy streams generally
have more sediment in the water, reducing clarity. Clarity is one guide to stream
health. The texture of substrate material has a profound influence on the
distribution and abundance of the benthic organisms owing to the tendency of the
clay particles to bind the organic matter (V. Kumar, et al., 2019).

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study was anchored on Eutrophication and Succession theory.

Eutrophication is the process where ecosystems become enriched by increased
provision of nutrients from outride. In theory, eutrophication can occur in both
terrestial and aquatic ecosystems, but in practice it is most often applied to rivers,
lakes and other bodies of water, creek, and the water of coastal shelf. Riding and
Rast have recently produced an excellent summary of the practical aspects of the
control of the eutrophication of freshwater and harper for its ecological effects.
Seagrasses can be affected by eutrophication of the water negatively in different
ways. Building up of the nutrient levels in the water cohemn develop expansion of
phytoplanktonic, epiphytics, and bloomforming macroalgal species (short et al.
1995 & San. Jensen, 1996 Moore and watzel 2000, mr Celathery 2001). Seagrass
has been declined worldwide because of excessiveness of nutrient caused by
anthropogenic activities. After the increase of nutrient levels, where waters
literally eutrophicated to which they are delivered, some change occur. However,
they are not strictly the actual eutrophication itself, but the result of the increase in
the nutrient level of the water which they are introduced. The production of
biomass by plants, by animals and other organisms, especially heterotrophic
bacteria, climbs upward. Similarly, the rate where the process of photosynthesis
and respiration occurs is also increased, which promotes the demand for other
resources, and for other nutrients the influx of eutrophicating matter doesn’t
necessarily provide.
 Succession is the continuous unidirectional sequential change in the
species composition of natural communities and is usually instigated by some sort
of disturbances (Smith, 1995). Succession theory is used to explain the process of
succession within communities whether the disturbance was natural or artificial.
Different opinions about the presence of predictable succession trajectories and
usefulness of succession theory (Smith, 1995). Temporal changes within
community composition can be accredited to changes in the presence and relative
abundance of species within an environment. While succession is often used to
describe plant communities, succession theory is also applicable for shift in
populations or other organisms (Emery, 2010). The process of succession can be
seen moving in a wide range of environment, and the rate of the succession can
vary depending on the size (Intensity & Scale) of the disturbance.

Succession theory is one of the longest studied ecological concepts. Henry

Cowles (1899) was the first person who properly characterized the successional
patterns by observing a shift in community complexity from the shore of lake
Michigan Inland. The further the plant community was away from the shore, the
older he believed it to be. Ecologists used succession theory to predict temporal
patterns within communities and their trajectories based on a snapshot of an area
which represent the various stage of community succession.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

There are five different methods; namely: Line Transect sampling,

Quadrat sampling, Photo Transect method, Canopy Height, and Water Sampling
that will be used to solve following problems: Organisms found in the quadrat,
Physiochemical water parameters that affect the distribution of fauna found in the
quadrat, how high seagrass diversity and the canopy height increase the
abundance of associated fish diversity and the total percentage of seagrass within
the quadrat

The researchers want to find out the Physico-chemical water parameters

affecting the Seagrass abundance and the distribution of Fauna in Sto. Rosario
Iba, Zambales; A basis for formulation of Eutrophication and Succession Theory.
 The table shows how the researchers researched, gathered data and solved their
thesis statement.

CONCEPTUAL PARADIGM

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

I. Organisms found 1. Line Transect

in the quadrat Sampling Physico-chemical
II. Physico-chemical 2. Quadrat water parameters
water parameters Sampling affecting the
affecting fauna 3. Photo transect distribution of fauna
distribution found method found in the quadrat in
Ioooooo9
in the quadrat 4. Canopy Sto. Rosario, Iba
III. High seagrass Height Zambales
diversity and 5. Water
canopy height Sampling
increase
associated fish
diversity and
abundance
IV. Total percentage
of seagrass
 Figure 1

Hypothesis

1. There is no significant relationship between physico-chemical of water

parameters and seagrass cover on the abundance of fauna.
2. There is no significant relationship between the time during each trial
and the organisms found inside the quadrat

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Autotrophic

Requiring only carbon dioxide or carbonates as a source of carbon and a

simple inorganic nitrogen compound for metabolic synthesis of organic molecules
(such as glucose)

Angiosperm

a plant that has flowers and produces seeds enclosed within a carpel. The
angiosperms are a large group and include herbaceous plants, shrubs, grasses, and
most trees.

Ecotone

a region of transition between two biological communities.

Taxonomic group
 An animal or plant group having natural relations

Fluctuation

an irregular rising and falling in number or amount; a variation.

Spatial scale

In the physical sciences, spatial scale or simply scale refers to the order of
magnitude of extent or size of a land area or geographical distance studied or
described. For instance, in physics an object or phenomenon can be called
microscopic if too small to be visible.

Anthropogenic

of, relating to, or resulting from the influence of human beings on nature

Rhizome

A somewhat elongated usually horizontal subterranean plant stem that is

often thickened by deposits of reserve food material, produces shoots above and
roots below, and is distinguished from a true root in possessing buds, nodes, and
usually scale like leaves

Estuary

the tidal mouth of a large river, where the tide meets the stream.

Phylogeography
is the study of the historical processes that may be responsible for the
contemporary geographic distributions of individuals. This is accomplished by
considering the geographic distribution of individuals in light of genetics,
particularly population genetics.
Epiphyte
a plant that grows above the ground, supported nonparasitically by another
plant or object, and deriving its nutrients and water from rain, the air, dust, etc.;
air plant; aerophyte.

Monograph.

A written account or description of a single thing, or class of things; a

special treatise on a particular subject of limited range.

Photic zone

the upper layer of a body of water delineated by the depth to which

enough sunlight can penetrate to permit photosynthesis.

Light attenuation in water

When the Sun's radiation reaches the sea surface, the shortwave radiation
is attenuated by the water, and the intensity of light decreases exponentially with
water depth.

Chapter III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes and discusses how the researchers will gather the
necessary data and information that will be used in the entire study. This also
shows the procedure of data gathering, analysis and instruments used and its
validation, these chapter also discuss the type of research, research method, and
the research locale where the study will be conducted.

Research Design

Research is a systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled

observations that may lead to the development of generalizations principles,
theories, concepts, resulting in prediction for seeing and possibly ultimate control
of events. (John. W. Best)

According to Waltz and Bansell (1981). Research is a systematic, formal,

rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems or to discover
and interpret new facts and relationships.

Experimental research is any research conducted with a scientific

approach, where a set of variables are kept constant while the other set of
variables are being measured as the subject of experiment. Experimental research
is one of the founding quantitative research methods.
The simplest example of an experimental research is conducting a
laboratory test. As long as research is being conducted under scientifically
acceptable conditions – it qualifies as an experimental research. A true
experimental research is considered to be successful only when the researcher
confirms that a change in the dependent variable is solely due to the manipulation
of the independent variable.
The term “experimental research design” is centrally concerned with
constructing research that is high in causal (or internal) validity. Causal validity
concerns the accuracy of statement regarding cause and effect relationships
(Ojmarrh Mitchell)

The experimental process begins with casting a wide net to gather all
relevant material, and then gradually works to refine from that data a research
question that will later become a hypothesis. (Shuttleworth & Wilson, 2008)

In the study of quadrat method, the process of data collecting is called

“Sampling”. It is an important step and basic work prior to quantitative analysis.
It is though that sampling method will be concerned with weather the study
results can also calculate the dominance, frequency, importance value, based on
quadrat sampling data. We can estimate the average of organism by Quadrat
sampling. First, identifying the border of the quadrat, then, identify the organism
and finally calculating the density.
Research Locale

The study will be conducted at Sto. Rosario, Iba, Zambales. The

researchers chose the place because it will give them the needed information for
the seagrass biomass, shoot density, canopy height and the distribution of fauna
within seagrass. The study will be conducted in the second semester for the
academic year 2019-2020 from December to March.

Sto. Rosario, Iba, Zambales

Figure 2

Instrument

The depth of water will be measured by a meter stick. To Measure the

percentage surface cover for each species 50 cm x 50 cm quadrats along 10 m of
transect line will be use. The organisms inside the seagrass quadrat will be capture
using water proof camera. Nine samples will be collected using Water sample. In
order to test the physiochemical parameters of water, Multi parameter will be use.

3.1 QUADRAT SAMPLING

Quadrat sampling is a classic tool for the study of ecology,

especially biodiversity. In general, a series of squares (quadrats) of a set size are
placed in a habitat of interest and the species within those quadrats are identified
and recorded. Passive quadrat sampling (done without removing the organisms
found within the quadrat) can be either done by hand, with researchers carefully
sorting through each individual quadrat or, more efficiently, can be done by
taking a photograph of the quadrat for future analysis. Abundances of organisms
found at the study site can be calculated using the number found per quadrat and
the size of the quadrat area. Quadrat methods are time-tested sampling techniques
that are best suited for coastal areas where access to a habitat is relatively
easy. Quadrat sampling has been the main technique used by the Natural
Geography in Shore Areas (NaGISA) project. It allows NaGISA scientists to
collect standardized data at locations separated by vast distances, and then to
compare the sites and determine, for example, whether the abundance or diversity
of organisms varies at locations along a north-south gradient.

3.2 CANOPY HEIGHT

Usually an average (or maximum) in situ measurement of above ground

parts. There can be a large difference between plant height and canopy height
when crops senesce or lodge; plant height (as measured on a ruler when unfolded)
is the large, whereas canopy height is low.

3.3 PHOTO TRANSECT METHOD

1Photo Transects involve taking evenly measured photos of the reef

bottom. Using the captured photos, it can calculate the percentage of each
organisms on the bottom, the different sizes of seagrass. It aims to quantify the
projected areal cover of coral and other sessile animals using digital photography
and subsequent image analysis. The survey method employs 1-m interval
photography along each of 5 horizontal transect lines (10 m long) at the depth of
3m and 10 m.

3.4 LINE TRANSECT METHOD

Line Transect methods provide a valuable alternative and a means of

cross-validating mark-recapture method. Line transect methods relax the
assumptions allowing heterogeneity among individual detection processes.
Transect line should be randomly located.
Validation of Instrument

In the validation process of the study, the water parameters were

given to some biologists. These experts went through the tests of water
parameters carefully to ascertain the appropriateness and adequacy of the
instrument. Also, to ensure the accurate percentage computation, a statistician
computes the total percentage of seagrass cover. However, the useful observations
and suggestions were modified and the corrections were made.

Data Gathering

The researchers made a letter for the approval to conduct this study. The
study will be conduct for 1 day at Sto. Rosario Beach. All researchers will go to
the study sites in order to examine the seagrass and the distribution of fauna using
the quadrats, transect line and a camera. After that, researchers will be going to
collect water samples from different spots and proceed to DOST Masinloc,
Zambales to test the Physiochemical parameters of water.

Researchers will collect all the data, and with the help of statistician, the
gathered data will be tabulated and tallied. The result would be hopefully the basis
for the percentage of seagrass and how physiochemical parameters affects the
distribution of fauna’s within seagrasses

Data Analysis

The cover for each transect was determined by dividing the sum of the
average covers for each sampling station by the number of sampling station
utilized. The corresponding seagrass percent cover per study site was determined
by getting the total percent cover of the transect used for each study site.

A total of 9 water samples were collected from nine different spots.

Statistical studies have been carried out by calculating correlation coefficients
between different pairs of parameters and t-test applied for checking significance.
The correlation among the different parameters will be true when the value of
correlation coefficient ® is high and approaching to one. (Chem, 2009)